Fibropapillomatosis and Chelonid Alphaherpesvirus 5 Infection in Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtles (Lepidochelys kempii)

Simple Summary

The Kemp’s ridley sea turtle is an endangered species that is susceptible to a tumor disease called fibropapillomatosis (FP) and its associated virus, chelonid alphaherpesvirus 5 (ChHV5). The goal of our study was to describe FP in Kemp’s ridley turtles, including estimated disease prevalence and pathologyg, and case demographics and outcomes, to better understand the risk posed by FP to Kemp’s ridley population recovery. During 2006–2020, we identified 22 cases of Kemp’s ridley turtles with FP, including 12 adult turtles, a reproductively valuable age class. Molecular diagnostics were used to identify ChHV5 DNA in blood (7.8%) and tumor (91.7%) samples collected from free-ranging Kemp’s ridley turtles. Genomic sequencing was conducted to identify ChHV5 variants in tumor samples collected from Kemp’s ridley turtles with FP. Along with case data, phylogenetic analysis of resultant sequences suggests increasing, spatiotemporal spread of ChHV5 infections and FP among Kemp’s ridley turtles in coastal areas, including the Gulf of Mexico and the southwestern Atlantic Ocean, where they share habitat with green sea turtles (in which FP is enzootic). This is concerning because FP has an uncertain pathogenesis, is potentially related to anthropogenic environmental degradation, and can cause suffering and/or death in severely afflicted turtles.

Abstract

Fibropapillomatosis (FP), a debilitating, infectious neoplastic disease, is rarely reported in endangered Kemp’s ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii). With this study, we describe FP and the associated chelonid alphaherpesvirus 5 (ChHV5) in Kemp’s ridley turtles encountered in the United States during 2006–2020. Analysis of 22 case reports of Kemp’s ridley turtles with FP revealed that while the disease was mild in most cases, 54.5% were adult turtles, a reproductively valuable age class whose survival is a priority for population recovery. Of 51 blood samples from tumor-free turtles and 12 tumor samples from turtles with FP, 7.8% and 91.7%, respectively, tested positive for ChHV5 DNA via quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Viral genome shotgun sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of six tumor samples show that ChHV5 sequences in Kemp’s ridley turtles encountered in the Gulf of Mexico and northwestern Atlantic cluster with ChHV5 sequences identified in green (Chelonia mydas) and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) sea turtles from Hawaii, the southwestern Atlantic Ocean, and the Caribbean. Results suggest an interspecific, spatiotemporal spread of FP among Kemp’s ridley turtles in regions where the disease is enzootic. Although FP is currently uncommon in this species, it remains a health concern due to its uncertain pathogenesis and potential relationship with habitat degradation.

Health and nutrition of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in the southeastern United States

Loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) are opportunistic carnivores that feed primarily on benthic invertebrates and fish. Sea turtle rehabilitation requires provision of a species-specific, balanced diet that supplies nutrition similar to that of a wild diet; this can be challenging because free-ranging loggerheads' diets vary depending on their life stage and geographic location, with predominant prey species dictated by local availability. The goal of this study was to better understand the nutritional needs of subadult and adult loggerheads in rehabilitation. This was accomplished by conducting a retrospective survey of stomach contents identified during gross necropsy of 153 deceased loggerheads that stranded in coastal Georgia, USA. A total of 288 different forage items were identified; the most frequently observed prey items belong to the subphylum Crustacea (N = 131), followed by bony fish (Osteichthyes; N = 45), gastropod mollusks (N = 40), bivalve mollusks (N = 23), and Atlantic horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus; N = 15). The proportions of certain prey items differed significantly with turtle size; adult turtles ate proportionately more gastropods (p = 0.001), and subadults ate proportionately more fish (p = 0.01). Stomach contents information was used to determine common local prey items (blue crab, cannonball jellyfish, horseshoe crab, whelk), which were evaluated for nutritional content. Additionally, we compared hematology and plasma biochemistry profiles (including proteins, trace minerals, and vitamins) between four cohorts of loggerhead turtles, including free-ranging subadults and adults, nesting females, and loggerheads undergoing rehabilitation. This information was applied to inform a regionally specific, formulated diet for tube feeding, and a supplement containing vitamins and minerals for captive loggerheads, to more closely approximate the nutritional content of their natural diet. Assessing the regional and temporal variability in loggerhead diets is an important component in their effective conservation because resultant data can be used to help understand the impacts of environmental perturbations on benthic food webs.

Tick paralysis in a free-ranging bobcat (Lynx rufus)

CASE DESCRIPTION

A free-ranging male bobcat (Lynx rufus) was evaluated because of signs of pelvic limb paralysis.

CLINICAL FINDINGS

Physical examination of the anesthetized animal revealed tick infestation, normal mentation, and a lack of evidence of traumatic injuries. Radiography revealed no clinically relevant abnormalities. Hematologic analysis results were generally unremarkable, and serologic tests for exposure to feline coronavirus, FeLV, FIV, and Toxoplasma gondii were negative. Results of PCR assays for flea- and common tick-borne organisms other than Bartonella clarridgeiae were negative.

TREATMENT AND OUTCOME

Ticks were manually removed, and the patient received supportive care and fipronil treatment. The bobcat made a full recovery within 72 hours after treatment for ticks, and a presumptive diagnosis of tick paralysis was made. Identified tick species included Dermacenter variabilis, Amblyomma americanum, and Ixodes scapularis.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

To the authors' knowledge, tick paralysis has not previously been reported in felids outside Australia. This disease should be considered a differential diagnosis in felids, including exotic cats, with signs of neuromuscular disease of unknown etiopathogenesis.

Epidemiological Investigation of a Mortality Event in a Translocated Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) Population in Northwest Florida

Nokuse Plantation, a 22,055 ha private conservation preserve in northwest Florida, is a recipient site for gopher tortoises translocated from development sites in Florida. Since 2006, Nokuse has received over 5,000 tortoises from multiple development sites. During 2013-2015, 52 tortoises were found sick (n = 14) or dead (n = 38) in multiple soft-release enclosures in which tortoises consistently exhibited clinical signs, with additional sick (n = 5) and dead (n = 5) tortoises presenting similarly during 2016-2017. When found alive, tortoises behaved abnormally (e.g., frequently out of burrows during cold weather, pacing along enclosure fencing), appeared emaciated, were lethargic, and had developed redness under plastron scutes. Similar numbers of male (n = 28) and female (n = 32) tortoises were recovered along with two of unidentified sex, including mainly adults (n = 59) and three subadults. Physical examination, blood analysis, and other diagnostics were indicative of starvation and dehydration. Most sick tortoises provided with supportive care recovered. Necropsy findings generally confirmed starvation, with no evidence of infectious pathogens or contaminants. There were no apparent differences in quality of habitat, plant community, or soil or water among affected and unaffected enclosures. Botanical surveys indicated adequate forage quality and quantity, with no poisonous exotic or native plants detected. No land management practices changed prior to this event. Analysis of epidemiological data and demographic factors from before and during this mortality event identified initial density of tortoises in the enclosures as exerting the strongest influence on detection of tortoise morbidity and mortality. We believe that the stress associated with mixing tortoises from different populations and at higher densities during translocation impacted an individual tortoise's ability to obtain or absorb adequate nutrients from foraging, ultimately leading to a wasting condition consistent with starvation. Based on our findings, we recommend a maximum of 3 gopher tortoises per ha in soft-release enclosures for translocation, but further research is warranted to investigate the complexity of stress and social pressures associated with translocation.

Diagnosis and Surgical Management of a Paratesticular Cyst in a Rehabilitating Juvenile Male Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas)

A juvenile green turtle (Chelonia mydas) undergoing rehabilitation for cold stunning exhibited an asymmetric bulging of the left caudal plastron and was diagnosed with a large intra-coelomic mass based on radiographical findings. Ultrasonography further identified a fluid-filled structure within the caudal coelom. Cytological evaluation of fluid obtained from the structure was consistent with a transudate, and thus, a cyst of unknown origin was suspected. Computed tomography imaging was pursued to further characterize the extent and location of the mass, which occupied ~50% of the total coelomic cavity volume. Conservative management with monitoring and occasional drainage of the mass did not result in improvements; thus, an exploratory laparoscopy for further investigation and surgical planning was elected. Intra-coelomic surgery was performed to remove a thick-walled cystic mass associated with the left gonad. Histopathology confirmed a paratesticular cyst continuous with, and possibly originating from, the epididymis. Post-surgical recurrence of the cyst was not appreciated, and the animal was successfully released 1 year after admission. Unrelated to the cyst, the turtle developed acute severe anemia on two occasions throughout rehabilitation that responded to modification of antimicrobial treatment and subsequent steroid administration. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of a paratesticular cyst in a reptile.

The effect of diet on the gastrointestinal microbiome of juvenile rehabilitating green turtles (Chelonia mydas)

Threatened and endangered green turtles (Chelonia mydas) are unique because as juveniles they recruit from pelagic to near-shore waters and shift from an omnivorous to primarily herbivorous diet (i.e. seagrass and algae). Nevertheless, when injured and ill animals are admitted to rehabilitation, animal protein (e.g. seafood) is often offered to combat poor appetite and emaciation. We examined how the fecal microbiome of juvenile green turtles changed in response to a dietary shift during rehabilitation. We collected fecal samples from January 2014 –January 2016 from turtles (N = 17) in rehabilitation at the Georgia Sea Turtle Center and used next generation sequencing to analyze bacterial community composition. Samples were collected at admission, mid-rehabilitation, and recovery, which entailed a shift from a mixed seafood–vegetable diet at admission to a primarily herbivorous diet at recovery. The dominant phyla changed over time, from primarily Firmicutes (55.0%) with less Bacteroidetes (11.4%) at admission, to primarily Bacteroidetes (38.4%) and less Firmicutes (31.8%) at recovery. While the microbiome likely shifts with the changing health status of individuals, this consistent inversion of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes among individuals likely reflects the increased need for protein digestion, for which Bacteroidetes are important. Firmicutes are significant in metabolizing plant polysaccharides; thus, fewer Firmicutes may result in underutilization of wild diet items in released individuals. This study demonstrates the importance of transitioning rehabilitating green turtles to an herbivorous diet as soon as possible to afford them the best probability of survival.

Tumor re-growth, case outcome, and tumor scoring systems in rehabilitated green turtles with fibropapillomatosis

Fibropapillomatosis (FP) is an infectious, neoplastic disease of major concern in sea turtle rehabilitation facilities. Rehabilitating sea turtles that undergo tumor removal surgery often have tumor regrowth and may experience mortality. We evaluated tumor score, removal, and regrowth in rehabilitating green sea turtles with FP in 4 rehabilitation facilities in the southeastern USA during 2009-2017. Of 756 cases, 312 (41%) underwent tumor removal surgery, 155 (50%) of those had tumor regrowth within an average of 46 ± 45 d, and 85 (27%) had multiple (>1) regrowth events. Of 756 turtles with FP, 563 (75%) did not survive after admission into a rehabilitation facility, including 283 (37%) that were euthanized and 280 that died without euthanasia (37%), and 193 survived, including 186 (25%) released and 7 (1%) placed in permanent captive care. Tumor removal surgery increased the odds of tumor regrowth but also enhanced survivorship, whereas tumor regrowth was not a significant predictor of case outcome. Three FP tumor scoring systems were used to assign tumor scores to 449 cases, and differing results emphasize that tumor scoring systems should be applied to the situations and/or location(s) for which they were intended. FP tumor score was not a significant predictor for the event or extent of FP tumor regrowth after surgical excision. Under current rehabilitation regimes, outcomes of rehabilitation for tumored turtles have a low probability of success. The results of this study may be used to help guide clinical decision-making and determine prognoses for rehabilitating sea turtles with FP.

Caryospora-Like Coccidia Infecting Green Turtles (Chelonia mydas): An Emerging Disease With Evidence of Interoceanic Dissemination

Protozoa morphologically consistent with Caryospora sp. are one of the few pathogens associated with episodic mass mortality events involving free-ranging sea turtles. Parasitism of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) by these coccidia and associated mortality was first reported in maricultured turtles in the Caribbean during the 1970s. Years later, epizootics affecting wild green turtles in Australia occurred in 1991 and 2014. The first clinical cases of Caryospora-like infections reported elsewhere in free-ranging turtles were from the southeastern US in 2012. Following these initial individual cases in this region, we documented an epizootic and mass mortality of green turtles along the Atlantic coast of southern Florida from November 2014 through April 2015 and continued to detect additional, sporadic cases in the southeastern US in subsequent years. No cases of coccidial disease were recorded in the southeastern US prior to 2012 despite clinical evaluation and necropsy of stranded sea turtles in this region since the 1980s, suggesting that the frequency of clinical coccidiosis has increased here. Moreover, we also recorded the first stranding associated with infection by a Caryospora-like organism in Hawai'i in 2018. To further characterize the coccidia, we sequenced part of the 18S ribosomal and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I genes of coccidia collected from 62 green turtles found in the southeastern US and from one green turtle found in Hawai'i. We also sequenced the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer regions from selected cases and compared all results with those obtained from Caryospora-like coccidia collected from green turtles found in Australia. Eight distinct genotypes were represented in green turtles from the southeastern US. One genotype predominated and was identical to that of coccidia collected from the green turtle found in Hawai'i. We also found a coccidian genotype in green turtles from Florida and Australia with identical 18S and mitochondrial sequences, and only slight inter-regional differences in the internal transcribed spacer 2. We found no evidence of geographical structuring based on phylogenetic analysis. Low genetic variability among the coccidia found in green turtle populations with minimal natural connectivity suggests recent interoceanic dissemination of these parasites, which could pose a risk to sea turtle populations.

A novel host-adapted strain of Salmonella Typhimurium causes renal disease in olive ridley turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) in the Pacific

Salmonella spp. are frequently shed by wildlife including turtles, but S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium or lesions associated with Salmonella are rare in turtles. Between 1996 and 2016, we necropsied 127 apparently healthy pelagic olive ridley turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) that died from drowning bycatch in fisheries and 44 live or freshly dead stranded turtles from the west coast of North and Central America and Hawaii. Seven percent (9/127) of pelagic and 47% (21/44) of stranded turtles had renal granulomas associated with S. Typhimurium. Stranded animals were 12 times more likely than pelagic animals to have Salmonella-induced nephritis suggesting that Salmonella may have been a contributing cause of stranding. S. Typhimurium was the only Salmonella serovar detected in L. olivacea, and phylogenetic analysis from whole genome sequencing showed that the isolates from L. olivacea formed a single clade distinct from other S. Typhimurium. Molecular clock analysis revealed that this novel clade may have originated as recently as a few decades ago. The phylogenetic lineage leading to this group is enriched for non-synonymous changes within the genomic area of Salmonella pathogenicity island 1 suggesting that these genes are important for host adaptation.

Comparing quantity of marine debris to loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) nesting and non-nesting emergence activity on Jekyll Island, Georgia, USA

Marine debris is defined as any manmade item, commonly plastics, which ends up in the ocean regardless of the source. Debris found along coastlines can cause harm or even death to nesting and hatchling sea turtles through ingestion, entrapment, or entanglement. Jekyll Island is a prominent nesting beach for loggerhead sea turtles with over 1700 emergences from 2012 to 2017. This study uses debris logged through NOAA's Marine Debris Tracker and loggerhead sea turtle nesting activity on Jekyll Island to generate density maps and evaluate possible interactions. These maps provide valuable information on portions of the coast most at risk for debris and sea turtle interactions. Using these maps help the GSTC Marine Debris Initiative focus citizen science efforts in high overlap areas of the beach. With marine debris being a global issue that impacts all sea turtle and beach nesting species, lessons learned can be applied across a wide range of taxa and management strategies.

Chronic debilitation in stranded loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in the southeastern United States: Morphometrics and clinicopathological findings

Chronically debilitated loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) (DT) are characterized by emaciation, lethargy, and heavy barnacle coverage. Although histopathological findings associated with this condition have been reported, only limited data is available on health variables with clinical application. The objectives of this study were to 1) to compare morphometrics, clinicopathological variables, and immune functions of DTs to a group of apparently healthy loggerhead turtles to better understand the pathophysiology of the condition and 2) to assess health parameters in live debilitated turtles as they recovered during rehabilitation in order to identify potential prognostic indicators. We examined and sampled 43 DTs stranded from North Carolina to Florida for 47 health variables using standardized protocols to further characterize the condition. DTs were grouped into categories of severity of the condition, and those that survived were sampled at four time points through rehabilitation. All groups and time points were compared among DTs and to clinically healthy loggerhead turtles. Compared to healthy turtles, DTs had significantly lower body condition index, packed cell volume (PCV), total white blood cell (WBC) count, lymphocytes, glucose (Glc), total protein, all protein fractions as determined by electrophoresis, calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), Ca:P ratio, potassium (K), lymphocyte proliferation, and greater heterophil toxicity and left-shifting, uric acid (UA), aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase, lysozyme, and respiratory burst. From admission to recovery, hematology and plasma chemistry data improved as expected. The most informative prognostic indicators, as determined by correlations with a novel severity indicator (based on survival times), were plastron concavity, P, albumin, total solids, UA, lymphocyte proliferation, WBC, K, Glc, Ca:P, and PCV. The results of this study document the wide range and extent of morphometric and metabolic derangements in chronically debilitated turtles. Monitoring morphometrics and clinicopathological variables of these animals is essential for diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis during rehabilitation.

Potential Noncutaneous Sites of Chelonid Herpesvirus 5 Persistence and Shedding in Green Sea Turtles Chelonia mydas

Chelonid herpesvirus 5 (ChHV5), the likely etiologic agent of sea turtle fibropapillomatosis (FP), is predicted to be unevenly distributed within an infected turtle, in which productive virus replication and virion shedding occurs in cutaneous tumor keratinocytes. In this study, we measured and compared ChHV5 DNA quantities in tumors, skin, urine, major organs, and nervous tissue samples from green turtles Chelonia mydas. These samples were taken from the carcasses of 10 juvenile green turtles with and without clinical signs of FP that stranded in Florida during 2014. Quantitative PCR for ChHV5 UL30 was used to identify ChHV5 DNA in tumors, skin, heart, kidney, nerves, and urine sampled from five out of five FP-positive and three out of five FP-free turtles. The most frequently co-occurring sites were cutaneous tumor and kidney (n = 4). Novel data presented here include the identification of ChHV5 DNA in kidney, heart, and nerve samples from three FP-free turtles. These data support candidate nontumored anatomic sites of ChHV5 DNA localization and mobilization during two different disease states that may be involved in the ChHV5 infection cycle. Received September 8, 2016; accepted April 17, 2017.

Case descriptions of fibropapillomatosis in rehabilitating loggerhead sea turtles Caretta caretta in the southeastern USA

Fibropapillomatosis (FP) is a debilitating neoplastic disease that affects all species of hard-shelled sea turtles, including loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta. FP can represent an important clinical concern in rehabilitating turtles, since managing these infectious lesions often requires special husbandry provisions including quarantine, and FP may affect clinical progression, extend rehabilitation duration, and complicate prognoses. Here we describe cases of rehabilitating loggerhead turtles with FP (designated FP+). Medical records of FP+ loggerhead cases from 3 sea turtle rehabilitation facilities in the southeastern USA were reviewed. Between 2001 and 2014, FP was observed in 8 of 818 rehabilitating loggerhead turtles (0.98% overall prevalence in admitted patients). FP+ loggerhead size classes represented were large juvenile (straight carapace length, SCL: 58.1-80 cm; n=7) and adult (SCL>87 cm; n=1). Three turtles presented with FP, and 5 developed tumors during rehabilitation within a range of 45 to 319 d. Sites of new tumor growth included the eyes, sites of trauma, neck, and glottis. FP+ turtles were scored as mildly (3/8), moderately (4/8), or heavily (1/8) afflicted. The mean total time in rehabilitation was 476±355 d (SD) (range: 52-1159 d). Six turtles were released without visible evidence of FP, 1 turtle was released with mild FP, and 1 turtle with internal FP was euthanized. Clinical decision-making for FP+ loggerhead patients can be aided by such information as time to tumor development, anatomic locations to monitor for new tumor growth, husbandry considerations, diagnostic and treatment options, and comparisons to FP in rehabilitating green turtles Chelonia mydas.

Circulating Fat-Soluble Vitamin Concentrations and Nutrient Composition of Aquatic Prey Eaten by American Oystercatchers (Haematopus palliatus palliatus) in the Southeastern United States

The American oystercatcher (Haematopus palliatus palliatus) is currently listed as a species of high concern by the United States Shorebird Conservation Plan. Because nutritional status directly impacts overall health and reproduction of individuals and populations, adequate management of a wildlife population requires intimate knowledge of a species' diet and nutrient requirements. Fat-soluble vitamin concentrations in blood plasma obtained from American oystercatchers and proximate, vitamin, and mineral composition of various oystercatcher prey species were determined as baseline data to assess nutritional status and nutrient supply. Bird and prey species samples were collected from the Cape Romain region, South Carolina, USA, and the Altamaha River delta islands, Georgia, USA, where breeding populations appear relatively stable in recent years. Vitamin A levels in blood samples were higher than ranges reported as normal for domestic avian species, and vitamin D concentrations were lower than anticipated based on values observed in poultry. Vitamin E levels were within ranges previously reported for avian groups with broadly similar feeding niches such as herons, gulls, and terns (eg, aquatic/estuarine/marine). Prey species (oysters, mussels, clams, blood arks [Anadara ovalis], whelks [ Busycon carica ], false angel wings [ Petricola pholadiformis ]) were similar in water content to vertebrate prey, moderate to high in protein, and moderate to low in crude fat. Ash and macronutrient concentrations in prey species were high compared with requirements of carnivores or avian species. Prey items analyzed appear to meet nutritional requirements for oystercatchers, as estimated by extrapolation from domestic carnivores and poultry species; excesses, imbalances, and toxicities-particularly of minerals and fat-soluble vitamins-may warrant further investigation.

Baseline plasma corticosterone, haematological and biochemical results in nesting and rehabilitating loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta)

The evaluation of hormonal responses to stress in reptiles relies on acquisition of baseline corticosterone concentrations; however, the stress associated with the restraint needed to collect the blood samples can affect the results. The purpose of this study was to determine a time limit for the collection of blood samples to evaluate baseline corticosterone, haematological and biochemical results in nesting (n = 11) and rehabilitating (n = 16) loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta). Blood samples were collected from the dorsal cervical sinus of each turtle immediately after touching the animal (t 0; 0-3 min) and 3 (t 3; 3-6 min), 6 (t 6; 6-9 min; nesting turtles only), 10 (t 10; 10-13 min) and 30 min (t 30; rehabilitating turtles only) after the initial hands-on time. Consistent between the rehabilitating and nesting turtles, there was a subtle yet significant increase in white blood cell counts over time. Despite the fact that white blood cell counts increased during the sampling period, there was no direct correlation between white blood cell count and corticosterone in the sampled turtles. In the nesting turtles, significant elevations in corticosterone were noted between t 0 and t 3 (P = 0.014) and between t 0 and t 6 (P = 0.022). Values at t 10 were not significantly different from those at t 0 (P = 0.102); however, there was a trend for the corticosterone values to continue to increase. These results suggest that sampling of nesting loggerhead sea turtles within 3 min of handling will provide baseline corticosterone concentrations in their natural environment. Significant elevations in corticosterone were also noted in the rehabilitating loggerhead sea turtles between t 0 and t 10 (P = 0.02) and between t 0 and t 30 of sampling (P = 0.0001). These results suggest that sampling of loggerhead sea turtles within 6 min of handling should provide baseline corticosterone concentrations in a rehabilitation setting. The delay in the corticosterone response noted in the rehabilitating turtles may be associated with the daily contact (visual or direct) they have with their human caretakers.

Identification of a novel herpesvirus in captive Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina)

Herpesviruses are significant pathogens of chelonians which most commonly cause upper respiratory tract disease and necrotizing stomatitis. Herpesvirus infection was identified in two populations of captive Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) using histopathology and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with DNA sequencing. Necrotizing lesions with eosinophilic to amphophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies were identified in the tissues of one hatch-year individual in January 2013, which was herpesvirus positive by PCR. A separate captive group of adults had an observed herpesvirus prevalence of 58% using PCR in July 2011. In these cases, a novel herpesvirus, Terrapene herpesvirus 1 (TerHV1), was identified and serves as the first herpesvirus sequenced in the genus Terrapene. Similar to the other herpesviruses of the Order Testudines, TerHV1 clusters with the genus Scutavirus of the subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae.

Development and use of an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of iridovirus exposure in gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus) and eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina)

Iridoviruses, pathogens typically associated with fish and amphibians, have recently been shown to cause acute respiratory disease in chelonians including box turtles, red-eared sliders, gopher tortoises, and Burmese star tortoises. Case reports of natural infections in several chelonian species in the United States have been reported, however the prevalence remains unknown in susceptible populations of free-ranging chelonians. To determine the prevalence of iridovirus exposure in free-ranging gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus) in the southeast United States, an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed and used to evaluate plasma samples from wild gopher tortoises (G. polyphemus) from: Alabama (n=9); Florida (n=658); Georgia (n=225); Louisiana (n=12); Mississippi (n=28); and unknown locations (68) collected between 2001 and 2006. Eight (1.2%) seropositive tortoises were identified from Florida and seven (3.1%) from Georgia for an overall prevalence of 1.5%. Additionally, a population of eastern box turtles was sampled from a private nature sanctuary in Pennsylvania that experienced an outbreak of iridovirus the previous year, which killed 16 turtles. Only 1 turtle out of 55 survivors tested positive (1.8%). Results suggest a low exposure rate in chelonians to this pathogen; however, it is suspected that this is an underestimate of the true prevalence. Since experimental transmission studies and past outbreaks have shown a high rate of mortality in infected turtles, turtles may die before they develop an antibody response. Further, the duration of the antibody response is unknown and may also cause an underestimate of the true prevalence.

Laboratory findings in acute Cytauxzoon felis infection in cougars (Puma concolor couguar) in Florida

Intraerythrocytic piroplasms, morphologically indistinguishable from Cytauxzoon felis, were identified in stained blood films from more than one third of free-ranging cougars (Puma concolor couguar) in southern Florida in a study that failed to demonstrate negative effects of piroplasm infection on measured hematologic parameters. However, a recent study with a nested 18s rRNA polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay identified only 9% of the free-ranging cougars in southern Florida as infected with C. felis but found 83% of these animals were infected with an unnamed small Babesia sp. In this study, hematology and clinical chemistry parameters were determined during the initial appearance of piroplasms in stained blood films of three western cougars housed in northern Florida. One animal became ill, but the remaining two animals did not exhibit clinical signs of disease. The hematocrit decreased in all three cougars concomitant with the first recognized parasitemia. A regenerative response to anemia (increased polychromasia, increased mean cell volume, and increased red cell distribution width) was recognized in two cougars that were examined twice during the following 2 weeks. Thrombocytopenia and probable leukopenia occurred in one animal. The most consistent clinical chemistry findings were increased serum bilirubin concentrations and increased alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase activities at the time of initial recognition of parasitemia. Serum protein findings were not consistent in these cougars. The use of PCR and determination of 18S rRNA gene sequences in the blood from these three animals revealed infection with C. felis, but not with the Babesia sp. In this report, we demonstrate that mild hemolytic anemia, and probably liver injury, occurs concomitant with the initial discovery of C. felis piroplasms in stained blood films.

Trypanosoma cruzi prevalence and epidemiologic trends in lemurs on St. Catherines Island, Georgia

Lemurs on St. Catherines Island, Georgia were tested for Trypanosoma cruzi infection to develop a better understanding of the epizootiology of the parasite in nonhuman primates in the southeastern United States. Fifty-six ring-tailed (Lemur catta), blue-eyed black (Eulemur macaco flavifrons), and black-and-white ruffed (Varecia variegata variegata) lemurs were tested by hemoculture and serology to determine the prevalence of T. cruzi in the population. Of those tested 3 (5%) were identified as culture positive and 25 (44.6%) as seropositive. When hemoculture results were compared with those from a similar study performed in 1997, prevalence remained unchanged. Genetic characterization of the 3 culture isolates indicated they belong to the T. cruzi IIa group, which is identical to strains previously isolated from raccoons on the island. Despite the occurrence of T. cruzi in the population, there was no evidence that the health of the lemurs was compromised as a result of infection. Based upon prevalence and available breeding records we speculate that both vertical and vector-mediated transmission play significant roles in the epidemiology of T. cruzi on the island. This also represents the first report of autochthonous infection in blue-eyed black and black-and-white ruffed lemurs.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii, Sarcocystis neurona, and Encephalitozoon cuniculi in three species of lemurs from St. Catherines Island, GA, USA

In the current study, we determined the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii, Sarcocystis neurona, and Encephalitozoon cuniculi in three species of lemurs from St. Catherines Island, Georgia. Serum samples were tested from 52 ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), six blue-eyed black lemurs (Eulemur macaco flavifrons), and four black and white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata) using an agglutination assay. Three ring-tailed lemurs (5.8%) were positive for T. gondii (titer of 1:50); one ring-tailed lemur (1.9%) and one black and white ruffed lemur (25%) were positive for S. neurona (titers of 1:1000); and one ring-tailed lemur (1.9%) was positive for E. cuniculi (titer of 1:400). All blue-eyed black lemurs were negative for antibodies to T. gondii, S. neurona, and E. cuniculi. This is the first detection of antibodies to T. gondii in ring-tailed lemurs and antibodies to S. neurona and E. cuniculi in any species of prosimian.

BLOOD VALUES IN FREE-RANGING NESTING LEATHERBACK SEA TURTLES (DERMOCHELYS CORIACEA) ON THE COAST OF THE REPUBLIC OF GABON

Leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) are the most endangered of the seven species of sea turtles. The health status of leatherbacks is largely unknown, although the number of nesting females recorded throughout the world has decreased precipitously in the last few decades. Central African beaches may provide one of the last strongholds for nesting leatherback females. In the region, oil extraction and incidental capture pose significant threats to the health of the population. Physical examinations, hematology, plasma biochemistry, plasma corticosterone concentration, plasma protein electrophoresis, plasma vitamin concentrations, and toxicological parameters were evaluated in nesting female leatherbacks in the Republic of Gabon. The general clinical condition of the 35 turtles examined in this study was rated as good. The blood value results for a subset of these turtles are presented and compared to published results from other sea turtles. To the authors' knowledge, these are the first published baseline hematology, plasma biochemistry, and plasma protein electrophoresis values from clinically healthy nesting leatherback turtles.

Molecular and serologic evidence of tick-borne Ehrlichiae in three species of lemurs from St. Catherines Island, Georgia, USA

In recent years, several species of ehrlichiae have been recognized as tick-borne disease agents of veterinary and medical importance. Clinically normal free-ranging or previously free-ranging lemurs, including 46 ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), six blue-eyed black lemurs (Eulemur macaco flavifrons), and four black and white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata) from St. Catherines Island, Georgia, were tested for evidence of exposure to tick-borne ehrlichiae. All 52 adult lemurs were serologically tested for exposure to Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays for E. chaffeensis, A. phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia ewingii, and Ehrlichia canis were conducted on blood samples from all 56 lemurs. Blood from all lemurs was inoculated into DH82 cell cultures for E. chaffeensis isolation. Of the adult lemurs, 20 (38.5%) and 16 (30.8%) had antibodies reactive (> or =1:128) for E. chaffeensis and A. phagocytophilum, respectively. Two ring-tailed lemurs were PCR and culture positive for E. chaffeensis. Molecular characterization of the two E. chaffeensis isolates showed that both contained 5-repeat variants of the variable-length PCR target (VLPT) antigen gene and 3-repeat variants of the 120-kDa antigen gene. Sequencing of the VLPT genes revealed a novel amino acid repeat unit (type-9). One lemur infected with E. chaffeensis was slightly hypoproteinemic and had moderately elevated serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels. These lemurs from St. Catherines Island have been exposed to or infected with tick-borne ehrlichiae, or both, but showed no clinical disease.

Thyroid c-cell carcinoma in an African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris)

A 3-yr-old African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris) was submitted with dysphagia, weight loss, and tetraparesis. A palpable mass was found on the ventral neck. Histologic examination revealed replacement of the thyroid gland by a highly cellular, expansile, and infiltrative mass composed of lobules of polygonal cells separated by fine fibrovascular septa. Examination of ultrathin sections revealed tumor cells with few to many dense-core neuroendocrine granules, approximately 100-200 nm in diameter, and stromal amyloid. Immunohistochemical stains were positive for neuron-specific enolase. Only rare cells had positive immunohistochemical staining for calcitonin. Findings are consistent with a neuroendocrine tumor of C-cell origin. This is the first report of a C-cell carcinoma in a hedgehog.

A new species of Isospora Schneider, 1881 (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) from the Bali (Rothschild's) mynah Leucopsar rothschildi (Passeriformes: Sturnidae), and comments concerning the genera Atoxoplasma Garnham, 1950 and Isospora

A new species of isosporan (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) is reported from the Bali mynah Leucopsar rothschildi (Passeriformes: Sturnidae). Oöcysts of Isospora rothschildi n. sp. are spherical to subspherical, 22.3 x 21.6 (20-26 x 19-23) microm, with a shape index (length/width) of 1.03 (1.00-1.15). A micropyle and oöcyst residuum are absent, but one to many polar granules are present. Sporocysts are ovoidal, 15.9 x 10.6 (15-18 x 9.5-11) microm, with Stieda and substieda bodies and a shape index of 1.50 (1.39-1.65). Each sporocyst contains an ellipsoidal sporocyst residuum, 8.0 x 5.8 (6-11 x 5-8), and each sporozoite contains two refractile bodies. No correlation was found between the presence of coccidian oöcysts in the faeces of some of the birds and Atoxoplasma in blood smears.

Trombiculid mites (Hannemania sp.) in canyon tree frogs (Hyla arenicolor)

Six wild-caught, captive canyon tree frogs (Hyla arenicolor) purchased as a group and housed at the North Carolina Zoological Park were diagnosed with intradermal Hannemania mites, the first described infestation of this frog species by this mite. Typical gross lesions were orange-colored skin vesicles approximately 1 mm in diameter, predominantly located on the ventrum and ventral hind limbs. The larval mites had ovoid bodies approximately 44 microm in length and 240 microm in width. Three of the frogs died, and three became free of mites and pathologic changes after approximately 28 wk of treatment with transcutaneous ivermectin and manual mite removal. The frogs remained free of mites at a 1-yr recheck.

Trypanosoma cruzi infection of free-ranging lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) and ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) on St. Catherine's Island, Georgia, USA

Free-ranging Old World primates released on St. Catherine's Island, Georgia (USA), were tested for infection with Trypanosoma cruzi as part of a study of the epizootiology of sylvatic T. cruzi in the southeastern USA. The parasite was observed in liver infusion tryptose medium cultures of blood from seven of 11 lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) and one of 19 ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta). Cultures of blood from 10 black and white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata) were all negative. Analysis of small subunit ribosomal RNA gene polymorphisms detected using polymerase chain reaction techniques indicates that the parasites isolated from both the lion-tailed macaques and the ring-tailed lemur are probably the same as T. cruzi parasites isolated from raccoons (Procyon lotor) trapped on St. Catherine's Island and other locations in the southeastern USA. Foraging lion-tailed macaques were observed to handle and partially consume specimens of Triatoma sanguisuga, the triatomine bug thought to be a vector of T. cruzi in the southeastern USA. Oral transmission of the parasite may have occurred as a result of this behavior.

Epicardial keratinaceous cyst in a tawny frogmouth (Podargus strigoides plumiferus)

Tissues from a tawny frogmouth that died acutely in a zoo collection were submitted for histopathologic examination. A small yellow nodule was observed grossly on the ventricular wall by the zoo veterinarian during collection of tissues. Histologically, the epicardial nodule consisted of a well-circumscribed, thinly encapsulated cyst, 4 mm in diameter. The cyst was composed of gradually keratinizing, attenuated, stratified squamous epithelium, one to three cell layers in thickness. The cyst was filled with laminated keratin and a few keratinized epithelial cells. The cyst was separated from the myocardium by a thin layer of adipose tissue. Based on these observations, the structure was diagnosed as an epicardial keratinaceous cyst.

Acyclovir (Zovirax) pharmacokinetics in Quaker parakeets, Myiopsitta monachus

The pharmacokinetics of intravenous (i.v.) and intramuscular (i.m.) single-dose administration of acyclovir were determined in Quaker parakeets. After i.v. injection at a dose of 20 mg/kg of acyclovir, elimination half-life was estimated at 0.65 h, volume of distribution at steady state was 627.65 ml/kg, and clearance was 11.22 ml/kg/min. The estimated pharmacokinetic values after i.m. injection at a dose of 40 mg/kg of acyclovir were an elimination half-life of 0.71 h and a bioavailability of 90.1%. The peak plasma acyclovir concentration occurred at 15 min when the drug was administered i.m. Plasma concentrations of acyclovir were undetectable 4-6 h after i.v. administration and 6-8 h after i.m. administration. Oral (capsules) and intravenous (sodium salt) formulations of acyclovir were given by gavage at 80 mg/kg. Peak concentrations with the sodium salt formulation were lower and developed more slowly than with the capsules. In studies designed to detect excessive drug accumulation or adverse side effects, acyclovir was administered i.m. at 40 mg/kg every 8 h for 7 days. Plasma concentrations were determined 15 min after (peak) and just prior to drug administration (trough). In another study acyclovir was gavaged at a dose of 80 mg/kg every 8 h for 4 days. Acyclovir plasma concentrations were determined just prior to and 2 h after drug administration. In both experiments, the birds maintained normal appetite and weight and did not exhibit excessive drug accumulation. Acyclovir plasma concentrations ranging from 2.07 +/- 1.09 micrograms/ml to 3.93 +/- 1.13 micrograms/ml were maintained for 4 days when acyclovir was administered in the feed and water (sole source of food and water).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Efficacy of acyclovir against herpesvirus infection in Quaker parakeets

We evaluated the efficacy of acyclovir against experimentally induced herpesvirus infection (Pacheco's parrot disease) in Quaker parakeets. Thirty-two of 40 birds were challenge-exposed with 0.1 ml of a suspension of herpesvirus (10(4) median cell culture infective doses [CCID50]) given IM. Treatment with acyclovir was started 24 hours later and was continued for 7 days. The birds were allotted to 5 groups of 8 birds each. There was a considerable difference in mortality between groups 1-5. Of 8 bird in each group, 6 died in group 1 (control), 1 died in group 2 (gavage), 3 died in group 3 (low dose, IM), 4 died in group 4 (high dose, IM), and none died in group 5 (contact controls). There was a significant (P = 0.023) difference in mortality between groups 1 and 2, thus the oral form of acyclovir administered by gavage was the most efficacious therapeutic regimen. Clinical signs and death occurred after discontinuation of acyclovir in groups 2 and 3, whereas the mean time of death for the control group was 6 days after challenge exposure. Herpesvirus was recovered by inoculation of chick embryo cell culture with pooled tissue suspensions from all birds that died. Histologic evidence of herpesvirus infection was found in most birds that died, with the control group having the most severe lesions. Surviving Quaker parakeets were transferred to cages with seronegative Quaker parakeets with no known exposure to herpesvirus. There have been no deaths attributable to herpesvirus infection in a period exceeding 2 years.

Medical and surgical management of benign prostatic hyperplasia, diskospondylitis, and penile paresis in an ocelot

Benign prostatic hyperplasia, diskospondylitis at the T13-L1 intervertebral disk space, and penile paresis were diagnosed in a 16-year-old male ocelot. Treatment consisted of castration for the benign prostatic hyperplasia and long-term administration of antibiotics for the diskospondylitis. On physical examination 8 weeks after initial referral, the prostate gland was no longer palpable and could not be visualized radiographically or ultrasonographically. The diskospondylitis lesion was found to be healing, on the basis of radiographic results.

Cutaneous fibropapillomas and renal myxofibroma in a green turtle, Chelonia mydas

A debilitated 7 kg juvenile green turtle (Chelonia mydas mydas) with multiple ulcerated and infected cutaneous fibropapillomas was clinically evaluated and found to have a nonregenerative anemia, hypoproteinemia, hypoalbuminemia and several electrolyte abnormalities. Surgery was performed to remove the larger tumors. The turtle did not eat postsurgically, and an attempt was made to place a pharyngostomy tube utilizing endoscopy. Edematous esophageal papillae, the angulation of the gastroesophageal junction, and a S-shaped configuration of the esophagous prevented successful placement of the tube. The animal was found dead the next day and necropsied. Multiple large white firm nodules were seen bulging from both kidneys. Microscopic examination of the nodules resulted in a diagnosis of renal myxofibroma.