Endolysin EN572-5 as an alternative to treat urinary tract infection caused by Streptococcus agalactiae

Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus, GBS) is an opportunistic pathogen causing urinary tract infection (UTI). Endolysin EN572-5 was identified in prophage KMB-572-E of the human isolate Streptococcus agalactiae KMB-572. The entire EN572-5 gene was cloned into an expression vector and the corresponding recombinant protein EN572-5 was expressed in Escherichia coli in a soluble form, isolated by affinity chromatography, and characterized. The isolated protein was highly active after 30 min incubation in a temperature range of - 20 °C to 37 °C and in a pH range of 5.5-8.0. The endolysin EN572-5 lytic activity was tested on different Streptococcus spp. and Lactobacillus spp. The enzyme lysed clinical GBS (n = 31/31) and different streptococci (n = 6/8), and also exhibited moderate lytic activity against UPEC (n = 4/4), but no lysis of beneficial vaginal lactobacilli (n = 4) was observed. The ability of EN572-5 to eliminate GBS during UTI was investigated using an in vitro model of UPSA. After the administration of 3 μM EN572-5, a nearly 3-log decrease of urine bacterial burden was detected within 3 h. To date, no studies have been published on the use of endolysins against S. agalactiae during UTI. KEY POINTS: • A lytic protein, EN572-5, from a prophage of a human GBS isolate has been identified. • This protein is easily produced, simple to prepare, and stable after lyophilization. • The bacteriolytic activity of EN572-5 was demonstrated for the first time in human urine.

Electrospun cobalt-doped 2D-MoSe2/polypyrrole hybrid-based carbon nanofibers as electrochemical sensing platforms

A novel cobalt-doped two-dimensional molybdenum diselenide/polypyrrole hybrid-based carbon nanofiber (Co/MoSe2/PPy@CNF) was prepared using the hydrothermal method followed by electrospinning technique. The structural and morphological properties of the 2D-TMD@CNF-based hybrids were characterized through X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive spectrometry (EDS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The Co-MoSe2/PPy@CNF exhibited large surface area, porous structure, and improved active sites due to the synergistic effect of the components. The electrochemical and electrocatalytic characteristics of the 2D-TMD@CNF-modified electrodes were also investigated using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) techniques. The Co/MoSe2/PPy@CNF electrode was used as an electrochemical sensor for simultaneous detection of ascorbic acid (AA), dopamine (DA), and uric acid (UA) and showed enhanced catalytic activity and sensitivity. Using DPV measurements, the Co/MoSe2/PPy@CNF demonstrated wide linear ranges of 30-3212 μM for AA, 1.2-536 μM for DA, and 10-1071 μM for UA with low detection limits of 6.32, 0.45, and 0.81 μM, respectively. The developed sensor with the Co/MoSe2/PPy@CNF-modified electrode was also applied to a human urine sample and gave recoveries ranging from 94.0 to 105.5% (n = 3) for AA, DA, and UA. Furthermore, the Co/MoSe2/PPy@CNF-based sensor exhibited good selectivity and reproducibility for the detection of AA, DA, and UA.

Chromosome analysis and the occurrence of B chromosomes in fish parasite Acanthocephalus anguillae (Palaeacanthocephala: Echinorhynchida)

The cytogenetics of Acanthocephala is a neglected area in the study of this group of endoparasites. Chromosome number and/or karyotypes are known for only 12 of the 1,270 described species, and molecular cytogenetic data are limited to rDNA mapping in two species. The standard karyological technique and mapping of 18S rRNA and H3 histone genes on the chromosomes of Acanthocephalus anguillae individuals from three populations, one of which originated from the unfavorable environmental conditions of the Zemplínska Šírava reservoir in eastern Slovakia, were applied for the first time. All specimens had 2n = 7/8 (male/female); n = 1m + 1m-sm + 1a + 1a (X). Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) revealed three loci of 18S rDNA on two autosomes and dispersion of H3 histone genes on all autosomes and the X chromosome. In addition to the standard A chromosome set, 34% of specimens from Zemplínska Šírava possessed a small acrocentric B chromosome, which was always found to be univalent, with no pairing observed between the B chromosome and the A complement. The B chromosome had a small amount of heterochromatin in the centromeric and telomeric regions of the chromosomal arms and showed two clusters of H3 genes. It is well known that an environment permanently polluted with chemicals leads to an increased incidence of chromosomal rearrangements. As a possible scenario for the B chromosome origin, we propose chromosomal breaks due to the mutagenic effect of pollutants in the aquatic environment. The results are discussed in comparison with previous chromosome data from Echinorhynchida species.

Cell wall polysaccharide and glycoprotein content tracks growth-form diversity and an aridity gradient in the leaf-succulent genus Crassula

Cell wall traits are believed to be a key component of the succulent syndrome, an adaptive syndrome to drought, yet the variability of such traits remains largely unknown. In this study, we surveyed the leaf polysaccharide and glycoprotein composition in a wide sampling of Crassula species that occur naturally along an aridity gradient in southern Africa, and we interpreted its adaptive significance in relation to growth form and arid adaptation. To study the glycomic diversity, we sampled leaf material from 56 Crassula taxa and performed comprehensive microarray polymer profiling to obtain the relative content of cell wall polysaccharides and glycoproteins. This analysis was complemented by the determination of monosaccharide composition and immunolocalization in leaf sections using glycan-targeting antibodies. We found that compact and non-compact Crassula species occupy distinct phenotypic spaces in terms of leaf glycomics, particularly in regard to rhamnogalacturonan I, its arabinan side chains, and arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs). Moreover, these cell wall components also correlated positively with increasing aridity, which suggests that they are likely advantageous in terms of arid adaptation. These differences point to compact Crassula species having more elastic cell walls with plasticizing properties, which can be interpreted as an adaptation toward increased drought resistance. Furthermore, we report an intracellular pool of AGPs associated with oil bodies and calcium oxalate crystals, which could be a peculiarity of Crassula and could be linked to increased drought resistance. Our results indicate that glycomics may be underlying arid adaptation and drought resistance in succulent plants.

Hybrid solder joints: the effect of nanosized ZrO2 particles on morphology of as-reflowed and thermally aged Sn-3.5Ag solder joints

The main number of current researches has been focused on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the Sn-based Sn-Ag-Cu-based solders, while various kinds of nanosized particles have been added. The synthesis and handling of ceramic nanosized powder are much easier than of metal nanoparticles. In addition, metal nanoparticles solved in solder joints during the soldering process or by thermal aging could behave as an alloying element similar to bulk metal additions, while ceramic nanoparticles retain their chemically inactive behavior in various thermal, thermo-mechanical, and electrical constraints. In some cases, the solved metal nanosized inclusions could increase the growth kinetics of the present intermetallic phases or even create new phases, which leads to more complexity in the predictions and simulations of chemical processes in the solder joints. Based on the assertions mentioned above, ceramic nanosized particles are industrially more favorable as reinforcing inclusions. On the other hand, there is no direct comparison in the literature between Sn-based Sn-Ag-Cu and Sn-Ag solder joints with similar ceramic nanoinclusions based on microstructural features and mechanical properties. In the present research, the Cu/flux + NPs/SAC/flux + NPs/Cu solder joints were produced with a nominal amount of 0.2 wt%, 0.5 wt%, and 1.0 wt% nanosized ZrO2 powder. The solder joints prepared via the above-described method are called in the literature as hybrid solder joints. The microstructure of the as-reflowed and thermally aged samples has been studied, especially at the interface solder/substrate. It has been shown that the minor additions of ZrO2 NPs lead to a decrease in the thickness of the Cu6Sn5 interfacial layer in the as-reflowed solder joints and a reduction in the growth kinetics of this layer, while the Cu3Sn interfacial IMC layer remains practically unaffected. Similar investigations were performed in our previous study but for both the hybrid and nanocomposite Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu solder joints. A comparative analysis of the impact of the ZrO2 nanoinclusions on the hybrid solder joints using Sn-3.5Ag and Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu has been performed.

A Significant Difference in Core PDZ Interactivity of SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV2 and MERS-CoV Protein E Peptide PDZ Motifs In Vitro

Small structural E protein of coronaviruses uses its C-terminal PDZ motif to compromise the cellular PDZ interactome. In this work we compared core PDZ interactivity of small (seven amino acids) peptide PDZ motifs, originating from the envelope proteins of recently transmitted coronaviruses SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV2, and MERS-CoV. As the interaction targets we used 23 domains of the largest PDZ proteins MUPP1/MPDZ and PATJ/INAD. Results revealed exceptional affinity and interaction promiscuity of MERS-CoV PDZ motif in vitro, suggesting an increased probability of potential PDZ targets in vivo. We hypothesize that together with its known ability to enter the cells from both apical and basolateral sites, this might further contribute to its elevated disruption of cellular PDZ pathways and higher virulence.

Sex- and age- dependent effect of pre-gestational chronic stress and mirtazapine treatment on neurobehavioral development of Wistar rat offspring

Hormonal fluctuations, such as the perinatal period, may increase susceptibility of women to depression, which in turn exert a negative impact on child's neurodevelopment, becoming a risk factor in development of neuropsychiatric disorders. Moreover, the use of antidepressants during this critical period presents a serious health concern for both the mother and the child, due to the consequences of treatment in terms of the reliability and safety for the proper neurodevelopment of the organism being not well known. Atypical antidepressants, such as mirtazapine, that targets both serotonergic and noradrenergic systems in the central nervous system (CNS), represent a novel focus of research due to its unique pharmacological profile. The aim of this work was to study the effects of maternal depression and/or perinatal antidepressant mirtazapine treatment on the neurobehavioral development of the offspring. Pre-gestationally chronically stressed or non-stressed Wistar rat dams were treated with either mirtazapine (10 mg/kg/day) or vehicle during pregnancy and lactation followed by analysis of offspring's behavior at juvenile and adolescent age. We found mirtazapine induced significant alterations of nursing behavior. In offspring, pregestational stress (PS) had an anxiogenic effect on adolescent males (p≤0.05) and increased their active behavior in forced swim test (p≤0.01). Interaction between pregestational stress and mirtazapine treatment variously induced anxiolytic changes of juvenile (p≤0.05) and adolescent (p≤0.05) females and impairment of spatial memory (p≤0.01) in adolescent females as well. Hippocampal density of synaptophysin, pre-synaptic protein marker, was decreased mainly by mirtazapine treatment. In conclusion, our results show mirtazapine induced significant alterations in maternal behavior and several sex- and age-dependent changes in neurobehavioral development of offspring caused by both prenatal mirtazapine treatment and/or chronic pregestational stress.

A Review of the EUSO-Balloon Pathfinder for the JEM-EUSO Program

EUSO-Balloon is a pathfinder for JEM-EUSO, the mission concept of a spaceborne observatory which is designed to observe Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Ray (UHECR)-induced Extensive Air Showers (EAS) by detecting their UltraViolet (UV) light tracks "from above." On August 25, 2014, EUSO-Balloon was launched from Timmins Stratospheric Balloon Base (Ontario, Canada) by the balloon division of the French Space Agency CNES. After reaching a floating altitude of 38 km, EUSO-Balloon imaged the UV light in the wavelength range ∼290-500 nm for more than 5 hours using the key technologies of JEM-EUSO. The flight allowed a good understanding of the performance of the detector to be developed, giving insights into possible improvements to be applied to future missions. A detailed measurement of the photoelectron counts in different atmospheric and ground conditions was achieved. By means of the simulation of the instrument response and by assuming atmospheric models, the absolute intensity of diffuse light was estimated. The instrument detected hundreds of laser tracks with similar characteristics to EASs shot by a helicopter flying underneath. These are the first recorded laser tracks measured from a fluorescence detector looking down on the atmosphere. The reconstruction of the direction of the laser tracks was performed. In this work, a review of the main results obtained by EUSO-Balloon is presented as well as implications for future space-based observations of UHECRs.

Helium Conditioning Increases Cardiac Fibroblast Migration Which Effect Is Not Propagated via Soluble Factors or Extracellular Vesicles

Helium inhalation induces cardioprotection against ischemia/reperfusion injury, the cellular mechanism of which remains not fully elucidated. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived, nano-sized membrane vesicles which play a role in cardioprotective mechanisms, but their function in helium conditioning (HeC) has not been studied so far. We hypothesized that HeC induces fibroblast-mediated cardioprotection via EVs. We isolated neonatal rat cardiac fibroblasts (NRCFs) and exposed them to glucose deprivation and HeC rendered by four cycles of 95% helium + 5% CO2 for 1 h, followed by 1 h under normoxic condition. After 40 h of HeC, NRCF activation was analyzed with a Western blot (WB) and migration assay. From the cell supernatant, medium extracellular vesicles (mEVs) were isolated with differential centrifugation and analyzed with WB and nanoparticle tracking analysis. The supernatant from HeC-treated NRCFs was transferred to naïve NRCFs or immortalized human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC-TERT2), and a migration and angiogenesis assay was performed. We found that HeC accelerated the migration of NRCFs and did not increase the expression of fibroblast activation markers. HeC tended to decrease mEV secretion of NRCFs, but the supernatant of HeC or the control NRCFs did not accelerate the migration of naïve NRCFs or affect the angiogenic potential of HUVEC-TERT2. In conclusion, HeC may contribute to cardioprotection by increasing fibroblast migration but not by releasing protective mEVs or soluble factors from cardiac fibroblasts.

A SARS-CoV-2 mutant from B.1.258 lineage with ∆H69/∆V70 deletion in the Spike protein circulating in Central Europe in the fall 2020

SARS-CoV-2 mutants carrying the ∆H69/∆V70 deletion in the amino-terminal domain of the Spike protein emerged independently in at least six lineages of the virus (namely, B.1.1.7, B.1.1.298, B.1.160, B.1.177, B.1.258, B.1.375). We analyzed SARS-CoV-2 samples collected from various regions of Slovakia between November and December 2020 that were presumed to contain B.1.1.7 variant due to drop-out of the Spike gene target in an RT-qPCR test caused by this deletion. Sequencing of these samples revealed that although in some cases the samples were indeed confirmed as B.1.1.7, a substantial fraction of samples contained another ∆H69/∆V70 carrying mutant belonging to the lineage B.1.258, which has been circulating in Central Europe since August 2020, long before the import of B.1.1.7. Phylogenetic analysis shows that the early sublineage of B.1.258 acquired the N439K substitution in the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the Spike protein and, later on, also the deletion ∆H69/∆V70 in the Spike N-terminal domain (NTD). This variant was particularly common in several European countries including the Czech Republic and Slovakia but has been quickly replaced by B.1.1.7 early in 2021.

Orientational self-assembly of nanoparticles in nematic droplets

We demonstrate experimentally that the anchoring of a nematic liquid crystal on a solid substrate together with the anchoring of the liquid crystal on a nanoparticle surface induces orientational self-assembly of anisometric nanoparticles in liquid crystal droplets. The observed phenomenon opens a novel route for fabrication of thin colloidal films with tailored properties.

Apoptotic cells in mouse blastocysts are eliminated by neighbouring blastomeres

Apoptosis is a physiological process that occurs commonly during the development of the preimplantation embryo. The present work examines the ability of apoptotic embryonic cells to express a signal promoting their phagocytosis, and quantifies the ability of neighbouring, normal embryonic cells to perform that task. Microscopic analysis of mouse blastocysts revealed phosphatidylserine externalization to be 10 times less common than incidence of apoptotic cells (as detected by TUNEL). In spite of the low frequency of phosphatidylserine-flipping (in inner cell mass, no annexin V staining was recorded), fluorescence staining of the plasma membrane showed more than 20% of apoptotic cells to have been engulfed by neighbouring blastomeres. The mean frequency of apoptotic cells escaping phagocytosis by their extrusion into blastocyst cavities did not exceed 10%. Immunochemically visualised RAC1 (an enzyme important in actin cytoskeleton rearrangement) was seen in phagosome-like structures containing a nucleus with a condensed morphology. Gene transcript analysis showed that the embryonic cells expressed 12 receptors likely involved in phagocytic process (Scarf1, Msr1, Cd36, Itgav, Itgb3, Cd14, Scarb1, Cd44, Stab1, Adgrb1, Cd300lf, Cd93). In conclusion, embryonic cells possess all the necessary mechanisms for recognising, engulfing and digesting apoptotic cells, ensuring the clearance of most dying blastomeres.

Does Concrete Content Help People to Reason Scientifically?: Adaptation of Scientific Reasoning Scale

In this paper, we explored the scientific literacy of a general sample of the Slovak adult population and examined factors that might help or inhibit scientific reasoning, namely the content of the problems. In doing so, we also verified the assumption that when faced with real-life scientific problems, people do not necessarily apply decontextualized knowledge of methodological principles, but reason from the bottom up, i.e. by predominantly relying on heuristics based on what they already know or believe about the topic. One thousand and twelve adults completed three measures of scientific literacy (science knowledge, scientific reasoning, attitudes to science) and several other related constructs (numeracy, need for cognition, PISA tasks). In general, Slovak participants' performance on scientific reasoning tasks was fairly low and dependent on the context in which the problems were presented-there was a 63% success rate for a version with concrete problems and a 56% success rate for the decontextualized version. The main contribution of this study is a modification and validation of the scientific reasoning scale using a large sample size, which allows for more thorough testing of all components of scientific literacy.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11191-021-00207-0.

Highly Cooperative Photoswitching in Dihydropyrene Dimers

We present a strategy to achieve highly cooperative photoswitching, where the initial switching event greatly facilitates subsequent switching of the neighboring unit. By linking donor/acceptor substituted dihydropyrenes via suitable π-conjugated bridges, the quantum yield of the second photochemical ring-opening process could be enhanced by more than two orders of magnitude as compared to the first ring-opening. As a result, the intermediate mixed switching state is not detected during photoisomerization although it is formed during the thermal back reaction. Comparing the switching behavior of various dimers, both experimentally and computationally, helped to unravel the crucial role of the bridging moiety connecting both photochromic units. The presented dihydropyrene dimer serves as model system for longer cooperative switching chains, which, in principle, should enable efficient and directional transfer of information along a molecularly defined path. Moreover, our concept allows to enhance the photosensitivity in oligomeric and polymeric systems and materials thereof.

Abatement of the Stimulatory Effect of Copper Nanoparticles Supported on Titania on Ovarian Cell Functions by Some Plants and Phytochemicals

The application of nanoparticles has experienced a vertiginous growth, but their interaction with food and medicinal plants in organisms, especially in the control of reproduction, remains unresolved. We examined the influence of copper nanoparticles supported on titania (CuNPs/TiO2), plant extracts (buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) and vitex (Vitex agnus-castus)), phytochemicals (rutin and apigenin), and their combination with CuNPs/TiO2 on ovarian cell functions, using cultured porcine ovarian granulosa cells. Cell viability, proliferation (PCNA accumulation), apoptosis (accumulation of bax), and hormones release (progesterone, testosterone, and 17β-estradiol) were analyzed by the Trypan blue test, quantitative immunocytochemistry, and ELISA, respectively. CuNPs/TiO2 increased cell viability, proliferation, apoptosis, and testosterone but not progesterone release, and reduced the 17β-estradiol output. Plant extracts and components have similar stimulatory action on ovarian cell functions as CuNPs/TiO2, but abated the majority of the CuNPs/TiO2 effects. This study concludes that (1) CuNPs/TiO2 can directly stimulate ovarian cell functions, promoting ovarian cell proliferation, apoptosis, turnover, viability, and steroid hormones release; (2) the plants buckwheat and vitex, as well as rutin and apigenin, can promote some of these ovarian functions too; and (3) these plant additives mitigate the CuNPs/TiO2's activity, something that must be considered when applied together.

Expression of Drosera rotundifolia Chitinase in Transgenic Tobacco Plants Enhanced Their Antifungal Potential

In this study, a chitinase gene (DrChit) that plays a role in the carnivorous processes of Drosera rotundifolia L. was isolated from genomic DNA, linked to a double CaMV35S promoter and nos terminator in a pBinPlus plant binary vector, and used for Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of tobacco. RT-qPCR revealed that within 14 transgenic lines analysed in detail, 57% had DrChit transcript abundance comparable to or lower than level of a reference actin gene transcript. In contrast, the transgenic lines 9 and 14 exhibited 72 and 152 times higher expression level than actin. The protein extracts of these two lines exhibited five and eight times higher chitinolytic activity than non-transgenic controls when measured in a fluorimetric assay with FITC-chitin. Finally, the growth of Trichoderma viride was obviously suppressed when the pathogen was exposed to 100 μg of crude protein extract isolated from line 9 and line 14, with the area of mycelium growth reaching only 56.4% and 45.2%, of non-transgenic control, respectively. This is the first time a chitinase from a carnivorous plant with substrate specificity for long chitin polymers was tested in a transgenic plant with the aim of exploring its antifungal potential.

Counterattacking the tick bite: towards a rational design of anti-tick vaccines targeting pathogen transmission

Hematophagous arthropods are responsible for the transmission of a variety of pathogens that cause disease in humans and animals. Ticks of the Ixodes ricinus complex are vectors for some of the most frequently occurring human tick-borne diseases, particularly Lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). The search for vaccines against these diseases is ongoing. Efforts during the last few decades have primarily focused on understanding the biology of the transmitted viruses, bacteria and protozoans, with the goal of identifying targets for intervention. Successful vaccines have been developed against TBEV and Lyme borreliosis, although the latter is no longer available for humans. More recently, the focus of intervention has shifted back to where it was initially being studied which is the vector. State of the art technologies are being used for the identification of potential vaccine candidates for anti-tick vaccines that could be used either in humans or animals. The study of the interrelationship between ticks and the pathogens they transmit, including mechanisms of acquisition, persistence and transmission have come to the fore, as this knowledge may lead to the identification of critical elements of the pathogens' life-cycle that could be targeted by vaccines. Here, we review the status of our current knowledge on the triangular relationships between ticks, the pathogens they carry and the mammalian hosts, as well as methods that are being used to identify anti-tick vaccine candidates that can prevent the transmission of tick-borne pathogens.

The positioning of the asymmetric septum during sporulation in Bacillus subtilis

Probably one of the most controversial questions about the cell division of Bacillus subtilis, a rod-shaped bacterium, concerns the mechanism that ensures correct division septum placement-at mid-cell during vegetative growth but closer to one end during sporulation. In general, bacteria multiply by binary fission, in which the division septum forms almost exactly at the cell centre. How the division machinery achieves such accuracy is a question of continuing interest. We understand in some detail how this is achieved during vegetative growth in Escherichia coli and B. subtilis, where two main negative regulators, nucleoid occlusion and the Min system, help to determine the division site, but we still do not know exactly how the asymmetric septation site is determined during sporulation in B. subtilis. Clearly, the inhibitory effects of the nucleoid occlusion and Min system on polar division have to be overcome. We evaluated the positioning of the asymmetric septum and its accuracy by statistical analysis of the site of septation. We also clarified the role of SpoIIE, RefZ and MinCD on the accuracy of this process. We determined that the sporulation septum forms approximately 1/6 of a cell length from one of the cell poles with high precision and that SpoIIE, RefZ and MinCD have a crucial role in precisely localizing the sporulation septum. Our results strongly support the idea that asymmetric septum formation is a very precise and highly controlled process regulated by a still unknown mechanism.

Chlorella diet alters mitochondrial cardiolipin contents differentially in organs of Danio rerio analyzed by a lipidomics approach

The zebrafish (Danio rerio) is an important and widely used vertebrate model organism for the study of human diseases which include disorders caused by dysfunctional mitochondria. Mitochondria play an essential role in both energy metabolism and apoptosis, which are mediated through a mitochondrial phospholipid cardiolipin (CL). In order to examine the cardiolipin profile in the zebrafish model, we developed a CL analysis platform by using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Meanwhile, we tested whether chlorella diet would alter the CL profile in the larval fish, and in various organs of the adult fish. The results showed that chlorella diet increased the chain length of CL in larval fish. In the adult zebrafish, the distribution patterns of CL species were similar between the adult brain and eye tissues, and between the heart and muscles. Interestingly, monolyso-cardiolipin (MLCL) was not detected in brain and eyes but found in other examined tissues, indicating a different remodeling mechanism to maintain the CL integrity. While the adult zebrafish were fed with chlorella for four weeks, the CL distribution showed an increase of the species of saturated acyl chains in the brain and eyes, but a decrease in the other organs. Moreover, chlorella diet led to a decrease of MLCL percentage in organs except the non-MLCL-containing brain and eyes. The CL analysis in the zebrafish provides an important tool for studying the mechanism of mitochondria diseases, and may also be useful for testing medical regimens targeting against the Barth Syndrome.