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Buzón-Durán L, Sánchez-Hernández E, Sánchez-Báscones M, García-González MC, Hernández-Navarro S, Correa-Guimarães A, Martín-Ramos P. A Coating Based on Bioactive Compounds from Streptomyces spp. and Chitosan Oligomers to Control Botrytis cinerea Preserves the Quality and Improves the Shelf Life of Table Grapes. Plants (Basel) 2023; 12:577. [PMID: 36771661 PMCID: PMC9921524 DOI: 10.3390/plants12030577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea is the most harmful postharvest disease of table grapes. Among the strategies that can be envisaged for its control, the use of coatings based on natural products is particularly promising. The study presented herein focuses on the assessment of the antagonistic capacity of two Streptomyces species and their culture filtrates against B. cinerea. Firstly, the secondary metabolites were characterized by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, with N1-(4-hydroxybutyl)-N3-methylguanidine acetate and 2R,3S-9-[1,3,4-trihydroxy-2-butoxymethyl]guanine acetate as the main compounds produced by S. lavendofoliae DSM 40217; and cyclo(leucyloprolyl) and cyclo(phenylalanylprolyl) as the most abundant chemical species for S. rochei DSM 41729. Subsequently, the capacity of S. lavendofoliae DSM 40217 and S. rochei DSM 41729 to inhibit the growth of the pathogen was tested in dual culture plate assays, finding 85-90% inhibition. In agar dilution tests, their culture filtrates resulted in effective concentration values (EC90) in the 246-3013 μg·mL-1 range. Upon the formation of conjugate complexes with chitosan oligomers (COS) to improve solubility and bioavailability, a synergistic behavior was observed, resulting in lower EC90 values, ranging from 201 to 953 μg·mL-1. Ex situ tests carried out on 'Timpson' and 'Red Globe' table grapes using the conjugate complexes as coatings were found to maintain the turgor of the grapes and delay the appearance of the pathogen by 10-15 days at concentrations in the 750-1000 µg·mL-1 range. Hence, the conjugate complexes of COS and the selected Streptomyces spp. culture filtrates may be put forward as promising protection treatments for the sustainable control of gray mold.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Buzón-Durán
- Department of Agroforestry Sciences, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Eva Sánchez-Hernández
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Mercedes Sánchez-Báscones
- Department of Agroforestry Sciences, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Mari Cruz García-González
- Department of Agroforestry Sciences, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Salvador Hernández-Navarro
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Adriana Correa-Guimarães
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Pablo Martín-Ramos
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
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Martín-Ramos P, Maria TM, Correa-Guimaraes A, Carrión-Prieto P, Hernández-Navarro S, Martín-Gil J. Crude and refined oils from Elaeis guineensis: Facile characterization by FTIR and thermal analysis techniques. International Journal of Food Properties 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2017.1372470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Martín-Ramos
- EPS, Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias Ambientales de Aragón (IUCA), Universidad de Zaragoza, Huesca, Spain
| | - Teresa M.R. Maria
- CQC, Chemistry Department, Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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Carrión-Prieto P, Martín-Ramos P, Maria TMR, Hernández-Navarro S, Garrido-Laurnaga F, Eusébio MES, Martín-Gil J. Vibrational and Thermal Studies of Essential Oils Derived from Cistus ladanifer and Erica arborea Shrubs. Nat Prod Commun 2017; 12:119-122. [PMID: 30549843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Essential oils from the two most representative shrub species from the Iberian Peninsula (namely Cistus ladanifer L. and Erica arborea L.) have been characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and thermoanalytical techniques (TG/DTG and DSC). Vibrational spectra have been compared with those of components of the plants, and with those of oils, gums and resins from other species. The different content in terpenoids of C. ladanifer oil (mainly mono- and- sesquiterpenoids) and E. arborea oil (mainly triterpenoids) is reflected in the ATR-FTIR by the position of the bands at around 2873 cmf⁻¹, 1730 cm-⁻¹ and 1678 cm⁻¹ As regards their thermal behavior, C. ladanifer-derived oil evinced higher thermal stability than that of obtained from E arborea: the pyrolysis of the former was sensitized at 210°C, whereas for the later it occurred at 143°C. These temperatures are high enough to state that thermolabile constituents such as terpenoids are conserved in the hydrodistillation and that this extraction process ensures the recovery of the main constituents of both-essential oils.
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Carrión-Prieto P, Martín-Ramos P, Maria TM, Hernández-Navarro S, Garrido-Laurnaga F, Eusébio MES, Martín-Gil J. Vibrational and Thermal Studies of Essential Oils Derived from Cistus ladanifer and Erica arborea Shrubs. Nat Prod Commun 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/1934578x1701200134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Essential oils from the two most representative shrub species from the Iberian Peninsula (namely Cistus ladanifer L. and Erica arborea L.) have been characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and thermoanalytical techniques (TG/DTG and DSC). Vibrational spectra have been compared with those of components of the plants, and with those of oils, gums and resins from other species. The different content in terpenoids of C. ladanifer oil (mainly mono- and sesquiterpenoids) and E. arborea oil (mainly triterpenoids) is reflected in the ATR-FTIR by the position of the bands at around 2873 cm−1, 1730 cm−1 and 1678 cm−1. As regards their thermal behavior, C. ladanifer-derived oil evinced higher thermal stability than that of obtained from E. arborea: the pyrolysis of the former was sensitized at 210°C, whereas for the later it occurred at 143°C. These temperatures are high enough to state that thermolabile constituents such as terpenoids are conserved in the hydrodistillation and that this extraction process ensures the recovery of the main constituents of both essential oils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Carrión-Prieto
- Dept. Agriculture & Forestry Eng., ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avda. Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Pablo Martín-Ramos
- Dept. Agricultural & Environmental Sciences, EPSH, University of Zaragoza, Ctra Cuarte s/n, 22071 Huesca, Spain
| | - Teresa M.R. Maria
- CQC, Department of Chemistry, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, P-3004–535 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Salvador Hernández-Navarro
- Dept. Agriculture & Forestry Eng., ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avda. Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Fermín Garrido-Laurnaga
- Dept. Plant Production & Forest Resources, ETSIIAA, Univ. Valladolid, Avda. Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - M. Ermelinda S. Eusébio
- CQC, Department of Chemistry, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, P-3004–535 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Jesús Martín-Gil
- Dept. Agriculture & Forestry Eng., ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avda. Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
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Matei PM, Sánchez-Báscones M, Bravo-Sánchez CT, Martín-Ramos P, Martín-Villullas MT, García-González MC, Hernández-Navarro S, Navas-Gracia LM, Martín-Gil J. Hygienization and control of Diplodia seriata fungus in vine pruning waste composting and its seasonal variability in open and closed systems. Waste Manag 2016; 58:126-134. [PMID: 27522281 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2016.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2015] [Revised: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
After the ban on sodium arsenite, waste management alternatives to the prevalent burning method, such as the hygienization and biodegradation in solid phase by composting, are required for the pruned material from grapevines affected by various fungi. In this work the dynamics of a fungus associated with vine decay (Diplodia seriata) during the composting process of a mixture of laying hen manure and vine pruning waste (2:1w/w) have been investigated in an open pile and a discontinuous closed biodigester. Through the optimization of the various physical-chemical parameters, hygienization of the infected waste materials was attained, yielding class-A organo-mineral fertilizers. Nevertheless, important differences in the efficiency of each system were observed: whereas in the open pile it took 10days to control D. seriata and 35 additional composting days to achieve full inactivation, in the discontinuous biodigester the fungus was entirely inactivated within the first 3-7days. Finally, the impact of seasonal variability was assessed and summer temperatures shown to have greater significance in the open pile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petruta M Matei
- Agriculture and Forestry Science Department, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 57, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Mercedes Sánchez-Báscones
- Agriculture and Forestry Science Department, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 57, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Carmen T Bravo-Sánchez
- Agriculture and Forestry Science Department, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 57, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Pablo Martín-Ramos
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Higher Polytechnic School of Huesca, University of Zaragoza, Carretera de Cuarte, s/n, 22071 Huesca, Spain.
| | - M Teresa Martín-Villullas
- Agriculture and Forestry Science Department, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 57, 34004 Palencia, Spain; ITACYL, Finca Zamadueñas, Ctra. de Burgos, km. 119, 47071 Valladolid, Spain
| | | | - Salvador Hernández-Navarro
- Agriculture and Forestry Engineering Department, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Luis M Navas-Gracia
- Agriculture and Forestry Engineering Department, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Jesús Martín-Gil
- Agriculture and Forestry Engineering Department, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
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da Silva Lacerda V, López-Sotelo JB, Correa-Guimarães A, Hernández-Navarro S, Sánchez-Báscones M, Navas-Gracia LM, Martín-Ramos P, Martín-Gil J. Rhodamine B removal with activated carbons obtained from lignocellulosic waste. J Environ Manage 2015; 155:67-76. [PMID: 25770964 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2014] [Revised: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/05/2015] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
By-products from the wax production process from carnauba palm (leaves), from the extraction of oil from macauba seeds (endocarp) and from pine nut production (shell) have been assessed for activated carbon production, using H3PO4 or CaCl2 for their chemical activation. The resulting activated charcoals have been thoroughly characterized by elemental and thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, electron scanning microscopy and N2 adsorption behavior. Subsequently, their adsorption capacity for the removal of rhodamine B (RhB) from aqueous solutions has been evaluated by studying different parameters: contact time, pH, adsorbent dose, initial dye concentration and solution temperature. The adsorption of RhB followed Freundlich's model in all cases. Kinetic studies indicate that the pseudo-second order model can be used for describing the dynamics of the adsorption process. Thermodynamic parameters have also been evaluated, indicating its endothermic and spontaneous nature. Finally, a preliminary analysis of the impact of cellulose content in the carbon precursor materials has been conducted, by using a mixture of native cellulose with one of the lignocellulosic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviane da Silva Lacerda
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Juan B López-Sotelo
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Adriana Correa-Guimarães
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Salvador Hernández-Navarro
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Mercedes Sánchez-Báscones
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Luis M Navas-Gracia
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Pablo Martín-Ramos
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Higher Polytechnic School of Huesca, Universidad de Zaragoza, Carretera de Cuarte s/n, 22071 Huesca, Spain
| | - Jesús Martín-Gil
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, ETSIIAA, Universidad de Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain.
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da Silva Lacerda V, López-Sotelo JB, Correa-Guimarães A, Hernández-Navarro S, Sánchez-Bascones M, Navas-Gracia LM, Martín-Ramos P, Pérez-Lebeña E, Martín-Gil J. A kinetic study on microwave-assisted conversion of cellulose and lignocellulosic waste into hydroxymethylfurfural/furfural. Bioresour Technol 2015; 180:88-96. [PMID: 25590423 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2014.12.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Revised: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 12/24/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Native cellulose, lignocellulosic materials from Brazil (carnauba palm leaves and macauba pulp and shell) and pine nut shell from Spain have been studied as substrates for the production of HMF and furfural in a conventional microwave oven. In order to promote the dissolution of native cellulose, several ionic liquids, catalysts, organic solvents and water doses have been assessed. The most suitable mixture (5mL of choline chloride/oxalic acid, 2mL of sulfolane, 2mL of water, 0.02g of TiO2 and 0.1g of substrate) has been chosen to conduct kinetic studies at different reaction times (5-60min) and various temperatures (120-200°C) and to evaluate the best conditions for HMF+furfural production according to Seaman's model. The best production yields of HMF+furfural have been attained for native cellulose, with a yield of 53.24% when an ultrasonic pretreatment was used prior to a microwave treatment with stirring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviane da Silva Lacerda
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, Higher Technical School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Juan Benito López-Sotelo
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, Higher Technical School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Adriana Correa-Guimarães
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, Higher Technical School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Salvador Hernández-Navarro
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, Higher Technical School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Mercedes Sánchez-Bascones
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, Higher Technical School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Luis M Navas-Gracia
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, Higher Technical School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Pablo Martín-Ramos
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, Higher Technical School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Eduardo Pérez-Lebeña
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, Higher Technical School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain
| | - Jesús Martín-Gil
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, Higher Technical School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Valladolid, Avenida de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain.
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Fregeneda-Grandes JM, Hernández-Navarro S, Fernandez-Coppel IA, Correa-Guimaraes A, Ruíz-Potosme N, Navas-Gracia LM, Aller-Gancedo JM, Martín-Gil FJ, Martín-Gil J. Seasonal and sex-related variations in serum steroid hormone levels in wild and farmed brown trout Salmo trutta L. in the north-west of Spain. J Water Health 2013; 11:720-728. [PMID: 24334846 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2013.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Serum steroid profiles were investigated in order to evaluate the potential use of circulating sex steroid levels as a tool for sex identification in brown trout. Changes in the serum concentrations of testosterone (T), progesterone (P), 17-β-estradiol (E2), and cortisol (F) in wild and farmed mature female and male brown trout, Salmo trutta L., were measured in each season (January, May, July, and October) in six rivers and four hatcheries located in the north-west of Spain. Serum cortisol levels in farmed brown trout were significantly higher and showed a seasonal pattern opposite to that found in wild trout. Because levels of the hormones under study can be affected by disruptive factors such as exposure to phytoestrogens (which alters the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis) and infection with Saprolegnia parasitica (which alters the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis), both factors are taken into account.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Salvador Hernández-Navarro
- Departamento de Ingeniería Agrícola y Forestal, Universidad de Valladolid (Campus de Palencia), 34004 Palencia, Spain E-mail:
| | - Ignacio A Fernandez-Coppel
- Departamento de Ingeniería Agrícola y Forestal, Universidad de Valladolid (Campus de Palencia), 34004 Palencia, Spain E-mail:
| | - Adriana Correa-Guimaraes
- Departamento de Ingeniería Agrícola y Forestal, Universidad de Valladolid (Campus de Palencia), 34004 Palencia, Spain E-mail:
| | - Norlan Ruíz-Potosme
- Departamento de Ingeniería Agrícola y Forestal, Universidad de Valladolid (Campus de Palencia), 34004 Palencia, Spain E-mail:
| | - Luis M Navas-Gracia
- Departamento de Ingeniería Agrícola y Forestal, Universidad de Valladolid (Campus de Palencia), 34004 Palencia, Spain E-mail:
| | - J Miguel Aller-Gancedo
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, 24071 León, Spain
| | - Francisco J Martín-Gil
- Servicio de Análisis Clínicos. Hospital Universitario Rio Hortega, 47014 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Jesús Martín-Gil
- Departamento de Ingeniería Agrícola y Forestal, Universidad de Valladolid (Campus de Palencia), 34004 Palencia, Spain E-mail:
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Martín-Gil J, Navas-Gracia LM, Gómez-Sobrino E, Correa-Guimaraes A, Hernández-Navarro S, Sánchez-Báscones M, del Carmen Ramos-Sánchez M. Composting and vermicomposting experiences in the treatment and bioconversion of asphaltens from the Prestige oil spill. Bioresour Technol 2008; 99:1821-9. [PMID: 17512195 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2007.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2006] [Revised: 03/20/2007] [Accepted: 03/21/2007] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
This work illustrates the effectiveness of composting and vermicomposting in degrading fuel-in-water emulsions from oil spills (chapapote), and the isolation of potentially useful microorganisms for its biodegradation. Firstly, an alternative to the biodegradation of asphaltens from the Prestige oil spill (still present in some chapapote rafts in the Cantabrian coast) by means of the application of composting techniques to a microbial partnership acclimated to fuel-oil is offered. Our aim is that, after a relatively short period of time, the microorganisms can obtain its source of carbon and energy from asphaltens. The addition of metabolic co-substrates, like cow bed and potato peelings, allows the fragmentation of complex compounds into smaller structures, susceptible to further degradation. Afterwards, a maturation of the compost by means of a treatment with earthworms (Eisenia foetida) is necessary. Thus, through the vermicomposting it will be possible to obtain a valued product, useful in the processes of ground amendment, with little presence of asphaltens and occluded polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, rich in humus, and with an important bacterial flora of Bacillus genera, so that it can be typical of co-activators and accelerating products in composting processes. Along with this article, we show some parameters that control the evolution of the compost products (evolved gases, acidity, temperature and humidity); the chemical and microbiological analytical results; and the germination assays of vermicomposting. Results reveal that by using microorganisms living in either earthworm intestines (Stenotrophomonas maltophilia) or vermiculture substrates (Scedosporium apiospermium), it is possible to degrade and to eliminate the polycyclic asphaltens into CO(2) and H(2)O, helped by evaporation, dissolution and/or photo-oxidation processes. The obtained end product has contents of interesting vegetal nutrients and, mainly, it displays very high germination indices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Martín-Gil
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, University of Valladolid, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenierías Agrarias (ETSIIAA), Avda de Madrid 57, 34004, Palencia, Spain.
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