An examination of the relationship between conduct problems and depressive symptoms comorbidity and temperament among elementary school children

Although the comorbidity between conduct problems (CP) and depressive symptoms (DS) is associated with a host of negative outcomes, the factors, such as temperament, that might explain this comorbidity in school-aged boys and girls are poorly understood. This study compared elementary school children presenting co-occurring CP and DS to children with DS only, CP only, and those with low-level symptoms on temperament dimensions, and explored the moderating role of child sex in the associations. Participants are 487 children (M = 8.38 years, SD = 0.92, 52.2% girls) divided into four groups (CP + DS, DS only, CP only, control). Findings suggest that boys with CP and DS presented a lower level of fear than boys with DS and boys from the control group. They also presented higher levels of activity than boys with DS. Girls with CP and DS presented lower levels of fear than girls with DS, lower levels of approach and activity than girls with CP, and higher levels of shyness than girls from the control group. These findings suggest that temperament may discriminate children with comorbid CP and DS from those presenting only CP or DS.

"It Is Scary, but Then I Just Do It Anyway": Children's Experiences and Concerns about Risk and Challenge during Loose Parts Play

Children's risky play opportunities depend on supervising adults' attitudes and the play environment. The possibilities to engage in risk-taking outdoor play for children have seriously decreased over the last few decades, due to safety concerns and adults' preoccupation with protection. In response to this shift, research has increasingly focused on influencing factors on professional attitudes toward risk-taking in children's play. However, children's perspective on risky play is underrepresented in the recent literature. This study generates awareness of children's risky play preferences and interests to help professional caretakers hone their facilitating role. We explored children's notions of risk and challenge in play during a loose parts intervention stimulating risky play and facilitated by after-school childcare practitioners. A thematic analysis examined observations, informal conversations, and roundtable talks with children about their risky play experiences. Children describe their risk-taking in play as experimental and daring. The findings report on children's general views on risky play, their play experiences with loose parts, their real-life risky play experiences, and their opinions on the role of practitioners. By relating the results to risky play research and self-determination theory, this study offers insight into children's innate needs. Taking risks on their own terms gives children a sense of self-confidence and mastery, and forces them into new relationships with other children and guiding adults. Consequently, children fulfill the three universal needs of self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Lifestyle Pathways Affecting Children's Mental Health in Japan during the COVID-19 Pandemic

The recent prolonged COVID-19 pandemic has worsened the daily lives of preschoolers and elementary school children worldwide. Although these changes may have affected their mental health, the full picture still remains unknown. Since March 2020, Japan has intermittently experienced several COVID-19 waves. This survey was conducted between February and March 2022. In this study, we investigated the pathways by which specific lifestyle factors (such as exercise, sleep, diet, and life skills) affect physical/psychosocial health (PPH) in 1183 preschoolers (3-5 years old) and 3156 elementary school children (6-11 years old) in Toyama Prefecture, Japan. These pathways were examined using a path analysis. Consequently, "life skills" was found to be the factor most strongly associated with PPH in both preschoolers and elementary school children (p < 0.001). Furthermore, it was associated with the physical activity score and with PPH via physical activity. Moreover, both boys' and girls' mental health declined with age among elementary school children (p < 0.001). The results of the current study may be helpful for early interventions (around the start of elementary school) at home and at school to improve children's mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Neighborhood Socioeconomic Characteristics Associated with the COVID-19 Incidence in Elementary School Children: An Ecological Study in Osaka City, Japan

We aimed to determine whether neighborhood socioeconomic characteristics are associated with the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) incidence in elementary school children and, if so, the associated characteristics. We obtained data on the number of infected children from 282 public elementary schools and the socioeconomic characteristics of each school district in Osaka City, Japan. We examined associations between these variables through negative binomial regression analyses. The proportion of employment in the wholesale and retail trade industry and the college graduation rate were significantly positively and negatively associated, respectively, with the total number of COVID-19-infected children. It was discovered that percentages of employment in the accommodation and food service industries in Wave 2, wholesale and retail trade industries after Wave 3, and healthcare and social assistance industries in Wave 5 were significantly positively associated with the number of infected children; likewise, the college graduation rate in Wave 5 was significantly negatively associated with the number of infected children. Our findings provide insight into the relevant and important areas of focus for public health policymakers and practitioners to ensure reduced disparities in COVID-19 infection rates.

Success Rate of Swept-Source Optical Coherence Tomography Biometry of Eyes of Elementary School Students

PURPOSE

To determine the success rate of swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) biometry (OA-2000) in elementary school students.

METHODS

This was a prospective observational longitudinal study of 115 right eyes of elementary school students who were 8- to 9-years-old at the initial examination. Biometric measurements of the eyes were performed annually for three years, viz., during the third, fourth, and fifth grades. The success rates of obtaining data from optical biometric measurements of the axial length (AL), central corneal thickness (CCT), anterior chamber depth (ACD), lens thickness (LT), pupillary diameter (PD), corneal diameter (CD), and corneal curvature (CC) were determined.

RESULTS

The AL, CCT, and CC could be measured in all images at the three measurement times in all subjects. The success rate of the measurements of the ACD was 92.2% in the third grade and 100% in the fourth and fifth grade. The LT was successfully measured in 88.7% in the third grade, 99.1% in the fourth grade, and 100% in the fifth grade. The PD was successfully measured in 100% of the third grade, 96.0% of the fourth grade, and 100% in the fifth grade. The CD was successfully measured in 84.3% in the third grade, 66% in the fourth grade, and 100% in the fifth grade.

CONCLUSION

SS-OCT can obtain accurate measures of all ocular parameters in the primary school students with high success rates. However, care should be taken especially in analyzing the ACD, LT, PD, and CD because errors can occur in some cases.

Interview-Based Qualitative Descriptive Study on Risk Factors of School Withdrawal among Elementary School Children

With increasing school refusal among elementary school children, we qualitatively examined the associated factors. Elementary school teachers underwent semi-structured interviews, and the data generated were analyzed using SCAT. We conducted interviews with 27 teachers (18 men, nine women) responsible for children refusing to attend school. We analyzed verbatim transcripts of the interviews and abstracted six constructs for school refusal: underdeveloped interpersonal skills; families having difficulty in supporting their children to attend school; low self-esteem; diverse views on school refusal; tenuous relationships among local community members; and an environment where games and media are easily accessible. Children refusing to attend school may be unable to relate well to other people owing to underdeveloped interpersonal skills, and they may have low self-esteem. Regarding the home environment of children who are not positive about school life, living in families having difficulty in supporting their children to attend school may make the children less likely to do so. Because of tenuous relationships with local community members, there has been a decline in the involvement of people around children other than family members in encouraging school attendance. Recently, diverse views on school refusal have been accepted; increasingly, parents and children are likely to choose to spend time outside school. An environment in which games and media are easily accessible may make it easy to relate to other people without attending school, undermining the need for school attendance.

Factors affecting masticatory performance during the mixed dentition period

BACKGROUND

During the mixed dentition period, masticatory performance may temporarily decline as deciduous teeth are replaced by permanent teeth. This may lead to an insufficient intake of chewy foods.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to clarify the characteristics of factors that affect masticatory performance during the dentition exchange period.

METHODS

The participants were 229 students in grades 4-6 who were in the lateral dentition exchange period. Shearing performance (SP) was evaluated using gummy jelly, and mixing performance (MP) was evaluated using color-changing gum. The chewing rate, occlusal force and area, number of teeth, Hellman's tooth age, Rohrer index, grip strength, and walking speed were also evaluated. The χ² test, Mann-Whitney test, Spearman's rank correlation coefficient, and a generalized linear model were used for statistical analysis.

RESULTS

SP/MP showed a significant positive correlation with occlusal force, occlusal contact area, and chewing rate for gummy jelly and gum but there was a difference in the strength of the correlation between boys and girls. Chewing rate for gummy jelly and gum showed a significant relationship with both SP and MP, suggesting that masticatory performance is higher with slower chewing. Maximum occlusal force was selected as a significant independent variable for SP, and Rohrer index was selected as a significant independent variable for MP. When the occlusal force was higher and the Rohrer index was lower, the masticatory performance tended to be higher.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that masticatory performance during the dentition exchange period is higher with slower chewing and a stronger occlusal force, which may be related to obesity.

Does the Stereotypicality of Mothers' Occupation Influence Children's Communal Occupational Aspirations and Communal Orientation?

Career development is a lifelong process that starts in infancy and is shaped by a number of different factors during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Even though career development is shaped through life, relatively little is known about the predictors of occupational aspirations in childhood. Therefore, in the present work we investigate how the stereotypicality of a mother’s occupation (female-dominated/communal vs. non-female-dominated/agentic) influences her young child’s communal occupational aspirations and communal orientation. We conducted two studies with young children. Study 1 included 72 mother–child dyads recruited from childcare centers in Northern Norway (children’s age range: 4½–6 years). Study 2 included 106 mother–child dyads recruited from Norwegian elementary schools (children’s age range: 6 to 13 years). Results from Study 1 showed that the stereotypicality of mothers’ occupation was related to their children’s communal occupational aspirations and children’s communal orientation. In contrast to our predictions and results from Study 1, the stereotypicality of mothers’ occupation was not significantly related to children’s communal occupational aspirations nor their communal orientation in Study 2. In both studies, we found no relationship between mothers’ gender attitudes or share of child care and children’s communal occupational aspirations. The results are discussed in terms of parents’ influence on children’s development of occupational aspirations.

Co-development of aggression in elementary school children: The predictive roles of victimization experiences

Aggression among peers is a common and serious problem in school-age children. Physical, relational, and cyber aggression often occur simultaneously but may exhibit heterogeneous developmental patterns. We aimed to identify heterogeneous co-developmental patterns of physical, relational, and cyber peer aggression and to investigate the contributions of victimization experiences to co-developmental trajectories. Participants were 2869 elementary school students (56.2% boys), initially in fourth grade (M_age  = 10.51 years) in China. Longitudinal data on peer aggression were collected from participants semiannually for 2 years. Data on victimization experiences were collected in the initial measurement wave. Parallel process latent curve growth modeling produced four co-developmental trajectories of peer aggression: High Desisting group, Moderate-Increasing group, Moderate-Physical and Relational Aggression group, and Low Stable group. Multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed that childhood emotional abuse, psychological maltreatment by teachers, as well as physical peer victimization, and cyber peer victimization, served as risk factors for severe co-developmental trajectories. The findings highlight the co-development of physical, relational, and cyber aggression. The identification of risk factors for co-developmental trajectories points to the need for continued monitoring and protection from ongoing victimization experiences in the family and school settings to prevent or ameliorate aggressive behavior.

"COVID-19 in Trials and Tribulations" Project: A Self-Regulation-Based Support Response for Confined Families through Social Networks

The COVID-19 pandemic has placed today's society in an unprecedented scenario. During Portugal's first home confinement period (March-July 2020), the online-based "COVID-19 in Trials and Tribulations" project was implemented to support families with school-aged children. The project was grounded on the self-regulation framework and delivered through Facebook^® and Instagram^® pages. Being responsive to ongoing developments of the pandemic, activities were conveyed in two phases. Phase 1 occurred during lockdown (school was suspended). Phase 2 occurred while students were enrolled in at-distance (online) school. The present study aimed to examine the reach of the project, while examining the content and format of delivery that generated the most engagement among the users (4500 Facebook^® effective followers; 1200 Instagram^® effective followers) during the confinement period. Results showed that, at the individual page level, Facebook^® had higher reach indicators compared to Instagram^®, except for video. At the Facebook^® post level, followers and users showed more engagement with the page prior to the at-distance schooling phase; however, videos still generated engagement (p = 0.002). Both the post type (p < 0.01) and frequency (p < 0.001) of publication were suggested to be good predictors of engagement. The information gathered will help design and inform future interventions that may be implemented as new lockdowns are set in place.

Monounsaturated Fat Intake Was Associated with Lower Abdominal Obesity but Poor Dietary Quality Remains in Elementary School Children from Northwest Mexico

Overweight and obesity in Mexican elementary school children increased ten percentage points in the last 30 years; one of the factors attributed is inadequate dietary quality. The objective of this study was to evaluate the association of monounsaturated fat intake with abdominal obesity and nutrient intake and obesity and overweight with dietary quality of elementary school children from Northwest Mexico. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 218 first grade elementary school children. A socioeconomic survey and two nonconsecutive 24-HR were applied, and anthropometric measurements were taken. Dietary quality was evaluated and classified as: healthy, medium and poor. Children consumed fewer servings of fruits, vegetables, legumes, dairy products and water than recommended by the Mexican food guidelines. A negative association was found among monounsaturated fat intake and abdominal obesity (p = .032). Only 1.4% of the children presented healthy dietary quality, 44.5% showed a medium dietary quality, and 54.1% had poor dietary quality. Poor dietary quality was associated with a lower intake of fiber (p = .002), protein (p = .002), potassium (p = .001) and vitamin E (p = .002). Elementary school children from Northwest Mexico have inadequate dietary quality that compromises their nutritional and health status, while monounsaturated fat intake could be a protective factor for abdominal obesity.

Physical Activity Levels of 1053 Omani 4th Grade Children: The Importance of Gender and Sport Team Participation in Achieving 60 Minutes of Daily Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity

Sufficient daily physical activity is associated with many positive mental, physical, and societal benefits in children. Unfortunately, most children worldwide do not achieve recommended levels of daily physical activity (PA), and a majority of evidence is from Western countries and based on subjective measures. This study examined the prevalence and correlates of objectively measured PA levels among Omani children in 2017 (pre-pandemic). A two-stage cluster sampling was used to recruit the 4th grade children across five regions of Oman. A final analytic sample included 1053 children (504 boys, 549 girls) with a mean age of 9.21 years old. PA was objectively measured using a wrist-worn Polar Active Watch during three consecutive school days. Screen-based sedentary behaviors and other PA-related behaviors were subjectively measured. On average, boys were less sedentary and more active, with a greater likelihood of meeting current recommendations when compared with girls. The self-reported time spent in screen-based sedentary behaviors was relatively low for both boys and girls and was not associated with PA; however, sports team participation was associated with a greater likelihood of meeting the current recommendation. The present study provides empirical data on objectively measured PA in Omani children. The gender disparities concerning daily PA, including sports team participation, should receive further attention.

Using the Veggie Meter in Elementary Schools to Objectively Measure Fruit and Vegetable Intake: A Pilot Study

Self-reported fruit and vegetable (FV) consumption in children has limitations that could be overcome with objective measures that are easy to implement. The Veggie Meter (VM) is a non-invasive portable device that measures skin carotenoid levels, a concentration biomarker of usual FV intake. While VM has been used to measure FV consumption in adults, few studies have explored its use in elementary school settings. Designing research studies using the VM with elementary school-age children requires an understanding of how well this device can be used in a school setting and of the distribution of VM scores in this population. We used VM to measure skin carotenoids in a diverse sample of 143 elementary school children who also answered commonly asked questions about consumption frequency of FV the previous day. Multivariable regression was used to assess the independent association of demographic variables with VM scores. VM scores were also compared with student-reported FV intake. There was a weak but statistically significant correlation between reported frequency of total vegetable consumption the previous day and observed VM scores (r = 0.174, p = 0.042). This study provides an example of the successful use of the VM in a school setting to collect an objective measure of FV intake and provides important description of data that can inform future studies.

Development of Nutrition Learning Models for Elementary School Children in Kendari

A nutrition learning model themed "Makananku Sehat dan Bergizi" was aimed for fourth-grade students of elementary school who used the K13 Curriculum K13 that was developed in 2013. The model accommodated the old version of nutrition concept and they were delivered withconventional model. This study aimed to design a new learning model and to discover effect of themodel on nutritional knowledge and behavior of elementary school children in Kendari. Thisstudy was a quasi experimental study using one group with pre-post test design. This study was held in 2017 in Puuwatu district, Kendari. The subjects were 15 fourth-grade teachers and 60 elementaryschool students from SD 05 Mandonga. Data related to knowledge and behavior of the students werecollected and analyzed. The pre- and post-nutrition learning models were analyzed by interview using a questionnaire. Data were statistically tested using paired t-test. Learning model that was developedwas named Model Pembelajaran Gizi Kontekstual or CTL (Contextual Teaching and Learning). There was significant improvement in terms of nutritional knowledge and behavior of the studentsbefore and after introduction to a song titled Kebiasaan Makanku and to a flipchart themed Mengenal Jenis dan Manfaat Makanan. There is a need for nutrition education for elementaryschool teachers, especially for the fourth grade. Thus, teachers would have good knowledge onnutrition and therefore, they could use it to educate their students. Eventually, it would helpimplementation of CTL model.

Effects of a Classroom-Based Stress Management Program by Cognitive Reconstruction for Elementary School Students

Background

The present study evaluates the effects of a classroom-based universal program for stress management among elementary school students.

Methods

The participating children (aged 11-12 years) were assigned to either an intervention (n = 172) or a control group (n = 100). The program involved one 45-minute session during school hours. The program taught students about cognitive distortions and trained them using cognitive reconstruction. Cognitive distortions were characterized so that children could easily understand them. Students were asked to complete the Children's Stress Response Test, comprised of five questions about self-efficacy about cognitive reconstruction before and after the program, to assess the program's effects.

Results

The results as observed in the intervention group were as follows: (a) stress responses decreased, (b) self-efficacy in the awareness about one's feelings and thinking improved, (c) understanding how thinking affects feelings was prompted, (d) self-efficacy to review one's thinking improved when they felt uncomfortable, and (e) self-efficacy to change one's negative thinking to adaptive thinking improved.

Conclusion

These results suggest that the program was useful for reducing stress responses and improving self-efficacy in cognitive reconstruction among children.

Factors Associated With Media Addiction in Korean Elementary School Children

The aim of this study was to identify the prevalence of media addiction and its associated factors in elementary school children based on the problem behavior theory. This cross-sectional study was a secondary data analysis using national data from the 10th Panel Study on Korean Children 2017, which included 1,078 families of third-grade students (8-9 years of age). Descriptive statistics were used to examine the prevalence of media addiction, and logistic regression analysis was conducted to identify factors associated with media addiction. Prevalence of media addiction was 22.91% in this sample. Media addiction was significantly associated with general characteristics (gender, education level of mother, and time spent without parents), socialization (media use time), factors in the personal system (happiness), and factors in the perceived-environment system (parenting style). More comprehensive, tailored education may prevent elementary school children's media addiction. In addition, parents should participate in media addiction education with their children.

Improvement of Attention in Elementary School Students through Fixation Focus Training Activity

The attentional problems of school children are a crucial topic due to abundant information in this digital era. There are five attention dimensions for children: focused attention, sustained attention, selective attention, alternating attention, and divided attention. Focused training is a traditional method of improving attention ability. Subjects are required to focus on a fixed point for an extensive period without blinking and to perceive small objects as large. This study investigates which types of attention indicators are influenced by focus training. Eighty-two grade five and six elementary school students (45 experiment group, 37 control group) were involved. The experiment group underwent focus training for 12 weeks. The training was conducted once per week, and the Attention Scales for Elementary School Children were used before and after the training to examine the children's attention. The percentile rank scores of five attention dimensions and the total attention scale were evaluated. The results gave difference data, defined as post-test results minus the pretest results, where significant differences occurred for the total scale (p < 0.05), focused attention (p < 0.05), and selective attention (p < 0.01). Participants also noted that the training helped them improve concentration during school lessons (54.15%), fall asleep (29.1%), and relax the body (8.4%).

Elevated blood pressure and its relationship with bodyweight and anthropometric measurements among 8-11-year-old Indonesian school children

Objective: Increased prevalence of elevated blood pressure in children and adolescents was associated with increased body weight and measures. Also, prevalence of elevated blood pressure varies between countries. This study is to investigate the prevalence of elevated blood pressure in Indonesian children and its relationship with bodyweight and anthropometric measures. Methods: This cross-sectional study involved 1010 elementary students aged 8 - 12 years (479 girls, 531 boys). The anthropometric measures and blood pressure were assessed. Elevated blood pressure (EBP) was determined if at the 90^th percentile or above for gender, age, and height. Independent t-test, Chi-square, Pearson correlation, and multivariate logistic regression were applied. Significance was determined at p<0.05. Results: Overall prevalence of EBP was 28.8% (35.9% in girls, 22.4% in boys). BMI, waist circumference (WC), waist to height ratio (WHtR), and abdominal skinfold had significant correlation with EBP. Elevated BP was higher in overweight and obesity than in normoweight (60.5% vs 39.5%, p=0.00). In girls, the OR of EBP for overweight and obesity were 2.33 (95% CI 1.40-3.87, p=0.03) and 3.44 (95% CI 1.98-5.99, p=0.00) whereas in boys were 4.26 (95% CI 2.20-8.28, p=0.00) and 8.82 (95% CI 5.10-15.38, p=0.00). Conclusions: Prevalence of EBP in Indonesian school children aged 8 - 11 years was higher and more prevalent in overweight/ obesity and in girls. Anthropometric measures were correlated with EBP.

Investigation of Microenvironmental Exposures to Particle-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons for Elementary School Children

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are formed when organic matters incompletely combust and get distributed into the air in the form of vapor or the particular phase of absorption or condensation on the surface of respirable particles. Certain PAHs are considered as carcinogenic and mutagenic, and are primarily associated with the particulate phase. Therefore, the characterization of exposure to particle-bound PAHs (p-PAHs) is critical to assessing the health risks in our daily life. A panel study was conducted during the years 2004 and 2005 to assess microenvironmental exposures to p-PAHs for elementary school children living in Taipei metropolitan area. During the study, integrated filter samples were collected by a dust monitor (model 1.108, Grimm) for 17 p-PAH species analysis using gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The sampling durations were five days. Overall, 52 samples for children's microenvironmental exposures were included in the data analysis. Results showed that geometric mean (GM) levels (and geometric standard deviation) of p-PAH exposures were 4.443 (3.395) ng/m³ for children. The top three highest proportions of p-PAH components were indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene (IND) (21.7%), benzo[g,h,i]perylene (BghiP) (18.5%), and dibenz[a,h]anthracene (DBA) (9.1%), all of which are 5- or 6-ring p-PAHs. In addition, results from diagnostic ratios and principal component analysis (PCA) found that traffic pollution, incense burning, and cooking emission were the major p-PAH exposure sources for children. The total benzo[a]pyrene equivalent (BaPeq) concentration was 1.07 ± 0.80 ng/m³ (mean ± standard deviation), with a GM of 0.84 ng/m³. The GM value of the inhalation carcinogenic risk was 7.31 × 10^-5 with the range of 2.23 × 10^-5 to 3.11 × 10^-4, which was higher than the U.S. Environmental Protection Administration guideline limit of 10^-6. DBA accounted for 45.1% of the excess cancer risk, followed by benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) (33.5%) and IND (10.7%). In conclusion, the current study demonstrated that inhalational cancer risk due to the p-PAH exposures for children is not negligible, and more efficient technical and management policies should be adopted to reduce the PAH pollutant sources.

Effects of an extracurricular science intervention on elementary school children's epistemic beliefs: A randomized controlled trial

Background

Further developing students’ thinking about knowledge and knowing in science (epistemic beliefs) is considered a normative goal of science education in many countries around the world, even for elementary‐school‐aged children.

Aims

The goal of the present study was to introduce and evaluate a new intervention in science education aimed at developing children's epistemic beliefs, epistemic curiosity, and investigative interests. The intervention included an inquiry‐based learning approach as well as reflections on epistemic issues because these methods are currently seen as most promising for fostering students’ epistemic beliefs.

Sample

Data were collected from 65 elementary school children in Grades 3 and 4 (58.46% boys, age: M = 8.73, SD = 0.60) who participated in a voluntary extracurricular STEM enrichment programme in south‐west Germany.

Methods

We investigated the effectiveness of the intervention by applying a randomized block design with a treated control group and repeated measures. The effectiveness of the intervention was analysed via multiple linear regression analyses.

Results

The results indicated that the children assigned to the intervention developed more sophisticated epistemic beliefs and a higher level of epistemic curiosity than the children assigned to the control condition. No intervention effects were found on investigative interests.

Conclusions

The results provide initial evidence for the effectiveness of the intervention and demonstrate that it is possible to improve epistemic beliefs among elementary school children in Grades 3 and 4. The study provides a starting point for understanding how young children develop epistemic beliefs.

Changes in Quality of Life in Elementary School Children-The Health Oriented Pedagogical Project (HOPP)

Background: Quality of life (QoL) studies may provide information of change in health status in the population. Few studies have followed up previous cross-sectional studies to investigate any change in the QoL status of healthy children. The aim of the current study is to compare QoL in children 6–12 years old in two large cross-sectional studies of healthy children completed a decade apart. Methods: In the current study children and parents from nine elementary schools (n = 2816) were included in a cross-sectional study investigating children’s QoL. Using the Life Quality in Children and Adolescents (ILC), completed by both children and parents, the global QoL-score was estimated for 2297 children and 1639 parental reports. These results were compared to a similar study performed in 2004. The scores from both studies were divided into categories of below average, average and above average QoL. The percentage change of QoL between the two studies is presented. Results: Our results show that parents report that more children have below and above average QoL in 2015 compared to 2004. In contrast, more children scored in the average and above average QoL category in 2015 than in 2004. Conclusion: Parents reported lower QoL and children higher QoL in 2015 compared to 2004.

Network Structure Predicts Changes in Perception Accuracy of Social Relationships

The goal of this study was to test how changes in perception accuracy of affiliative networks (i.e., the ability to accurately identify who affiliates with whom) are related to an important structural feature of peer groups- the likelihood of children to affiliate with mutual partners (transitivity). Data from three longitudinal samples (two from elementary school children and one from young adolescents; N = 257, 618 observations) show that children and adolescents in classrooms with a higher proportion of transitive relationships are better at perceiving who affiliates with whom, and that increases in transitivity associate with increases in perception accuracy. This is the first study to show that structural features of peer groups relate with individual perceptions of affiliative relationships, providing further evidence that these features have an important role in promoting individual adaptation and supporting previous suggestions that classroom-variables play a role in fostering accurate perceptions of social relationships.

Gender Differences in How Family Income and Parental Education Relate to Reading Achievement in China: The Mediating Role of Parental Expectation and Parental Involvement

The impact of social economic status (SES) on children's academic outcomes has been well documented. However, the mechanisms underlying this relationship remain poorly understood. Furthermore, the process by which SES relates to academic achievement needs to be studied separately for boys and girls. Using a sample of 598 Chinese children (299 boys, 299 girls) in grades 4 to 6 and their parents, this study examined the process of how family SES, specifically family income and parental education, indirectly relates to children's reading achievement through parental expectation and parental involvement and whether this process differs between boys and girls. The results revealed that parental expectation and specific parental involvement behaviors played critical mediating roles between family SES and reading achievement. Moreover, the exact nature of these links differed by the gender of children. For boys, both the effect of parental education and the effect of family income were partially mediated by parental expectation and parent-child communication orderly. For girls, the effect of parental education was partially mediated by three separate pathways: (1) home monitoring; (2) parent-child communication; and (3) parental expectation followed by parent-child communication, while the effect of family income was fully mediated by parent-child communication. These findings suggest a process through which SES factors are related to children's academic development and identify a context under which these associations may differ. The practical implications of these findings are discussed, along with possible future research directions.

Food-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis in Japanese elementary school children

BACKGROUND

In 2012, we clarified that the prevalence of food-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis (FDEIA) was 0.018% in junior-high students in Yokohama, Japan. Furthermore, although different from FDEIA, one student who had completed oral immunotherapy developed anaphylaxis during exercise after eating causative food. There have been few large-scale epidemiological studies of FDEIA, however, in elementary school children, therefore we conducted an epidemiological study in elementary school children in Yokohama to clarify the frequency and characteristic of FDEIA.

METHODS

We sent a questionnaire regarding the occurrence of FDEIA to all 348 public elementary school nurses in Yokohama. We also compared the results with those for junior-high school that we previously reported. We excluded those children with a past history of immediate food allergy who had achieved desensitization status after oral immunotherapy, from FDEIA, and instead defined them as having desensitization status and exercise-induced anaphylaxis (DEIA).

RESULTS

Of 348 school nurses, 317 responded (91.1%). Overall, eight of 170 146 children were diagnosed with FDEIA, which was significantly lower than the prevalence in junior-high school students (0.0047% vs 0.018%, P = 0.0009). The causative foods were wheat (n = 4), and soy, fruit, crustaceans, and squid (n = 1 each). Four children had DEIA and the causative foods were wheat and milk (n = 2 each). Multiple episodes occurred in five children with FDEIA and in three children with DEIA.

CONCLUSIONS

FDEIA was far less common in elementary school than in junior-high school, and wheat was the major causative food. The new appearance of DEIA was notable. Decreasing episode recurrence remains an issue that needs to be resolved.

Executive Function, Behavioral Self-Regulation, and School Related Well-Being Did Not Mediate the Effect of School-Based Physical Activity on Academic Performance in Numeracy in 10-Year-Old Children. The Active Smarter Kids (ASK) Study

Inconsistent findings exist for the effect of school-based physical activity interventions on academic performance. The Active Smarter Kids (ASK) study revealed a favorable intervention effect of school-based physical activity on academic performance in numeracy in a subsample of 10-year-old elementary schoolchildren performing poorer at baseline in numeracy. Aiming to explain this finding, we investigated the mediating effects of executive function, behavioral self-regulation, and school related well-being in the relation between the physical activity intervention and child's performance in numeracy. An ANCOVA model with latent variable structural equation modeling was estimated using data from 360 children (the lower third in academic performance in numeracy at baseline). The model consisted of the three latent factors as mediators; executive function, behavioral self-regulation, and school related well-being. We found no mediating effects of executive function, behavioral self-regulation or school related well-being in the relationship between the ASK intervention and academic performance in numeracy (p ≥ 0.256). Our results suggest that the effect of the intervention on performance in numeracy in the present sample is not explained by change in executive function, behavioral self-regulation, or school related well-being. We suggest this finding mainly could be explained by the lack of effect of the intervention on the mediators, which might be due to an insufficient dose of physical activity. Trial registration: Clinicaltrials.gov registry, trial registration number: NCT02132494.

Perception Accuracy of Affiliative Relationships in Elementary School Children and Young Adolescents

There has been a rapid growth of studies focused on selection and socialization processes of peer groups, mostly due to the development of stochastic actor-based models to analyze longitudinal social network data. One of the core assumptions of these models is that individuals have an accurate knowledge of the dyadic relationships within their network (i.e., who is and is not connected to whom). Recent cross-sectional findings suggest that elementary school children are very inaccurate in perceiving their classmates' dyadic relationships. These findings question the validity of stochastic actor-based models to study the developmental dynamics of children and carry implications for future research as well as for the interpretation of past findings. The goal of the present study was thus to further explore the adequacy of the accuracy assumption, analysing data from three longitudinal samples of different age groups (elementary school children and adolescents). Our results support the validity of stochastic actor-based models to study the network of adolescents and suggest that the violation of the accuracy assumption for elementary school children is not as severe as previously thought.

Longitudinal development of subtraction performance in elementary school

A major goal of education in elementary mathematics is the mastery of arithmetic operations. However, research on subtraction is rather scarce, probably because subtraction is often implicitly assumed to be cognitively similar to addition, its mathematical inverse. To evaluate this assumption, we examined the relation between the borrow effect in subtraction and the carry effect in addition, and the developmental trajectory of the borrow effect in children using a choice reaction paradigm in a longitudinal study. In contrast to the carry effect in adults, carry and borrow effects in children were found to be categorical rather than continuous. From grades 3 to 4, children became more proficient in two-digit subtraction in general, but not in performing the borrow operation in particular. Thus, we observed no specific developmental progress in place-value computation, but a general improvement in subtraction procedures. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? The borrow operation increases difficulty in two-digit subtraction in adults. The carry effect in addition, as the inverse operation of borrowing, comprises categorical and continuous processing characteristics. What does this study add? In contrast to the carry effect in adults, the borrow and carry effects are categorical in elementary school children. Children generally improve in subtraction performance from grades 3 to 4 but do not progress in place-value computation in particular.

Latent Factors in Attention Emerge from 9 Years of Age among Elementary School Children

We explored the development of attention among elementary school children. Three hundred and sixty-five primary school children aged 7-12 years completed seven attention tests (alertness, focused attention, divided attention, attentional switching, sustained attention, spatial attention, and supervisory attention). A factor analysis indicated that there was no stable construct of attention among 7- to 8-year-old children. However, from 9 years on, children's attention could be separated into perceptual and executive attention. Notably, however, the attention types included in these two factors differed from those among adults.

The Role of Attention Shifting in Orthographic Competencies: Cross-Sectional Findings from 1st, 3rd, and 8th Grade Students

Attention shifting refers to one core component of executive functions, a set of higher-order cognitive processes that predict different aspects of academic achievement. To date, few studies have investigated the role of attention shifting in orthographic competencies during middle childhood and early adolescence. In the present study, 69 first-grade, 121 third-grade, and 85 eighth-grade students' attention shifting was tested with a computer version of the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS; Zelazo, 2006). General spelling skills and specific writing and spelling strategies were assessed with the Hamburger Writing Test (May, 2002). Results suggested associations between attention shifting and various orthographic competencies that differ across age groups and by sex. Across all age groups, better attention shifting was associated with less errors in applying alphabetical strategies. In third graders, better attention shifting was furthermore related to better general spelling skills and less errors in using orthographical strategies. In this age group, associations did not differ by sex. Among first graders, attention shifting was negatively related to general spelling skills, but only for boys. In contrast, attention shifting was positively related to general spelling skills in eighth graders, but only for girls. Finally, better attention shifting was associated with less case-related errors in eighth graders, independent of students' sex. In sum, the data provide insight into both variability and consistency in the pattern of relations between attention shifting and various orthographic competencies among elementary and middle school students.

Executive Function Buffers the Association between Early Math and Later Academic Skills

Extensive evidence has suggested that early academic skills are a robust indicator of later academic achievement; however, there is mixed evidence of the effectiveness of intervention on academic skills in early years to improve later outcomes. As such, it is clear there are other contributing factors to the development of academic skills. The present study tests the role of executive function (EF) (a construct made up of skills complicit in the achievement of goal-directed tasks) in predicting 5th grade math and reading ability above and beyond math and reading ability prior to school entry, and net of other cognitive covariates including processing speed, vocabulary, and IQ. Using a longitudinal dataset of N = 1292 participants representative of rural areas in two distinctive geographical parts of the United States, the present investigation finds EF at age 5 strongly predicts 5th grade academic skills, as do cognitive covariates. Additionally, investigation of an interaction between early math ability and EF reveals the magnitude of the association between early math and later math varies as a function of early EF, such that participants who have high levels of EF can “catch up” to peers who perform better on assessments of early math ability. These results suggest EF is pivotal to the development of academic skills throughout elementary school. Implications for further research and practice are discussed.

Delivering Knowledge of Stroke to Parents Through Their Children Using a Manga for Stroke Education in Elementary School

BACKGROUND

School-based intervention would be promising to spread stroke knowledge widely. This study aimed to clarify the effectiveness of our new educational aids that were developed for elementary school children to impart information about stroke to children and their parents in 2 different ways: with or without stroke lessons by a neurologist.

METHODS

We enrolled 562 children (aged 11 to 12 years) and their parents (n = 485). The students were divided into 2 groups: 323 received a lesson on stroke by a stroke neurologist without watching an animated cartoon (Group I), and 239 watched an animated cartoon without the lesson (Group II). All of the children took the manga home, and talked about stroke with their parents. Questionnaires on stroke knowledge were administered at baseline (BL), immediately after the lesson (IL), and 3 months (3M) after the lesson.

RESULTS

There were significant increases in the adjusted mean scores for risk factors as well as stroke symptoms at 3M in both groups compared with BL scores, although the children in Group I scored significantly better than those in Group II at IL and 3M (P < .05). In both children and parents, the correct answer rates of the FAST mnemonic at 3M were around 90%, with no significant differences between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Stroke education for elementary school children using our educational aids provided knowledge of stroke symptoms to the children as well as their parents even without lessons on stroke, although a better understanding of stroke was obtained from lessons led by stroke neurologists.

Metacognitive control: Shifting from habitual to agenda processes on item selection during study in elementary school children

BACKGROUND

Like adults, children need to allocate study time and endeavour optimally in order to enhance learning effectiveness.

AIMS

The aim of this study was to investigate the development of shifting from habitual to agenda-based processes on study decisions.

SAMPLE

The participants were 309 children in the second, fourth, and sixth grades.

METHODS

We adopted the research paradigm proposed by Ariel and Dunlosky (2013, Mem. Cognit., 41, 416). In Experiment 1, the students selected items to study either with or without time constraint. In Experiment 2, the students were instructed to select all three items or one item to study per trial.

RESULTS

The results of Experiment 1 showed that for sixth graders, the likelihood of selecting high-value items under the restricted-study-time condition was higher than that under the restricted-total-time condition; second and fourth graders failed to construct an agenda of prioritizing high-reward items for study in the restricted-study-time condition. In Experiment 2, when students were instructed to select one item to study per trial, high-value items were prioritized over items on the left of the array for sixth graders; on the contrary, second and fourth graders seemed to choose item for study arbitrary, although they tend to choose high-value items compared with their choice pattern in no-choice-limit condition.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that children can shift towards agenda-based process when habitual responding cannot maximize reward, and there is an age-related improvement in shifting between grade 4 and grade 6.

A short German Physical-Self-Concept Questionnaire for elementary school children (PSCQ-C): Factorial validity and measurement invariance across gender

Research on children's physical self-concept (PSC) is increasingly recognised as an important field of psychology. However, there is a lack of instruments suitable for younger children at elementary school age. In the present study, a short German 21-item Physical Self-Concept-Questionnaire for children (PSCQ-C) was tested measuring seven specific facets of elementary school children's PSC (strength, endurance, speed, flexibility, coordination, physical appearance, global sport competence). A number of 770 elementary school children aged 8-12 years completed the PSCQ-C. Results showed good psychometric properties and high reliabilities of the seven scales. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the presumed 7-factor model fitted the data best compared to a global 1- and 2-factor model. Also, full measurement invariance was strongly established. Correlations among the seven scales were mainly moderate. Gender differences were suggestive of developmental trends that are consistent with prior studies. These results provide support that the PSCQ-C is a confidential instrument with sound psychometric properties measuring seven specific facets of elementary school children's PSC.

The Relationship between Academic Achievement and the Emotional Well-Being of Elementary School Children in China: The Moderating Role of Parent-School Communication

The relationship between academic achievement and the subjective well-being of elementary school children has received increasing attention. However, previous research on the relationship between these variables has yielded inconsistent conclusions - possibly due to the presence of potential moderating variables. This study investigated the relationship between the academic achievement and the emotional well-being (positive and negative affect) of elementary school children in China and the moderating effect of parent-school communication on this relationship. A total of 419 elementary school students and their parents participated. The elementary students' positive and negative affect, their academic achievement on both midterm and final examinations of the most recent semester, and the frequency of parent-school communication were assessed. Academic achievement of elementary students was positively correlated with positive affect and negatively correlated with negative affect. Parent-school communication significantly moderated this relationship. Regardless of positive or negative affect, the correlation was only significant in the high parent-school communication group (one standard deviation higher than the mean) and in the mean group, whereas in the low parent-school communication group, no association was observed. These results indicate that parental engagement with school impacts both the academic achievements and subjective well-being of children in China.

Validation of a Newly Developed Instrument Establishing Links Between Motivation and Academic Hardiness

The purpose of the study was to establish the reliability, the structural and the convergent validity of the "Dimensions of Academic Hardiness Questionnaire" for late elementary school children. A sample of children (N = 1264) aged 10-12 years completed the questionnaire and the "Athens Coping Scale". Multiple fit indices provided support that the 9-factor model had a good fit to the data. Reliability coefficients ranged from .68 to .83. The study provided also preliminary evidence of convergent validity of the "Dimensions of Academic Hardiness" scores with one theoretically related measure, the "Athens Coping Scale". The results enrich the notion of Academic Hardiness in late elementary school children as the role of awareness and the role of children's previous experiences has been distinguished. The relation between the "Dimensions of Academic Hardiness" and achievement goal orientations in children learning is also noted. These findings are discussed in the context of the relevant literature.

Effect of Physically Active Academic Lessons on Body Mass Index and Physical Fitness in Primary School Children

BACKGROUND

Preventing overweight and improving physical fitness in primary school children is a worldwide challenge, and physically active intervention programs usually come with the cost of academic instruction time. This study aimed to investigate effects of physically active academic lessons on body mass index (BMI) and physical fitness in primary school children.

METHODS

Dutch children attending second- or third-grade class from 12 primary schools (N = 376; 8.1 ± 0.7 years) were randomly assigned to a 22-week intervention program or to the control group. In addition to measuring BMI before and after the intervention, physical fitness was measured with 5 items of the Eurofit test battery, measuring cardiovascular and muscular fitness.

RESULTS

Multilevel analysis showed a significant interaction effect between condition (intervention vs control) and grade (B = -0.47; p < .05). For third-grade children, BMI of the intervention group did not change significantly during the intervention period, whereas a significant increase was found in the control group. No significant main or interaction effects were found for cardiovascular or muscular fitness.

CONCLUSIONS

The current physically active academic lessons had positive effects on BMI in third-grade children, but had no effects on cardiovascular and muscular fitness.

Internal Structure and Development of Keyboard Skills in Spanish-Speaking Primary-School Children With and Without LD in Writing

This study had two purposes: examining the internal structure of the Test Estandarizado para la Evaluación Inicial de la Escritura con Teclado (TEVET; Spanish Keyboarding Writing Test), and analyzing the development of keyboarding skills in Spanish elementary school children with and without learning disabilities (LD) in writing. A group of 1,168 elementary school children carried out the following writing tasks: writing the alphabet in order from memory, allograph selection, word copying, writing dictated words with inconsistent spelling, writing pseudowords from dictation, and independent composition of sentence. For this purpose, exploratory factor analysis for the TEVET was conducted. Principal component analysis with a varimax rotation identified three factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0. Based on factorial analysis, we analyzed the keyboarding skills across grades in Spanish elementary school children with and without LD (i.e., poor handwriters compared with poor spellers, who in turn were compared with mixed compared with typically achieving writers). The results indicated that poor handwriters did not differ from typically achieving writers in phonological processing, visual-orthographic processing, and sentence production components by keyboarding. The educational implications of the findings are analyzed with regard to acquisition of keyboarding skills in children with and without LD in transcription.

Effects of stroke education using an animated cartoon and a manga on elementary school children

BACKGROUND

Stroke education for the youth is expected to reduce prehospital delay by informing the bystander of appropriate action to take and providing knowledge to prevent onset of stroke in future. Previously, we developed effective teaching materials consisting of an animated cartoon and a Manga for junior high school students. The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of our educational materials for stroke education taught by schoolteachers to elementary school children.

METHODS

Using our teaching materials, a 30-minute lesson was given by trained general schoolteachers. Questionnaires on stroke knowledge (symptoms and risk factors) and action to take on identification of suspected stroke symptoms were filled out by school children before, immediately after, and at 3 months after completion of the lesson.

RESULTS

A total of 219 children (aged 10 or 11 years) received the stroke lesson. Stroke knowledge significantly increased immediately after the lesson compared with before (symptoms, P < .001; risk factors, P < .001); however, correct answer rates decreased at 3 months immediately after completion of the lesson (symptoms, P = .002; risk factors, P = .045). The proportion of the number of children calling emergency medical service on identifying stroke symptoms was higher immediately after the lesson than baseline (P = .007) but returned to the baseline at 3 months after the lesson.

CONCLUSIONS

Stroke lesson by schoolteachers using our teaching materials consisting of an animated cartoon and a Manga that was previously used for junior high school students was feasible for elementary school children. However, revision of the materials is required for better retention of stroke knowledge for children.

Impact of language abilities on exact and approximate number skills development: evidence from children with specific language impairment

PURPOSE

Counting and exact arithmetic rely on language-based representations, whereas number comparison and approximate arithmetic involve approximate quantity-based representations that are available early in life, before the first stages of language acquisition. The objective of this study was to examine the impact of language abilities on the later development of exact and approximate number skills.

METHOD

Twenty-eight 7- to 14-year-old children with specific language impairment (SLI) completed exact and approximate number tasks involving quantities presented symbolically and nonsymbolically. They were compared with age-matched (AM) and vocabulary-matched (VM) children.

RESULTS

In the exact arithmetic task, the accuracy of children with SLI was lower than that of AM and VM controls and related to phonological measures. In the symbolic approximate tasks, children with SLI were less accurate than AM controls, but the difference vanished when their cognitive skills were considered or when they were compared with younger VM controls. In the nonsymbolic approximate tasks, children with SLI did not differ significantly from controls. Further, accuracy in the approximate number tasks was unrelated to language measures.

CONCLUSIONS

Language impairment is related to reduced exact arithmetic skills, whereas it does not intrinsically affect the development of approximate number skills in children with SLI.

Prevalence and prediction of overweight and obesity among elementary school students

BACKGROUND

The high rates of childhood overweight and obesity in the United States have generated interest in schools as sites for monitoring body mass index (BMI) information. This study established baseline values for a 5-year longitudinal assessment of BMI of elementary school children and examined variation across the schools, because little is known about factors that affect the distribution of overweight and obesity within school districts.

METHODS

Height and weight measurements were collected on 2317 elementary school children in 1 school district. BMI was calculated using the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's NutStat program. Child characteristics included gender, age, eligibility for free and reduced lunch (proxy for socioeconomic status [SES]), school, grade, and ethnicity/race. Children were grouped into 2 BMI categories, <85th percentile or ≥85th percentile (overweight/obesity). Logistic regression was used to examine potential predictors of overweight/obesity.

RESULTS

Prevalence of ≥85th percentile was 30.9%, 34.4%, 35.3%, 36.4%, 37.1%, and 44.5% for K-5, respectively. Prevalence of ≥85th percentile was highest among Hispanic children. Ethnicity was the strongest predictor of inclusion in the ≥85th percentile category followed by grade and free and reduced lunch eligibility.

CONCLUSION

The data are consistent with the prevalence of overweight/obesity among American children and Hispanic children in particular. District prevalence of overweight/obesity is higher than available state statistics. Most of the BMI variation is accounted for by ethnicity, SES, and grade. The grade effect and high prevalence of overweight/obesity provide a rationale for BMI screening retention at the schools.

A GO intervention program for enhancing elementary school children's cognitive functions and control abilities of emotion and behavior: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Executive function is critical for children's healthy development. We propose an intervention program to enhance children's executive function using the game, GO. Many neuroimaging studies have revealed that playing GO is related to executive function. In addition, previous studies also revealed that executive function can be enhanced by training. We will perform a randomized controlled trial to investigate the effectiveness of a GO intervention group and a control group without intervention.

METHODS/DESIGN

35 elementary school children aged 8 to 10 were recruited from Edogawa elementary school in Tokyo, Japan. They will be randomized into two groups; either the 5-week GO intervention group or no-intervention control group. We will ask the participants of the intervention group to join the GO course which will be held once every week for five weeks (total: six times). In the GO course, the children will be taught GO by the GO masters of the Nihon Ki-in and enjoy it for an hour. Besides the course, the participants will perform GO problems about twenty minutes a day, three times a week during the intervention period. We will use the Stroop task, the digit span, the Raven's colored progressive matrices, the Span-board task, and the Behavioral inhibition/behavioral activation scale for the outcome measures. Outcomes will be measured at a baseline (Assessment 1) and 5 weeks after the intervention program started (Assessment 2). The intervention group will be compared with the control group using one-way analyses of covariance with the difference between Assessment 1 and Assessment 2 measures as dependent variables and pretest scores as covariates.

DISCUSSION

To our knowledge, this study will be the first RCT to investigate the efficacy of a GO intervention program for elementary school children. If this intervention is effective, we will be able to take the next steps in making an educational program to enhance children's executive function and other cognitive abilities using GO. In addition, we further will investigate the transfer effects of the GO intervention program through executive function. We also will investigate neuroplasticity with the GO intervention using neuroimaging.

A study on nutrition knowledge and dietary behavior of elementary school children in Seoul

The purpose of this study was to investigate the nutrition and diet related knowledge, attitude, and behavior of elementary school children in Seoul. The subjects included were 439 (male 236, female 203) elementary school children in the 4th to the 6th grades. The statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS 12.0 program. The average obesity index (OI) was 104.98 and 99.82 for male and female subjects, respectively. The average percentage of underweight, normal, overweight and obese of subjects was 33.7%, 32.8%, 12.3%, and 19.4%, respectively. The percentage of the underweight group of female subjects was higher than that of the male subjects. The percentage of the obese group of male subjects was higher than that of the female subjects. The average score of nutrition knowledge, nutrition attitude and dietary behavior was 6.8, 7.44, and 7.34, respectively. Dietary behavior of male subjects was positively correlated with parents' education levels, monthly household income and nutrition attitude. Dietary behavior of female subjects was positively correlated with monthly household income, nutrition knowledge and nutrition attitude. Dietary behavior of female subjects was positively correlated with obesity index (OI). Proper nutrition education and intervention are required for the improvement of elementary school children's nutrition knowledge, nutrition attitudes and dietary behaviors.

Study on utilization status of internet and needs assessment for developing nutrition education programs among elementary school children

This study was to investigate utilization status of internet, health/nutrition websites among children, and to assess the needs for developing nutrition websites and education programs for children. The survey questionnaire was administered to 5-6th grade students (n=434) at two elementary schools. About 32% used the internet every day while 19.5% used it whenever they needed, showing significant differences in internet usage by gender (p<0.01). Although the subjects used the internet frequently, those who used health/nutrition websites were 23.3%. The purpose of using these sites were mainly 'to obtain health/nutrition information' (55%), 'to get information regarding weight control' (17%). Fifty-six percent of the users were satisfied with the nutrition websites, but only 30% said that they were helpful. The preferred topics in developing nutrition websites were assessment of obesity, exercise methods, weight control methods, nutrition information (e.g., diet for stature growth), dietary assessment and food hygiene. Girls showed more interest in these topics than boys (p<0.05). For school nutrition education, girls showed more interest than boys in topics for cooking snacks (p<0.001) and selecting snacks (p<0.05). In nutrition websites, subjects wanted to have information and game/quiz, as well as getting information using Flash animation. The favorite colors for screen and text were slightly different by gender (p<0.01). In school nutrition education, 89.5% of subjects liked to have activities (e.g., cooking, exercise, game). They also liked materials using computers, video and internet than printed materials. If nutrition education was done at schools, subjects wanted to receive 5.7 times of education per semester on average (mean length: 42.6 min./session). This study suggests that nutrition websites and education programs for children should include the topics such as assessment of obesity or diet, weight control and special information (e.g., diet for growth) as well as general information. In designing nutrition websites and programs, methods including game, quiz, Flash animation and activities (cooking, exercise) could be appropriately used to induce the interest and involvement of children.

Outdoor, indoor, and personal exposure to VOCs in children

We measured volatile organic compound (VOC) exposures in multiple locations for a diverse population of children who attended two inner-city schools in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Fifteen common VOCs were measured at four locations: outdoors (O), indoors at school (S), indoors at home (H), and in personal samples (P). Concentrations of most VOCs followed the general pattern O approximately equal to S < P less than or equal to H across the measured microenvironments. The S and O environments had the smallest and H the largest influence on personal exposure to most compounds. A time-weighted model of P exposure using all measured microenvironments and time-activity data provided little additional explanatory power beyond that provided by using the H measurement alone. Although H and P concentrations of most VOCs measured in this study were similar to or lower than levels measured in recent personal monitoring studies of adults and children in the United States, p-dichlorobenzene was the notable exception to this pattern, with upper-bound exposures more than 100 times greater than those found in other studies of children. Median and upper-bound H and P exposures were well above health benchmarks for several compounds, so outdoor measurements likely underestimate long-term health risks from children's exposure to these compounds.