1
|
Verma C, Dubey S, Bose R, Alfantazi A, Ebenso EE, Rhee KY. Zwitterions and betaines as highly soluble materials for sustainable corrosion protection: Interfacial chemistry and bonding with metal surfaces. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2024; 324:103091. [PMID: 38281394 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2024.103091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
The primary requirements for interfacial adsorption and corrosion inhibition are solubility and the existence of polar functional groups, particularly charges. Traditional organic inhibitors have a solubility issue due to the hydrophobic moieties they incorporate. Most documented organic inhibitors have aromatic rings, hydrocarbon chains, and a few functional groups. The excellent solubility and high efficacy of zwitterions and betaines make them the perfect replacements for insoluble corrosion inhibitors. Zwitterions and betaines are more easily soluble because of interactions between their positive and negative charges (-COO-, -PO3-, -NH3, -NHR2, -NH2R, -SO3- etc.) and the polar solvents. The positive and negative charges also aid these molecules' physical and chemical adsorption at the metal-electrolyte interfaces. They develop a corrosion-inhibiting layer through their adsorption. After becoming adsorbed at the metal-electrolyte interface, they act as mixed-type inhibitors, slowing both cathodic and anodic processes. They usually adsorb according to the Langmuir adsorption isotherm. In this article, the corrosion inhibition potential of zwitterions and betaines in the aqueous phase, as well as their mode of action, are reviewed. This article details the advantages and disadvantages of utilizing zwitterions and betaines for sustainable corrosion protection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chandrabhan Verma
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
| | - Shikha Dubey
- Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences, Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University, Srinagar 246174, Garhwal, India
| | - Ranjith Bose
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Akram Alfantazi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Eno E Ebenso
- Institute for Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, University of South Africa, Johannesburg 1710, South Africa
| | - Kyong Yop Rhee
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Yongin 445-701, South Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Kelleppan VT, King JP, Butler CSG, Williams AP, Tuck KL, Tabor RF. Heads or tails? The synthesis, self-assembly, properties and uses of betaine and betaine-like surfactants. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2021; 297:102528. [PMID: 34655932 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2021.102528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Betaines are a key class of zwitterionic surfactant that exhibit particularly favorable properties, making them indispensable in modern formulation. Due to their composition, betaines are readily biodegradable, mild on the skin and exhibit some antimicrobial activity. Vital to their function, these surfactants self-assemble into diverse micellar geometries, some of which contribute to increased solution viscosity, and their surface activity results in strong detergency and foaming. As such, their behavior has been exploited in various applications from personal care (including shampoos and liquid soaps) to specific industrial fields (such as enhanced oil recovery). This review aims to inform the reader of the diverse range of different betaine and betaine-like surfactants that have been actively researched over the past three decades. Synthesis as well as both chemical and physical characterization of betaine surfactants are discussed, including small-angle scattering studies that indicate self-assembly structures and rheological data that demonstrates texture and flow. Stimulus responsive systems and exotic betaine analogs with enhanced functionality are also covered. Crucially, the connection between surfactant molecular architecture and function are highlighted, exemplifying precisely why zwitterionic betaine and related surfactants are so uniquely functional.
Collapse
|
3
|
Huang S, Ma Q, Hou Q, Zuo T, Zhang Z, Ni W. Identification and quantitative chemical analysis of betaines in different organic wastes and their bioconversion composts. Bioresour Technol 2021; 328:124857. [PMID: 33631462 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.124857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Global organic waste is increasing, bioconversion of organic waste arises because it can recover valuable nutrients and produce bioactive substances. Betaines are important bioactive substances in plants under environmental stress, but have received limited attention in vermicompost/larvae bioconversion compost. In this study, betaines in organic waste and vermicompost/larvae bioconversion compost were identified and quantified by HPLC-ESI-MS/MS. We observed the existence of glutamine betaine in all samples, which was first found in natural sources recently. Valine betaine was the highest among all detected betaines followed by GABA betaine, and both were rare in plants. The existence of tyrosine betaine in cow dung (CD) and vermicompost (CDV) was found, which was previously shown to be in fungi. Most importantly, we found larvae bioconversion could increase betaines by 5.56-99.75%, while vermicomposting decreased them. Bioconversion of larvae can effectively increase betaines in compost and can be used to produce potential novel functional organic fertilizers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shan Huang
- College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Qingxu Ma
- College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Qiong Hou
- College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Ting Zuo
- College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Zhijian Zhang
- College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Wuzhong Ni
- College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Padnya PL, Bayarashov EE, Zueva IV, Lushchekina SV, Lenina OA, Evtugyn VG, Osin YN, Petrov KA, Stoikov II. Water-soluble betaines and amines based on thiacalix[4]arene scaffold as new cholinesterase inhibitors. Bioorg Chem 2019; 94:103455. [PMID: 31791680 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2019.103455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Novel ammonium and betaine derivatives of p-tert-butylthiacalix[4]arene in cone and 1,3-alternate conformation were synthesized with high yields for the first time. The obtained compounds form in water spherical nanoparticles. It was shown by molecular docking calculations and in vitro experiments that amino and betaine derivatives can inhibit acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase on the level of pyridostigmine while the toxicity of the obtained compounds is much lower than that of pyridostigmine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pavel L Padnya
- A.M. Butlerov Chemical Institute, Kazan Federal University, Kremlevskaya str. 18, Kazan 420008, Russian Federation
| | - Egor E Bayarashov
- A.M. Butlerov Chemical Institute, Kazan Federal University, Kremlevskaya str. 18, Kazan 420008, Russian Federation
| | - Irina V Zueva
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, Arbuzov str. 8, Kazan 420088, Russian Federation
| | - Sofya V Lushchekina
- N.M. Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics of Russian Academy of Sciences, Kosygina str. 4, Moscow 119334, Russian Federation
| | - Oksana A Lenina
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, Arbuzov str. 8, Kazan 420088, Russian Federation
| | - Vladimir G Evtugyn
- Interdisciplinary Center for Analytical Microscopy, Kazan Federal University, Kremlevskaya str. 18, Kazan 420008, Russian Federation
| | - Yuri N Osin
- Interdisciplinary Center for Analytical Microscopy, Kazan Federal University, Kremlevskaya str. 18, Kazan 420008, Russian Federation
| | - Konstantin A Petrov
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, Arbuzov str. 8, Kazan 420088, Russian Federation
| | - Ivan I Stoikov
- A.M. Butlerov Chemical Institute, Kazan Federal University, Kremlevskaya str. 18, Kazan 420008, Russian Federation.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Aoki T, Nakagawa Y, Genjima R, Koumoto K. Structural effect of amine N-oxides on the facilitation of α-glucosidase-catalyzed hydrolysis reactions. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 2019; 43:541-548. [PMID: 31741084 DOI: 10.1007/s00449-019-02248-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 11/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Activation and stabilization of enzymes is an important issue in their industrial application. We recently reported that synthetic betaines, derived from cellular metabolites, structure-dependently increased the activity and stability of various enzymes including hydrolases, oxidases, and synthetases simply by mixing them into the reaction buffer. In this report, we focus on amine N-oxides, which are similarly important metabolites in cells with a highly polarized N-oxide bond, and investigate their enzyme stabilization and activation behavior. It was revealed that synthetic amine N-oxides structure-dependently activate α-glucosidase-catalyzed hydrolysis reactions similarly to betaines. The subsequent comparison of the kinetic parameters, the optimal concentration range for activation, and the maximal activity, suggested that amine N-oxides facilitate hydrolysis reactions via the same mechanism as betaines, because no differences were confirmed. However, the enzyme stabilization effect of amine N-oxides was slightly superior to that of betaines and the temporal stability of the enzyme in aqueous solutions was higher in the low amine N-oxide concentration range. The rheological properties, CD spectra, and dynamic fluorescence quenching experiments suggested that the suppression of unfavorable conformational perturbation was related to the difference in the hydration environments provided by the surrounding water molecules. Thus, we clarified that amine N-oxides facilitate enzyme reactions as a result of their similarity to betaines and provide a superior stabilizing effect for enzymes. Amine N-oxides show potential for application in enzyme storage and long-term reactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Takuma Aoki
- Department of Nanobiochemistry, FIRST (Frontiers of Innovative Research in Science and Technology), Konan University, 7-1-20 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe, 650-0047, Japan
| | - Yuichi Nakagawa
- Department of Nanobiochemistry, FIRST (Frontiers of Innovative Research in Science and Technology), Konan University, 7-1-20 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe, 650-0047, Japan
| | - Ryutaro Genjima
- Department of Nanobiochemistry, FIRST (Frontiers of Innovative Research in Science and Technology), Konan University, 7-1-20 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe, 650-0047, Japan
| | - Kazuya Koumoto
- Department of Nanobiochemistry, FIRST (Frontiers of Innovative Research in Science and Technology), Konan University, 7-1-20 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe, 650-0047, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Weston PA, Gurusinghe S, Birckhead E, Skoneczny D, Quinn JC, Weston LA. Chemometric analysis of Amaranthus retroflexus in relation to livestock toxicity in southern Australia. Phytochemistry 2019; 161:1-10. [PMID: 30776591 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2019.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Revised: 01/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Amaranthus retroflexus L., an introduced invasive weed in southern Australia, has been associated with acute renal failure and/or mortality in a number of livestock species. While its leaves, flowers and stems are generally reported to contain high levels of nitrogen, few studies have fully characterised the chemical composition of A. retroflexus foliage with respect to mammalian toxicity. We performed extensive metabolic profiling of stems, leaves, roots and inflorescence tissues of A. retroflexus collected from three spatially and/or temporally distinct toxicity outbreaks, and report on the 1) composition of primary and secondary metabolites in methanolic extracts of A. retroflexus tissues using HPLC and HPLC-MS QToF and 2) chemometric analysis of A. retroflexus extracts in relation to the associated toxin(s). All tissues of A. retroflexus possessed an abundance of N-containing metabolites, particularly quaternary ammonium compounds which were identified as betaines, two of which (valine betaine and isoleucine betaine) are rarely encountered in plants. Cytotoxicity to murine fibroblasts was highest in extracts of leaf tissue and was associated with a single, a small modified peptide with high similarity to N-acetyl-L-α-aspartyl-L-alanyl-L-α-aspartyl-L-α-glutamyl-O-(carboxymethyl)-L-tyrosyl-L-leucinamide, a synthetic phosphotyrosyl mimic involved in cell signaling processes. One possible mode of action leading to acute renal failure in grazing livestock by a modified peptide such as this is proposed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Weston
- Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation (Charles Sturt University and NSW Department of Primary Industries), Wagga Wagga, NSW, 2650, Australia; Charles Sturt University, School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences, Wagga Wagga, NSW, 2678, Australia.
| | - Saliya Gurusinghe
- Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation (Charles Sturt University and NSW Department of Primary Industries), Wagga Wagga, NSW, 2650, Australia.
| | - Emily Birckhead
- Charles Sturt University, School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Wagga Wagga, NSW, 2678, Australia
| | - Dominik Skoneczny
- Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation (Charles Sturt University and NSW Department of Primary Industries), Wagga Wagga, NSW, 2650, Australia
| | - Jane C Quinn
- Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation (Charles Sturt University and NSW Department of Primary Industries), Wagga Wagga, NSW, 2650, Australia; Charles Sturt University, School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Wagga Wagga, NSW, 2678, Australia
| | - Leslie A Weston
- Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation (Charles Sturt University and NSW Department of Primary Industries), Wagga Wagga, NSW, 2650, Australia; Charles Sturt University, School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences, Wagga Wagga, NSW, 2678, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Robertson DS. Proposed biochemistry of Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. Med Hypotheses 2017; 109:131-138. [PMID: 29150272 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2017.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2017] [Revised: 07/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The formation of brain compounds linked to Parkinson's and Alzheimer's brain diseases are described. Metabolic mechanisms involved in the control of reacting biochemicals are detailed. Relationships are established between the biochemical reactions, biochemical control mechanisms and the onset of Parkinson's, Alzheimer's. Treatments based on these relationships are proposed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D S Robertson
- Private, 205, Pickersleigh Road, Malvern, Worcestershire, England WR14 2QS, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Swan HB, Deschaseaux ESM, Jones GB, Eyre BD. The relative abundance of dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) among other zwitterions in branching coral at Heron Island, southern Great Barrier Reef. Anal Bioanal Chem 2017; 409:4409-23. [PMID: 28527001 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-017-0385-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Revised: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) and eleven other target zwitterions were quantified in the branch tips of six Acropora species and Stylophora pistillata hard coral growing on the reef flat surrounding Heron Island in the southern Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Australia. Hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS) was used for sample analysis with isotope dilution MS applied to quantify DMSP. The concentration of DMSP was ten times greater in A. aspera than A. valida, with this difference being maintained throughout the spring, summer and winter seasons. In contrast, glycine betaine was present in significantly higher concentrations in these species during the summer than the winter. Exposure of branch tips of A. aspera to air and hypo-saline seawater for up to 1 h did not alter the concentrations of DMSP present in the coral when compared with control samples. DMSP was the most abundant target zwitterion in the six Acropora species examined, ranging from 44-78% of all target zwitterions in A. millepora and A. aspera, respectively. In contrast, DMSP only accounted for 7% in S. pistillata, with glycine betaine and stachydrine collectively accounting for 88% of all target zwitterions in this species. The abundance of DMSP in the six Acropora species examined points to Acropora coral being an important source for the biogeochemical cycling of sulfur throughout the GBR, since this reef-building branching coral dominates the coral cover of the GBR. Graphical Abstract HILIC-MS extracted ion chromatogram showing zwitterionic metabolites from the branching coral Acropora isopora.
Collapse
|
9
|
Dickson DMJ, Kirst GO. OSMOTIC ADJUSTMENT IN MARINE EUKARYOTIC ALGAE: THE ROLE OF INORGANIC IONS, QUATERNARY AMMONIUM, TERTIARY SULPHONIUM AND CARBOHYDRATE SOLUTES: I. DIATOMS AND A RHODOPHYTE. New Phytol 1987; 106:645-655. [PMID: 33874080 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1987.tb00165.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The unicellular marine algae, Phaeodactylum tricornutum Bohlin, Cyclotella cryptica Reimann and Cyclotella meneghiniana Kützing (Bacillariophyceae) and Porphyridium aerugineum Geitler (Rhodophyceae) synthesized and accumulated glycine betaine and proline in response to increases of the NaCl concentration (150 to 1000 mol m-3 NaCl) of the growth medium. C. cryptica and C. meneghiniana also synthesized and accumulated homarine (N-methyl picolinic acid betaine). Both P. tricornutum and P. aerugineum synthesized increasing amounts of intracellular glycerol and P. aerugineum also formed the heteroside, floridoside [O-α-D-galactopyranosyl (1 → 2)-glycerol], in response to the elevated salinities. No major low molecular weight carbohydrates were found in Cyclotella. Sucrose was not detected in the algal extracts. Only P. tricornutum synthesized the tertiary sulphonium compound, β-dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP), and the quantity of this solute in the alga was dependent on the amount of NaCl in the medium. Intracellular K+ concentrations in the algae were three to six times greater than those of Na+ . Increases of the salinity of the media led to the uptake and accumulation of K+ by the cells, and smaller increases of Na+ and Cl-1 and loss of intracellular NO3 - . The inorganic cations Na+ and K+ , with their accompanying anions, and the estimated organic solutes could largely account for the osmotic balance of P. tricornutum and P. aerugineum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D M J Dickson
- Universität Bremen, Fachbereich Biologie, NW2, Leobenerstrasse, D-2800 Bremen 33, Federal Republic of Germany
| | - G O Kirst
- Universität Bremen, Fachbereich Biologie, NW2, Leobenerstrasse, D-2800 Bremen 33, Federal Republic of Germany
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Dickson DMJ, Kirst GO. OSMOTIC ADJUSTMENT IN MARINE EUKARYOTIC ALGAE: THE ROLE OF INORGANIC IONS, QUATERNARY AMMONIUM, TERTIARY SULPHONIUM AND CARBOHYDRATE SOLUTES: II. PRASINOPHYTES AND HAPTOPHYTES. New Phytol 1987; 106:657-666. [PMID: 33874082 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1987.tb00166.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The effects of steady state salinities (150 to 700 mol m-3 NaCl) on the growth rates and intracellular solutes of the prasinophyte algae Tetraselmis chui Butcher and Prasinocladus Kuckuck and the prymnesiophyte algae, Prymnesium parvum Carter and Ruttnera spectabilis Geitler, are described. Maximum growth rates were reached in media approximating to the NaCl concentration of oceanic waters (about 500 mol m-3 ). The following intracellular organic solutes paralleled the increases of external salinity: the tertiary sulphonium compound β-dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP) in T. chui, Prasinocladus, P. parvum and R. spectabilis; the polyhydric alcohol, mannitol, in T. chui, Prasinocladus and R. spectabilis; the quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), glycine betaine and homarine, in T. chui and Prasinocladus. QACs were not detected in P. parvum and R. spectabilis. An unknown polyol, which may be the cyclitol, 1,4/2,5 cyclohexanetetrol, was synthesized by P. parvum and R. spectabilis and in addition P. parvum contained significant concentrations of glucose. Sucrose was not detected in the algal extracts. Proline was an insignificant osmoticum in all the algae. Increases of the media NaCl concentration led to the uptake and accumulation of K+ in T. chui and Prasinocladus, with smaller increases of Na+ and Cl- . The intracellular K+ concentrations in the prasinophyte algae were about five times greater than those of Na+ . The inorganic cations Na+ and K+ , and their accompanying anions, and the organic solutes found could largely account for the osmotic balance of T. chui and Prasinocladus. The inorganic ions in P. parvum and R. spectabilis were not determined.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D M J Dickson
- Universität Bremen, Fachbereich Biologie, NW2, Leobenerstrasse, D-2800 Bremen 33, Federal Republic of Germany
| | - G O Kirst
- Universität Bremen, Fachbereich Biologie, NW2, Leobenerstrasse, D-2800 Bremen 33, Federal Republic of Germany
| |
Collapse
|