Modification of the immune response by bacteriophages alters methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection

There is an urgent need to develop phage therapies for multidrug-resistant bacterial infections. However, although bacteria have been shown to be susceptible to phage therapy, phage therapy is not sufficient in some cases. PhiMR003 is a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus phage previously isolated from sewage influent, and it has demonstrated high lytic activity and a broad host range to MRSA clinical isolates in vitro. To investigate the potential of phiMR003 for the treatment of MRSA infection, the effects of phiMR003 on immune responses in vivo were analysed using phiMR003-susceptible MRSA strains in a mouse wound infection model. Additionally, we assessed whether phiMR003 could affect the immune response to infection with a nonsusceptible MRSA strain. Interestingly, wounds infected with both susceptible and nonsusceptible MRSA strains treated with phiMR003 demonstrated decreased bacterial load, reduced inflammation and accelerated wound closure. Moreover, the infiltration of inflammatory cells in infected tissue was altered by phiMR003. While the effects of phiMR003 on inflammation and bacterial load disappeared with heat inactivation of phiMR003. Transcripts of proinflammatory cytokines induced by lipopolysaccharide were reduced in mouse peritoneal macrophages. These results show that the immune modulation occurring as a response to the phage itself improves the clinical outcomes of phage therapy.

Infiltration of peripheral immune cells into the olfactory bulb in a mouse model of acute nasal inflammation

Chronic nasal inflammation induces robust olfactory bulb (OB) atrophy in mice. Here we examined initial events that occur in the OB after bilateral intranasal administration of lipopolysaccharide, focusing on the olfactory nerve fibers and meninges. We analyzed the time course of OB and meninges inflammation using histological and biochemical approaches. Within 12 h, we observed increased chemokine expression and transient infiltration of peripheral immune cells into the OB, resulting in the development of pro-inflammatory status in the OB. Meningeal immunity was activated. Resident microglia produced anti-inflammatory cytokines within 24 h. These could be the initial events that lead to OB atrophy.

Prolonged and extended impacts of SARS-CoV-2 on the olfactory neurocircuit

The impact of SARS-CoV-2 on the olfactory pathway was studied over several time points using Syrian golden hamsters. We found an incomplete recovery of the olfactory sensory neurons, prolonged activation of glial cells in the olfactory bulb, and a decrease in the density of dendritic spines within the hippocampus. These data may be useful for elucidating the mechanism underlying long-lasting olfactory dysfunction and cognitive impairment as a post-acute COVID-19 syndrome.

Increased cytokine expression in the choroid plexus stroma and epithelium in response to endotoxin-induced systemic inflammation in mice

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Brain response to systemic inflammation is initiated by IL-1β from choroid plexus macrophages.

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Choroid plexus stromal cells bear IL-1 receptors and participate in the immediate reaction to systemic inflammation.

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This reaction is followed by elevated gene expression of various cytokines in the choroid plexus stroma and epithelium.

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The choroid plexus immediate responses are relevant to understanding how sepsis-associated encephalopathy is initiated.

Sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE) is characterized as diffuse brain dysfunction in patients with excessive systemic inflammatory reaction to an infection. In our previous studies using a mouse model of SAE with intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), tissue concentrations of various cytokines were elevated in the entire brain parenchyma 4 and 24 h following LPS administration. Cytokines elevated at 4 h were produced by the choroid plexus, leptomeninges and vascular endothelium, while those at 24 h were produced by astrocytes. Interleukin (IL)-1β did not increase in the concentration in the brain parenchyma during the period from 1 to 24 h following LPS. In the present study, we hypothesized that the intracranial cells that initially respond to systemic inflammation are situated in the choroid plexus and produce IL-1β to initiate cytokine-mediated reactions. We quantified the transcript levels of related cytokines within the choroid plexus and specified the choroid plexus cells that are involved in the immediate cytokine-mediated responses. Mice received LPS or saline by intraperitoneal injection. Four hours after treatments, the choroid plexuses were isolated and subjected to cytokine gene expression analyses using real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Another group of mice was fixed at 1, 4 and 24 h after treatments and the expression of cytokines and receptors was studied with double immunohistofluorescence staining. The transcript levels of IL-1β, CC-motif ligand (CCL)2, CXC-motif ligand (CXCL)1, CXCL2 and IL-6 in the choroid plexus were significantly increased in mice treated with LPS compared to saline control. The IL-1β expression was remarkable in choroid plexus macrophages at 1 and 4 h but not in the brain parenchyma. Choroid plexus stromal cells expressed IL-1 receptor type 1 (IL-1R1). The IL-1R1-bearing stromal cells produced CCL2, CXCL1, CXCL2 and IL-6 at 4 h. Choroid plexus epithelial cells expressed CXCR2, a common receptor for CXCL1 and CXCL2. Choroid plexus epithelial cells also expressed CCL2, CXCL1 and CXCL2 at 4 h, and IL-1R1-bearing stromal cells expressed CXCR2. Therefore, in response to systemic LPS injection, one of the intracranial reactions was initiated within the choroid plexus using IL-1β derived from macrophages. The choroid plexus stromal cells subsequently had elevated expression of CCL2, CXCL1, CXCL2 and IL-6. The choroid plexus epithelial cells also had elevated expression of CCL2, CXCL1 and CXCL2. The presence of receptors for these cytokines on both epithelial and stromal cells raised the possibility of reciprocal interactions between these cells. The results suggested that the immediate early responses exerted by the choroid plexus are relevant to understanding how SAE is initiated in clinical settings.

Sex-dependent differences in the gut microbiota following chronic nasal inflammation in adult mice

A growing body of evidence suggests a relationship between olfactory dysfunction and the pathogenesis of mental disorders. Our previous studies indicated that chronic nasal inflammation caused loss of olfactory sensory neurons and gross atrophy of the olfactory bulb, which may lead to olfactory dysfunction. Simultaneously, increasing numbers of reports have elucidated the importance of gut microbiota to maintain brain function and that dysbiosis may be associated with neuropsychiatric disorders. Here we examined whether chronic nasal inflammation perturbed gut microbiota and whether there were sex differences in this pattern. Eight-week-old C57BL/6 mice repeatedly received bilateral nasal administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) 3 times/week to cause chronic nasal inflammation or saline as a control. At 9 weeks, cecal feces were used for 16S metagenomic analysis and whole blood and fresh tissue of spleen were used for ELISA analyses. Microbiome analysis demonstrated a remarkable change of the gut microbiota in male mice with chronic nasal inflammation which was different from that in female mice. In both mice, systemic inflammation did not occur. This has shown for the first time that chronic nasal inflammation correlates with sex-dependent changes in the gut microbiota. The detailed mechanism and potential alteration to brain functions await further studies.

Theanine, Antistress Amino Acid in Tea Leaves, Causes Hippocampal Metabolic Changes and Antidepressant Effects in Stress-Loaded Mice

By comprehensively measuring changes in metabolites in the hippocampus of stress-loaded mice, we investigated the reasons for stress vulnerability and the effect of theanine, i.e., an abundant amino acid in tea leaves, on the metabolism. Stress sensitivity was higher in senescence-accelerated mouse prone 10 (SAMP10) mice than in normal ddY mice when these mice were loaded with stress on the basis of territorial consciousness in males. Group housing was used as the low-stress condition reference. Among the statistically altered metabolites, depression-related kynurenine and excitability-related histamine were significantly higher in SAMP10 mice than in ddY mice. In contrast, carnosine, which has antidepressant-like activity, and ornithine, which has antistress effects, were significantly lower in SAMP10 mice than in ddY mice. The ingestion of theanine, an excellent antistress amino acid, modulated the levels of kynurenine, histamine, and carnosine only in the stress-loaded SAMP10 mice and not in the group-housing mice. Depression-like behavior was suppressed in mice that had ingested theanine only under stress loading. Taken together, changes in these metabolites, such as kynurenine, histamine, carnosine, and ornithine, were suggested to be associated with the stress vulnerability and depression-like behavior of stressed SAMP10 mice. It was also shown that theanine action appears in the metabolism of mice only under stress loading.

Mutation in Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 Results in Down-Regulation of Amyloid Beta (A4) Precursor-Like Protein 1 in Young Age, Which May Lead to Poor Memory Retention in Old Age

Senescence-accelerated mouse prone 10 (SAMP10) exhibits cerebral atrophy and depression-like behavior. A line of SAMP10 with spontaneous mutation in the Slc5a2 gene encoding the sodium-glucose cotransporter (SGLT) 2 was named SAMP10/TaSlc-Slc5a2^slc (SAMP10-ΔSglt2) and was identified as a renal diabetes model. In contrast, a line of SAMP10 with no mutation in SGLT2 (SAMP10/TaIdrSlc, SAMP10(+)) was recently established under a specific pathogen-free condition. Here, we examined the mutation effect in SGLT2 on brain function and longevity. No differences were found in the survival curve, depression-like behavior, and age-related brain atrophy between SAMP10-ΔSglt2 and SAMP10(+). However, memory retention was lower in SAMP10-ΔSglt2 mice than SAMP10(+). Amyloid beta (A4) precursor-like protein 1 (Aplp1) expression was significantly lower in the hippocampus of SAMP10-ΔSGLT2 than in SAMP10(+) at 2 months of age, but was similar at 12 months of age. CaM kinase-like vesicle association (Camkv) expression was remarkably lower in SAMP10(+). These genes have been reported to be involved in dendrite function. Amyloid precursor proteins have been reported to involve in maintaining homeostasis of glucose and insulin. These results suggest that mutation in SGLT2 results in down-regulation of Aplp1 in young age, which can lead to poor memory retention in old age.

Theanine, the Main Amino Acid in Tea, Prevents Stress-Induced Brain Atrophy by Modifying Early Stress Responses

Chronic stress can impair the health of human brains. An important strategy that may prevent the accumulation of stress may be the consumption of functional foods. When senescence-accelerated mice prone 10 (SAMP10), a stress-sensitive strain, were loaded with stress using imposed male mouse territoriality, brain volume decreased. However, in mice that ingested theanine (6 mg/kg), the main amino acid in tea leaves, brain atrophy was suppressed, even under stress. On the other hand, brain atrophy was not clearly observed in a mouse strain that aged normally (Slc:ddY). The expression level of the transcription factor Npas4 (neuronal PAS domain protein 4), which regulates the formation and maintenance of inhibitory synapses in response to excitatory synaptic activity, decreased in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of stressed SAMP10 mice, but increased in mice that ingested theanine. Lipocalin 2 (Lcn2), the expression of which increased in response to stress, was significantly high in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of stressed SAMP10 mice, but not in mice that ingested theanine. These data suggest that Npas4 and Lcn2 are involved in the brain atrophy and stress vulnerability of SAMP10 mice, which are prevented by the consumption of theanine, causing changes in the expression of these genes.

Widespread time-dependent changes in tissue cytokine concentrations in brain regions during the acute phase of endotoxemia in mice

Sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE) is a diffuse brain dysfunction induced by the systemic response to infection in septic patients. In the present study, we modeled SAE by administering lipopolysaccharide (LPS) intraperitoneally to mice at a concentration of 3.0 mg/kg. We investigated regional preferences for cytokine-mediated brain reactions to endotoxemia and at what time point brain inflammation begins, as well as what cytokines are involved in acute brain reactions. Brains were divided into seven parts: cortex (CTX), olfactory system (Olf), hippocampus (Hip), striatum (Str), diencephalon (Die), brain stem (BS), and cerebellum (CBL). In each brain region, we determined the tissue concentrations of 11 cytokines: CCL2, CCL3, CCL11, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL9, CXCL10, G-CSF, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, in mice injected with LPS or saline, at 1, 4, and 24 h after injection using multiplex cytokine assays. Every brain region responded with the production of multiple cytokines to LPS-induced systemic inflammation during the acute phase (4-24 h) after LPS injection. IL-6, CCL2, CCL3, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL9, and TNF-α were "early cytokines" that increased only at 4 h but not at 24 h after LPS injection in most brain regions. CCL11, CXCL10, and G-CSF were "late cytokines" that were elevated up to 24 h after LPS injection in selected brain regions. The regions Olf, Hip, and Die were the most responsive to endotoxemia; these regions produced ten cytokines and continued to produce three "late cytokines" up to 24 h after LPS injection. Str was the least responsive to endotoxemia. The widespread nature of brain cytokine production explains the characteristics of SAE. Further studies on the roles of CCL11, CXCL10, and G-CSF may be especially important in terms of potential prevention of SAE between 4 and 24 h after the onset of sepsis.

Responses of perivascular macrophages to circulating lipopolysaccharides in the subfornical organ with special reference to endotoxin tolerance

BACKGROUND

Circulating endotoxins including lipopolysaccharides (LPS) cause brain responses such as fever and decrease of food and water intake, while pre-injection of endotoxins attenuates these responses. This phenomenon is called endotoxin tolerance, but the mechanisms underlying it remain unclear. The subfornical organ (SFO) rapidly produces proinflammatory cytokines including interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in response to peripherally injected LPS, and repeated LPS injection attenuates IL-1β production in the SFO, indicating that the SFO is involved in endotoxin tolerance. The purpose of this study is to investigate features of the IL-1β source cells in the SFO of LPS-non-tolerant and LPS-tolerant mice.

METHODS

We first established the endotoxin-tolerant mouse model by injecting LPS into adult male mice (C57BL/6J). Immunohistochemistry was performed to characterize IL-1β-expressing cells, which were perivascular macrophages in the SFO. We depleted perivascular macrophages using clodronate liposomes to confirm the contribution of IL-1β production. To assess the effect of LPS pre-injection on perivascular macrophages, we transferred bone marrow-derived cells obtained from male mice (C57BL/6-Tg (CAG-EGFP)) to male recipient mice (C57BL/6N). Finally, we examined the effect of a second LPS injection on IL-1β expression in the SFO perivascular macrophages.

RESULTS

We report that perivascular macrophages but not parenchymal microglia rapidly produced the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β in response to LPS. We found that peripherally injected LPS localized in the SFO perivascular space. Depletion of macrophages by injection of clodronate liposomes attenuated LPS-induced IL-1β expression in the SFO. When tolerance developed to LPS-induced sickness behavior in mice, the SFO perivascular macrophages ceased producing IL-1β, although bone marrow-derived perivascular macrophages increased in number in the SFO and peripherally injected LPS reached the SFO perivascular space.

CONCLUSIONS

The current data indicate that perivascular macrophages enable the SFO to produce IL-1β in response to circulating LPS and that its hyporesponsiveness may be the cause of endotoxin tolerance.

Neuroplastic changes in the olfactory bulb associated with nasal inflammation in mice

BACKGROUND

Rhinitis and rhinosinusitis are olfactory disorders caused by inflammation of the nasal passage and paranasal sinuses. Although patients with chronic rhinosinusitis have smaller olfactory bulbs (OBs), there is limited knowledge regarding the influence of chronic nasal inflammation on OB neurons.

OBJECTIVE

Repeated intranasal administration of LPS that induced persistent nasal inflammation in mice caused a loss of olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) and gliosis and synaptic loss in the OBs within 3 weeks. The present study aimed to clarify the effects of long-term LPS treatment on the OB neurocircuit.

METHODS

LPS was repeatedly administered into a mouse nostril for up to 24 weeks. For the recovery analyses, the mice received LPS for 10 weeks and were subsequently maintained without additional treatment for another 10 weeks. The effects of these treatments on the OBs were examined histologically. Three or more mice were analyzed per group.

RESULTS

Long-term repeated LPS administration caused OB atrophy, particularly in the layers along which OSN axons travel and in the superficial external plexiform layer, in which tufted cells form synapses with interneurons. Interestingly, the OBs recovered from atrophy after cessation of LPS administration: OB volume and superficial external plexiform layer thickness returned to pretreatment levels after the nontreatment period. In contrast, OSN regeneration was incomplete.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that chronic nasal inflammation induces structural changes in a specific OB circuit related to tufted cells, whereas tufted cells retain a high degree of plasticity that enables recovery from structural damages after inflammation subsides.

Hydrogen Sulfide Specifically Alters NAD(P)H Quinone Dehydrogenase 1 (NQO1) Olfactory Neurons in the Rat

The regions of the olfactory epithelium affected by hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) toxicity in the rat present a striking similarity with the developmental olfactory zone 1 described in the mouse. This zone which is the only region containing neurons expressing NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1 (NQO1) is involved in complex behavioral responses in rodents, and other mammals, triggered by specific olfactory stimuli. We therefore sought to determine whether (1) olfactory neurons expressing NQO1 are located in the same regions in the rats and in the mice and (2) there is an overlap between olfactory neurons expressing this protein and those affected by the toxicity of H₂S. Rats were exposed to H₂S - 200 ppm during 3 h, three consecutive days- and displayed symmetric acute segmental necrosis of the neurons and sustentacular cells of the olfactory epithelium in the dorsomedial nasal cavity. We found that expression of NQO1 in Sprague-Dawley rats spatially recapitulated that of the mouse. The degree of agreement or overlap between these two populations of neurons (necrosis vs. NQO1 expression) reached 80.2%. Although the underlying mechanisms accounted for the high sensitivity for NQO1 neurons -or the relative protection of non NQO1 neurons- to sulfide toxicity remain to be established, this observation is offering an intriguing approach that could be used to acutely suppress the pool of neural cells in olfactory zone I and to understand the mechanisms of toxicity and protection of other populations of neurons exposed to sulfide.

Lipopolysaccharide-initiated persistent rhinitis causes gliosis and synaptic loss in the olfactory bulb

The olfactory mucosa (OM) is exposed to environmental agents and therefore vulnerable to inflammation. To examine the effects of environmental toxin-initiated OM inflammation on the olfactory bulb (OB), we induced persistent rhinitis in mice and analyzed the spatial and temporal patterns of histopathological changes in the OM and OB. Mice received unilateral intranasal administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or saline three times per week, and were immunohistologically analyzed at 1, 3, 7, 14 and 21 days after the first administration. LPS administration induced an inflammatory response in the OM, including the infiltration of Ly-6G-, CD11b-, Iba-1- and CD3-positive cells, the production of interleukin-1β by CD11b- and Iba-1-positive cells, and loss of olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs). In the OB, we observed activation of microglia and astrocytes and decreased expression of tyrosine hydroxylase in periglomerular cells, vesicular glutamate transporter 1, a presynaptic protein, in mitral and tufted projection neurons, and 5T4 in granule cells. Thus, the OM inflammation exerted a detrimental effect, not only on OSNs, but also on OB neurons, which might lead to neurodegeneration.

Histological Architecture Underlying Brain-Immune Cell-Cell Interactions and the Cerebral Response to Systemic Inflammation

Although the brain is now known to actively interact with the immune system under non-inflammatory conditions, the site of cell–cell interactions between brain parenchymal cells and immune cells has been an open question until recently. Studies by our and other groups have indicated that brain structures such as the leptomeninges, choroid plexus stroma and epithelium, attachments of choroid plexus, vascular endothelial cells, cells of the perivascular space, circumventricular organs, and astrocytic endfeet construct the histological architecture that provides a location for intercellular interactions between bone marrow-derived myeloid lineage cells and brain parenchymal cells under non-inflammatory conditions. This architecture also functions as the interface between the brain and the immune system, through which systemic inflammation-induced molecular events can be relayed to the brain parenchyma at early stages of systemic inflammation during which the blood–brain barrier is relatively preserved. Although brain microglia are well known to be activated by systemic inflammation, the mechanism by which systemic inflammatory challenge and microglial activation are connected has not been well documented. Perturbed brain–immune interaction underlies a wide variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders including ischemic brain injury, status epilepticus, repeated social defeat, and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Proinflammatory status associated with cytokine imbalance is involved in autism spectrum disorders, schizophrenia, and depression. In this article, we propose a mechanism connecting systemic inflammation, brain–immune interface cells, and brain parenchymal cells and discuss the relevance of basic studies of the mechanism to neurological disorders with a special emphasis on sepsis-associated encephalopathy and preterm brain injury.

Environmental Toxicants-Induced Immune Responses in the Olfactory Mucosa

Olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) are the receptor cells for the sense of smell. Although cell bodies are located in the olfactory mucosa (OM) of the nasal cavity, OSN axons directly project to the olfactory bulb (OB) that is a component of the central nervous system (CNS). Because of this direct and short connection from this peripheral tissue to the CNS, the olfactory system has attracted attention as a port-of-entry for environmental toxicants that may cause neurological dysfunction. Selected viruses can enter the OB via the OM and directly affect the CNS. On the other hand, environmental toxicants may induce inflammatory responses in the OM, including infiltration of immune cells and production of inflammatory cytokines. In addition, these inflammatory responses cause the loss of OSNs that are then replaced with newly generated OSNs that re-connect to the OB after inflammation has subsided. It is now known that immune cells and cytokines in the OM play important roles in both degeneration and regeneration of OSNs. Thus, the olfactory system is a unique neuroimmune interface where interaction between nervous and immune systems in the periphery significantly affects the structure, neuronal circuitry, and immunological status of the CNS. The mechanisms by which immune cells regulate OSN loss and the generation of new OSNs are, however, largely unknown. To help develop a better understanding of the mechanisms involved, we have provided a review of key research that has investigated how the immune response in the OM affects the pathophysiology of OSNs.

Endotoxemia-induced cytokine-mediated responses of hippocampal astrocytes transmitted by cells of the brain-immune interface

Systemic inflammation shifts the brain microenvironment towards a proinflammatory state. However, how peripheral inflammation mediates changes in the brain remains to be clarified. We aimed to identify hippocampal cells and cytokines that respond to endotoxemia. Mice were intraperitoneally injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or saline, and examined 1, 4, and 24 h after injection. Tissue cytokine concentrations in the spleens and hippocampi were determined by multiplex assays. Another group of mice were studied immunohistologically. Fourteen cytokines showed an increased concentration in the spleen, and 10 showed an increase in the hippocampus after LPS injection. Cytokines increased at 4 h (CCL2, CXCL1, CXCL2, and interleukin-6) were expressed by leptomeningeal stromal cells, choroid plexus stromal cells, choroid plexus epithelial cells, and hippocampal vascular endothelial cells, all of which were located at the brain-immune interface. Receptors for these cytokines were expressed by astrocytic endfeet. Cytokines increased at 24 h (CCL11, CXCL10, and granulocyte-colony stimulating factor) were expressed by astrocytes. Cells of the brain-immune interface therefore respond to endotoxemia with cytokine signals earlier than hippocampal parenchymal cells. In the parenchyma, astrocytes play a key role in responding to signals by using endfeet located in close apposition to the interface cells via cytokine receptors.

Niemann-Pick disease type C1 predominantly involving the frontotemporal region, with cortical and brainstem Lewy bodies: an autopsy case

Niemann-Pick disease type C (NPC) is an autosomal recessive neurovisceral lipid storage disorder. Two disease-causing genes (NPC1 and NPC2) have been identified. NPC is characterized by neuronal and glial lipid storage and NFTs. Here, we report a man with juvenile-onset progressive neurological deficits, including pyramidal signs, ataxia, bulbar palsy, vertical supranuclear ophthalmoplegia, and psychiatric symptoms; death occurred at age 37 before definitive clinical diagnosis. Post mortem gross examination revealed a unique distribution of brain atrophy, predominantly in the frontal and temporal lobes. Microscopically, lipid storage in neurons and widely distributed NFTs were observed. Lipid storage cells appeared in systemic organs and filipin staining indicated intracellular cholesterol accumulation in hepatic macrophages. Electron microscopy revealed accumulation of lipids and characteristic oligolamellar inclusions. These findings suggested an NPC diagnosis. Neuronal loss and gliosis were frequently accompanied by NFTs and occurred in the frontal and temporal cortices, hippocampus, amygdala, basal forebrain, basal ganglia, thalamus, substantia nigra and brain stem nuclei. Lewy bodies (LBs) were observed in most, but not all, regions where NFTs were evident. In contrast, neuronal lipid storage occurred in more widespread areas, including the parietal and occipital cortices where neurodegeneration with either NFTs or LBs was minimal. Molecular genetic analysis demonstrated that the patient had compound heterozygous mutations in the cysteine-rich loop (A1017T and Y1088C) of the NPC1 gene. To our knowledge there has been no previous report of the A1017T mutation. The pathological features of this patient support the notion that NPC has an aspect of α-synucleinopathy, and long-term survivors of NPC may develop a frontotemporal-predominant distribution of brain atrophy.

Excitotoxicity-induced immediate surge in hippocampal prostanoid production has latent effects that promote chronic progressive neuronal death

Excitotoxicity is involved in neurodegenerative conditions. We investigated the pathological significance of a surge in prostaglandin production immediately after kainic acid (KA) administration [initial phase], followed by a sustained moderate elevation in prostaglandin level [late phase] in the hippocampus of juvenile rats. Numerous pyknotic hippocampal neurons were observed 72 h after KA treatment; this number remained elevated on days 10 and 30. Gross hippocampal atrophy was observed on days 10 and 30. Pre-treatment with indomethacin ameliorated neuronal death on days 10 and 30, and prevented hippocampal atrophy on day 30. Microglial response was moderated by the indomethacin pre-treatment. Blockade of only late-phase prostaglandin production by post-treatment with indomethacin ameliorated neuronal death on day 30. These findings suggest a role for initial-phase prostaglandin production in chronic progressive neuronal death, which is exacerbated by late-phase prostaglandin production. Blockade of prostaglandin production has therapeutic implications in preventing long-term neurological sequelae following excitotoxic brain damage.

Exome sequencing of senescence-accelerated mice (SAM) reveals deleterious mutations in degenerative disease-causing genes

BACKGROUND

Senescence-accelerated mice (SAM) are a series of mouse strains originally derived from unexpected crosses between AKR/J and unknown mice, from which phenotypically distinct senescence-prone (SAMP) and -resistant (SAMR) inbred strains were subsequently established. Although SAMP strains have been widely used for aging research focusing on their short life spans and various age-related phenotypes, such as immune dysfunction, osteoporosis, and brain atrophy, the responsible gene mutations have not yet been fully elucidated.

RESULTS

To identify mutations specific to SAMP strains, we performed whole exome sequencing of 6 SAMP and 3 SAMR strains. This analysis revealed 32,019 to 38,925 single-nucleotide variants in the coding region of each SAM strain. We detected Ogg1 p.R304W and Mbd4 p.D129N deleterious mutations in all 6 of the SAMP strains but not in the SAMR or AKR/J strains. Moreover, we extracted 31 SAMP-specific novel deleterious mutations. In all SAMP strains except SAMP8, we detected a p.R473W missense mutation in the Ldb3 gene, which has been associated with myofibrillar myopathy. In 3 SAMP strains (SAMP3, SAMP10, and SAMP11), we identified a p.R167C missense mutation in the Prx gene, in which mutations causing hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy (Dejerine-Sottas syndrome) have been identified. In SAMP6 we detected a p.S540fs frame-shift mutation in the Il4ra gene, a mutation potentially causative of ulcerative colitis and osteoporosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate that different combinations of mutations in disease-causing genes may be responsible for the various phenotypes of SAMP strains.

Selective localization of bone marrow-derived ramified cells in the brain adjacent to the attachments of choroid plexus

Although the immune system modulates higher functions of the brain under non-inflammatory conditions, how immune cells interact with brain parenchymal cells remains to be determined. Using bone marrow chimeric mice in which the recipients' immune system was reconstituted by marrow cells derived from GFP-transgenic mice by syngeneic intra-bone marrow-bone marrow transplantation (IBM-BMT) and by intravenous (IV)-BMT, we examined the distribution, density and differentiation of donor-derived marrow cells in the brain parenchyma 2 weeks and 1, 4 and 8 months after BMT. Marrow-derived cells started to populate discrete brain regions from 1 to 4 months after BMT, exhibited ramified morphology and expressed Iba-1. The ramified marrow-derived cells were distributed in more brain regions and for a longer time after IBM-BMT than IV-BMT. Most of these discrete regions were adjacent to the attachments of choroid plexus that comprised thinned brain parenchyma consisting of astroglial processes in the narrow channel between the ependyma and pia. These specific portions of astroglial processes expressed fractalkine. In the choroid plexus stroma, not only Iba-1+ myeloid cells but also non-myeloid CXCL12-expressing cells were of bone marrow-origin. Transcripts of fractalkine, CXCL12 and their related molecules such as CX3CR1, ADAM10 and CXCR4 were detected in the tissue consisting of the choroid plexus, the attachments and adjacent brain parenchyma. Thus, bone marrow cells selectively enter the discrete brain regions adjacent to the attachments of choroid plexus and differentiate into ramified myeloid cells. Fractalkine in the attachments of choroid plexus and CXCL12 in the choroid plexus stroma may be involved in these brain-immune interactions.

Immunohistochemical localization of aggresomal proteins in glial cytoplasmic inclusions in multiple system atrophy

AIMS

Multiple system atrophy (MSA) is pathologically characterized by the formation of α-synuclein-containing glial cytoplasmic inclusions (GCIs) in oligodendrocytes. However, the mechanisms of GCI formation are not fully understood. Cellular machinery for the formation of aggresomes has been linked to the biogenesis of the Lewy body, a characteristic α-synuclein-containing inclusion of Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies. Here, we examined whether GCIs contain the components of aggresomes by immunohistochemistry.

METHODS

Sections from five patients with MSA were stained immunohistochemically with antibodies against aggresome-related proteins and analysed in comparison with sections from five patients with no neurological disease. We evaluated the presence or absence of aggresome-related proteins in GCIs by double immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy.

RESULTS

GCIs were clearly immunolabelled with antibodies against aggresome-related proteins, such as γ-tubulin, histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) and 20S proteasome subunits. Neuronal cytoplasmic inclusions (NCIs) were also immunopositive for these aggresome-related proteins. Double immunofluorescence staining and quantitative analysis demonstrated that the majority of GCIs contained these proteins, as well as other aggresome-related proteins, such as Hsp70, Hsp90 and 62-kDa protein/sequestosome 1 (p62/SQSTM1). Immunoelectron microscopy demonstrated immunoreactivities for γ-tubulin and HDAC6 along the fibrils comprising GCIs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that GCIs, and probably NCIs, share at least some characteristics with aggresomes in terms of their protein components. Therefore, GCIs and NCIs may be another manifestation of aggresome-related inclusion bodies observed in neurodegenerative diseases.

Immunohistochemical demonstration of increased prostaglandin F₂α levels in the rat hippocampus following kainic acid-induced seizures

Prostaglandin (PG) F(2α) is one of the major prostanoids biosynthesized by cyclooxygenases (COXs) from arachidonic acid. Although it has been reported that there is a selective surge in PGF(2α) production in the hippocampus during kainic acid (KA)-induced seizure activity, the precise intra-hippocampal distribution of PGF(2α) has not been elucidated due to the paucity of effective histological techniques for detecting PGs in tissues. We investigated the tissue distribution of PGF(2α) in the rat hippocampus 30 min after KA injection by developing fixation and immunohistological-staining methods. To detect PGF(2α) directly on histological sections, we used systemic perfusion fixation with water-soluble carbodiimide fixative, followed by immersion of the brains in Zamboni's fixative. We then performed immunofluorescence staining with anti-PGF(2α) antibody, with negative control experiments used to confirm the staining specificity. Definitive immunolabeling for PGF(2α) was evident most markedly in pyramidal cells of the hippocampal cornu Ammonis (CA) 3 sector and neurons of the hilus in KA-treated rats. Immunolabeling for PGF(2α) was also evident in granule cells of the dentate gyrus. Double immunfluorescence staining revealed that PGF(2α)-immunopositive neurons expressed cytosolic phospholipases A(2), COX-2, and FP receptor. These results suggest that the major source of PGF(2α) production immediately after KA injection was neurons of the hippocampal CA3 sector, hilus and dentate gyrus. These neurons exert PGF(2α)-mediated functions via FP receptors in an autocrine/paracrine manner and may play pathophysiological roles in the acute phase (30 min) of excitotoxicity.

Amelioration of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced colitis in mice by immunoregulatory dendritic cells

BACKGROUND

Dendritic cells (DCs) are widely distributed throughout the lymphoid and nonlymphoid tissues, and are important initiators of acquired immunity. They also serve as regulators by inducing self-tolerance. However, it has not been thoroughly clarified whether DCs are somehow involved in the regulation or treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases.

METHODS

We established an ileitis model by transmurally injecting 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) into the lumen of the ileocolonic junction. The kinetic movement of DCs at the inflammatory sites was analyzed histologically and by flow cytometry, and DCs obtained from the small intestine were analyzed in order to determine the expression of paired immunoglobulin-like receptor-A/B (PIR-A/B) by flow cytometry and quantitative RT-PCR. Furthermore, the regulatory role of DCs was directly determined by a transfer experiment using TNBS-induced colitis model mice.

RESULTS

We observed three DC subsets (PIR-A/B(high), PIR-A/B(med), and PIR-A/B(-) DCs) in the conventional DCs (cDCs) from day 3, and the number of PIR-A/B(med) cDCs increased from the time the inflammatory responses ceased (day 7). PIR-A/B(med) cDCs actually migrated to the inflamed colon, and ameliorated the colitis induced by TNBS when transferred to colitis-induced recipients. The colitis was greatly exacerbated when mice had been treated with the indoleamine-pyrrole 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) inhibitor 1-methyltryptophan (1-mT) at the time PIR-A/B(med) cDCs were transferred, indicating that the therapeutic ability of PIR-A/B(med) cDCs is partially dependent on IDO.

CONCLUSION

The PIR-A/B(med) cDCs, which increase in number during the final stages of inflammation, can be used to treat colitis via an IDO-dependent mechanism.

Senescence-accelerated Mice (SAMs) as a Model for Brain Aging and Immunosenescence

The Senescence-Accelerated Mouse (SAM) represents a group of inbred mouse strains developed as a model for the study of human aging and age-related diseases. Senescence-prone (SAMP) strains exhibit an early onset of age-related decline in the peripheral immunity such as thymic involution, loss of CD4(+) T cells, impaired helper T cell function, decreased antibody-forming capacity, dysfunction of antigen-presenting cells, decreased natural killer activity, increased auto-antibodies, and susceptibility to virus infection. Senescence-prone SAMP10 mice undergo age-related changes in the brain such as brain atrophy, shrinkage and loss of cortical neurons, retraction of cortical neuronal dendrites, loss of dendritic spines, loss of synapses, impaired learning and memory, depressive behavior, accumulation of neuronal DNA damage, neuronal ubiquitinated inclusions, reduced hippocampal cholinergic receptors, decreased neurotrophic factors, decreased hippocampal zinc and zinc transporters, increased sphyngomyelinase, and elevated oxidative-nitrative stress. Recent data indicating increased pro-inflammatory cytokines in the brain of SAMP10 mice are directing investigators toward an integration of immune and neural abnormalities to enhance understanding of the principles of brain aging. We highlight how mouse brain cells adopt cytokine-mediated responses and how SAMP10 mice are defective in these responses. SAMP10 model would be useful to study how age-related disturbances in peripheral immunity have an impact on dysregulation of brain tissue homeostasis, resulting in age-related neurodegeneration.

Defects in cytokine-mediated neuroprotective glial responses to excitotoxic hippocampal injury in senescence-accelerated mouse

Aging is a result of damage accumulation, and understanding of the mechanisms of aging requires exploration of the cellular and molecular systems functioning to control damage. Senescence-accelerated mouse prone 10 (SAMP10) has been established as an inbred strain exhibiting accelerated aging with an earlier onset of cognitive impairment due to neurodegeneration than the senescence-resistant control (SAMR1) strain. We hypothesized that tissue-protective responses of glial cells are impaired in SAMP10 mice. We injected kainic acid (KA) to induce hippocampal injury and studied how cytokines were upregulated on Day 3 using 3-month-old SAMP10 and SAMR1 mice. Following microarray-based screening for upregulated genes, we performed real-time RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. Results indicated well-orchestrated cytokine-mediated glial interactions in the injured hippocampus of SAMR1 mice, in which microglia-derived interferon (IFN)-γ stimulated astrocytes via IFN-γ receptor and thereby induced expression of CXCL10 and macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α, and activated microglia produced granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and osteopontin (OPN). OPN was the most strongly upregulated cytokine. CD44, an OPN receptor, was also strongly upregulated in the neuropil, especially on neurons and astrocytes. KA-induced hippocampal upregulation of these cytokines was strikingly reduced in SAMP10 mice compared to SAMR1 mice. On Day 30 after KA injection, SAMP10 but not SAMR1 mice exhibited hippocampal layer atrophy. Since the OPN-CD44 system is essential for neuroprotection and remodeling, these findings highlight the defects of SAMP10 mice in cytokine-mediated neuroprotective glia-neuron interactions, which may be associated with the mechanism underlying the vulnerability of SAMP10 mice to age-related neurodegeneration.

Preferential localization of prostamide/prostaglandin F synthase in myelin sheaths of the central nervous system

Prostaglandin (PG) F(₂α) is a product of cyclooxygenase (COX)-catalyzed metabolism of arachidonic acid and exerts biological functions in various tissues. Prostaglandin ethanolamide (prostamide) F(₂α) is a COX-2-catalyzed metabolite of arachidonoyl ethanolamide (anandamide) that induces pharmacological actions in ocular tissues. Although PGF(₂α) is one of the most abundant prostaglandins in the brain, function of PGF(₂α) in the central nervous system (CNS) has not been extensively investigated. Recently identified prostamide/PGF synthase catalyzes the reductions of prostamide H₂ to prostamide F(₂α) and PGH₂ to PGF(₂α), chiefly in the CNS. We examined tissue distribution of the enzyme in the CNS by immunohistochemistry, double immunofluorescence, and immuno-electron microscopy. We confirmed histological findings by immunofluorescence analyses of brain cell cultures. Prostamide/PGF synthase was expressed preferentially in the white matter bundles of the entire CNS of adult mice with less marked expression in neuronal cell bodies. The enzyme was colocalized with myelin basic protein (MBP) in myelin sheaths but not in axons. At the ultrastructural level, the enzyme was localized to myelin sheaths. Expression of the enzyme increased between P9 and P14 during the postnatal development, presumably in accordance with myelinogenesis. Cultured oligodendrocytes at 7 days in vitro expressed the enzyme in cytoplasmic processes where the enzyme was colocalized with MBP. Immunoreactivity for COX-2 was detected in white matter and cultured oligodendrocytes. Relatively selective localization of prostamide/PGF synthase suggests that myelin sheaths of the CNS may serve as the sites for producing prostamide F(₂α) and/or PGF(₂α), which may contribute to the formation and maintenance of central myelin.