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Adjei RL, Adomako LAB, Korang-Labi A, Avornyo FK, Timire C, Larbi RO, Kubasari C, Ackon SED, Reid A. Assessing Changes in Bacterial Load and Antibiotic Resistance in the Legon Sewage Treatment Plant between 2018 and 2023 in Accra, Ghana. Trop Med Infect Dis 2023; 8:427. [PMID: 37755889 PMCID: PMC10538159 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed8090427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Wastewater treatment plants are efficient in reducing bacterial loads but are also considered potential drivers of environmental antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In this study, we determined the effect of increased influent wastewater volume (from 40% to 66%) in the Legon sewage treatment plant (STP) on the removal of E. coli from sewage, along with changes in AMR profiles. This before and after study compared E. coli loads and AMR patterns in influent and effluent samples from a published baseline study (January-June 2018) with a follow-up study (March-May 2023). Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) E. coli were measured pre- and post-sewage treatment during the follow-up study. The follow-up study showed 7.4% and 24% ESBL E. coli proportions in influent and effluent, respectively. In both studies, the STP was 99% efficient in reducing E. coli loads in effluents, with no significant difference (p = 0.42) between the two periods. More E. coli resistance to antimicrobials was seen in effluents in the follow-up study versus the baseline study. The increased influent capacity did not reduce the efficiency of the STP in removing E. coli from influent wastewater but was associated with increased AMR patterns in effluent water. Further studies are required to determine whether these changes have significant effects on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond Lovelace Adjei
- Council for Scientific and Industrial Research—Animal Research Institute, Accra P.O. Box AH 20, Ghana; (F.K.A.); (R.O.L.)
| | | | - Appiah Korang-Labi
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra P.O. Box GP 4236, Ghana;
| | - Franklin Kodzo Avornyo
- Council for Scientific and Industrial Research—Animal Research Institute, Accra P.O. Box AH 20, Ghana; (F.K.A.); (R.O.L.)
| | - Collins Timire
- International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (The Union), 2 Rue Jean Lantier, 75001 Paris, France;
| | - Rita Ohene Larbi
- Council for Scientific and Industrial Research—Animal Research Institute, Accra P.O. Box AH 20, Ghana; (F.K.A.); (R.O.L.)
| | - Cletus Kubasari
- Research and Development Division, Kintampo Health Research Centre, Ghana Health Service, Kintampo P.O. Box 200, Ghana;
| | - Stephen E. D. Ackon
- Accra Sewerage Improvement Project, Accra Metro Sewerage Unit, Ministries, Accra P.O. Box MB 201, Ghana
| | - Anthony Reid
- Operational Research Unit (LuxOR), Medical Department, Médecins Sans Frontières Operational Centre, 1050 Bruxelles, Belgium;
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2
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Budd R, Teerlink J, Alaimo C, Wong L, Young TM. Sub-sewershed Monitoring to Elucidate Down-the-Drain Pesticide Sources. Environ Sci Technol 2023; 57:5404-5413. [PMID: 36961760 PMCID: PMC10077586 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c07443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Pesticides have been reported in treated wastewater effluent at concentrations that exceed aquatic toxicity thresholds, indicating that treatment may be insufficient to adequately address potential pesticide impacts on aquatic life. Gaining a better understanding of the relative contribution from specific use patterns, transport pathways, and flow characteristics is an essential first step to informing source control measures. The results of this study are the first of their kind, reporting pesticide concentrations at sub-sewershed sites within a single sewer catchment to provide information on the relative contribution from various urban sources. Seven monitoring events were collected from influent, effluent, and seven sub-sewershed sites to capture seasonal variability. In addition, samples were collected from sites with the potential for relatively large mass fluxes of pesticides (pet grooming operations, pest control operators, and laundromats). Fipronil and imidacloprid were detected in most samples (>70%). Pyrethroids were detected in >50% of all influent and lateral samples. There were significant removals of pyrethroids from the aqueous process stream within the facility to below reporting limits. Imidacloprid and fiproles were the only pesticides that were detected above reporting limits in effluent, highlighting the importance of source identification and control for the more hydrophilic compounds. Single source monitoring revealed large contributions of fipronil, imidacloprid, and permethrin originating from a pet groomer, with elevated levels of cypermethrin at a commercial laundry location. The results provide important information needed to prioritize future monitoring efforts, calibrate down-the-drain models, and identify potential mitigation strategies at the site of pesticide use to prevent introduction to sewersheds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Budd
- Department
of Pesticide Regulation, Surface Water Protection
Program, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento, California95812, United States
| | - Jennifer Teerlink
- Department
of Pesticide Regulation, Surface Water Protection
Program, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento, California95812, United States
| | - Christopher Alaimo
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, California95616, United States
| | - Luann Wong
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, California95616, United States
| | - Thomas M. Young
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, California95616, United States
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3
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Al-Jandal N, AlKhubaizi A, Saeed T, Hajeyah M. Potential Adsorption Affinity of Estrogens on LDPE and PET Microplastics Exposed to Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluents. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2022; 19:16027. [PMID: 36498100 PMCID: PMC9738454 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192316027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) are among the most common pollutants in the environment. Because of their small size, availability, and similarity to natural foods, they are commonly ingested by marine organisms. They can cause health problems in living organisms due to their bioaccumulation potential. It is, therefore, unknown whether endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), in particular estrogens, are capable of adhering to the diverse types of MPs found in water. Two MP polymers (low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and polyethene terephthalate (PET)) that could pose a threat to fish were tested for estrogen adsorption. The adsorption capacity of MP pellets was studied for 30 days in the effluent and influent of a wastewater treatment-plant. A laboratory simulation was conducted to validate the field and laboratory findings. We found that the concentrations of five types of estrogen ((diethylstilbestrol (DES), estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), 17α-ethinyl estradiol (EE2)) were higher in the influent than the effluent streams. LDPE and PET MPs exposed to influent water in the laboratory had higher estrogen levels than wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) pellets. The PET pellets showed the highest adsorption affinity to EE2, while the LDPE pellets showed the highest affinity to E2. As a result, this study provided baseline data to investigate the estrogen adsorption capacity in MPs.
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Gevao B, Uddin S, Krishnan D, Rajagopalan S, Habibi N. Antibiotics in Wastewater: Baseline of the Influent and Effluent Streams in Kuwait. Toxics 2022; 10:toxics10040174. [PMID: 35448435 PMCID: PMC9025492 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10040174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
This study provides baseline information on the concentrations of antibiotics in influent and effluent from two wastewater treatment plants in regular operation in the State of Kuwait. Wastewater samples were collected from the influent and effluent streams of two WWTPs, over four sampling campaigns and analyzed for a broad range of antibiotics. The mean influent concentrations of sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, and cefalexin were 852 ng/L, 672 ng/L, 592 ng/L), and 491 ng/L, respectively, at Umm Al Hayman WWTP. At the Kabd WWTP, the influent concentration of clarithromycin was highest with a mean of 949 ng/L, followed by ciprofloxacin (mean, 865 ng/L), cefalexin (mean, 598 ng/L), and sulfamethoxazole (mean, 520 ng/L). The dominant compounds in the effluent from Umm Al Hayman were sulfamethoxazole (mean, 212 ng/L), ciprofloxacin (mean, 153 ng/L), ofloxacin (mean, 120 ng/L), dimetridazole (mean, 96 ng/L), and metronidazole (mean, 93 ng/L). Whereas, at the Kabd WWTP, the dominant compounds were sulfamethoxazole (mean, 338 ng/L), dimetridazole (mean, 274 ng/L), cefalexin (mean, 213 ng/L), ciprofloxacin (mean, 192 ng/L), and clarithromycin (189 ng/L). The mean influent concentrations of all compounds were higher than those measured in the effluents. The concentrations of antibiotic compounds were not significantly different between the two WWTPs (p > 0.05). The removal efficiencies of the various antibiotics over the four sampling campaigns for the Kabd and Umm Hayman WWTPs ranged between 10.87 and 99.75% and also showed that they were variable and were compound dependent. The data clearly show that the concentrations of antibiotics measured in the influents of both WWTPs were highest in samples collected during the winter-summer (September samples) transition followed by the concentrations measured during the winter-summer (March samples) transition period. This is possibly linked to the increased prescription of these medications to treat infectious diseases and flu prevalent in Kuwait during these periods. This study provides the first reported concentrations of antibiotics in the dissolved aqueous influents and effluents of WWTPs in Kuwait. Additional studies are required to evaluate the environmental impact that antibiotic residues may cause since treated wastewater is used in irrigation, and often there are instances when untreated wastewater is discharged directly into the marine environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bondi Gevao
- Environmental Protection Authority, Freetown 47235, Sierra Leone;
| | - Saif Uddin
- Environment and Life Sciences Research Center, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Safat 13109, Kuwait; (D.K.); (S.R.); (N.H.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Divya Krishnan
- Environment and Life Sciences Research Center, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Safat 13109, Kuwait; (D.K.); (S.R.); (N.H.)
| | - Smitha Rajagopalan
- Environment and Life Sciences Research Center, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Safat 13109, Kuwait; (D.K.); (S.R.); (N.H.)
| | - Nazima Habibi
- Environment and Life Sciences Research Center, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Safat 13109, Kuwait; (D.K.); (S.R.); (N.H.)
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Fitzgerald S, Rossi G, Low AS, McAteer SP, O’Keefe B, Findlay D, Cameron GJ, Pollard P, Singleton PTR, Ponton G, Singer AC, Farkas K, Jones D, Graham DW, Quintela-Baluja M, Tait-Burkard C, Gally DL, Kao R, Corbishley A. Site Specific Relationships between COVID-19 Cases and SARS-CoV-2 Viral Load in Wastewater Treatment Plant Influent. Environ Sci Technol 2021; 55:15276-15286. [PMID: 34738785 PMCID: PMC8577191 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c05029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater based epidemiology (WBE) has become an important tool during the COVID-19 pandemic, however the relationship between SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater treatment plant influent (WWTP) and cases in the community is not well-defined. We report here the development of a national WBE program across 28 WWTPs serving 50% of the population of Scotland, including large conurbations, as well as low-density rural and remote island communities. For each WWTP catchment area, we quantified spatial and temporal relationships between SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater and COVID-19 cases. Daily WWTP SARS-CoV-2 influent viral RNA load, calculated using daily influent flow rates, had the strongest correlation (ρ > 0.9) with COVID-19 cases within a catchment. As the incidence of COVID-19 cases within a community increased, a linear relationship emerged between cases and influent viral RNA load. There were significant differences between WWTPs in their capacity to predict case numbers based on influent viral RNA load, with the limit of detection ranging from 25 cases for larger plants to a single case in smaller plants. SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA load can be used to predict the number of cases detected in the WWTP catchment area, with a clear statistically significant relationship observed above site-specific case thresholds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen
F. Fitzgerald
- The
Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Gianluigi Rossi
- The
Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Alison S. Low
- The
Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Sean P. McAteer
- The
Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Brian O’Keefe
- Scottish
Environment Protection Agency, Strathallan House, Stirling FK9 4TZ, United Kingdom
| | - David Findlay
- Scottish
Environment Protection Agency, Strathallan House, Stirling FK9 4TZ, United Kingdom
| | - Graeme J. Cameron
- Scottish
Environment Protection Agency, Strathallan House, Stirling FK9 4TZ, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Pollard
- Scottish
Environment Protection Agency, Strathallan House, Stirling FK9 4TZ, United Kingdom
| | - Peter T. R. Singleton
- Scottish
Environment Protection Agency, Strathallan House, Stirling FK9 4TZ, United Kingdom
| | - George Ponton
- Scottish
Water, Castle House, 6 Castle Drive, Dunfermline KY11 8GG, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew C. Singer
- UK
Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford OX10 8BB, United Kingdom
| | - Kata Farkas
- School
of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, United Kingdom
- School of
Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Menai Bridge, Anglesey LL59 5AB, United
Kingdom
| | - Davey Jones
- School
of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, United Kingdom
| | - David W. Graham
- School
of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1
7RU, United Kingdom
| | - Marcos Quintela-Baluja
- School
of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1
7RU, United Kingdom
| | - Christine Tait-Burkard
- The
Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - David L. Gally
- The
Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Rowland Kao
- The
Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander Corbishley
- The
Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
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6
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Makuwa S, Tlou M, Fosso-Kankeu E, Green E. Evaluation of Fecal Coliform Prevalence and Physicochemical Indicators in the Effluent from a Wastewater Treatment Plant in the North-West Province, South Africa. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17:E6381. [PMID: 32887228 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17176381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Compliance of the effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to the regulatory standards, which mostly entail the removal/reduction of organic waste and deactivation of the potential microbial pathogens is of great importance. The detection of indicator parameters can be used to determine the effectiveness of a WWTP and the level of compliance with the South African regulatory standards. The performance of the WWTP was assessed by biological, physical and chemical measures in wastewater final effluent. The Escherichia coli ranged from 0 and 2420 count/100 mL in the final effluent. The recorded values for the physicochemical parameters were within the following ranges: pH (7.03-8.49), electrical conductivity (81.63-126.5 mS/m), suspended solids (0.40-20.4 mg/L), ammonia (0-22.15 mg/L), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) (1-73 mg/L), nitrate (0-16.1 mg/L), ortho-phosphate (0-8.58 mg/L) and free chlorine (0-3.21 mg/L). Furthermore, the concentration of toxic heavy metals was recorded to be between 1-10 ug/L for arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury. In conclusion, all the parameters that were evaluated in this study indicate that the studied WWTP is performing in accordance with the prescribed general limits.
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Brose DA, Kumar K, Liao A, Hundal LS, Tian G, Cox A, Zhang H, Podczerwinski EW. A reduction in triclosan and triclocarban in water resource recovery facilities' influent, effluent, and biosolids following the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's 2013 proposed rulemaking on antibacterial products. Water Environ Res 2019; 91:715-721. [PMID: 30859670 DOI: 10.1002/wer.1101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceutical and personal care product compounds (PPCPs) comprise a large and diverse group of chemical compounds, including prescription and over-the-counter drugs and cleaning agents. Although PPCPs in the effluent and biosolids of water resource recovery facilities (WRRFs) are currently not regulated, public interest has led the Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago to monitor for 11 PPCPs in the influent, effluent, and biosolids at its seven WRRFs. In 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a final rule establishing that 19 specific ingredients, including triclosan and triclocarban, were no longer generally recognized as safe and effective, which prohibits companies from marketing soaps as antibacterial if they contain one or more of these ingredients. It was presumed that since the proposed rulemaking in 2013, manufacturers began to remove these active ingredients from their products. Annual monitoring of 11 PPCPs from 2012 to 2017 demonstrated a 71% decrease in triclosan and 72% decrease in triclocarban in per capita influent loading into seven WRRFs. There was a 70% decrease in triclosan and 80% decrease in triclocarban concentrations in biosolids. These declines suggest the FDA rule for the reduction in use of these compounds was effective and resulted in manufacturers removing these ingredients from their products. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Reduction in triclosan and triclocarban per capita influent loading observed from 2012 to 2017. Reduction in triclosan and triclocarban biosolids loading observed from 2012 to 2017. 2016 FDA rulemaking on antimicrobial soaps was effective in removing triclosan and triclocarban from these products. Positive impact on quality of biosolids land applied to farmland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic A Brose
- Monitoring and Research Department, Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Kuldip Kumar
- Monitoring and Research Department, Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Anna Liao
- Monitoring and Research Department, Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | | | - Guanglong Tian
- Monitoring and Research Department, Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Albert Cox
- Monitoring and Research Department, Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Heng Zhang
- Monitoring and Research Department, Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Edward W Podczerwinski
- Monitoring and Research Department, Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
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Edokpayi JN, Odiyo JO, Msagati TAM, Popoola EO. Removal Efficiency of Faecal Indicator Organisms, Nutrients and Heavy Metals from a Peri-Urban Wastewater Treatment Plant in Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2015; 12:7300-20. [PMID: 26132481 PMCID: PMC4515657 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph120707300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Revised: 06/19/2015] [Accepted: 06/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Wastewater treatment facilities are known sources of fresh water pollution. This study was carried out from January to June 2014 to assess the reduction efficiency of some selected contaminants in the Thohoyandou wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). The pH and electrical conductivity of the effluent fell within the South African wastewater discharge guidelines. The WWTP showed the chemical oxygen demand reduction efficiency required by the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) guidelines of 75 mg/L for the months of April and June, although it was below this standard in March and May. Free chlorine concentration varied between 0.26–0.96 mg/L and exceeded the DWA guideline value of 0.25 mg/L. The concentration of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3− N) in the influent and effluent varied between 0.499–2.31 mg/L and 7.545–19.413 mg/L, respectively. The concentration of NO3− N in the effluent complied with DWA effluent discharge standard of 15 mg/L, except in April and May. Phosphate concentrations in the influent and effluent were in the ranges of 0.552–42.646 mg/L and 1.572–32.554 mg/L, respectively. The WWTP showed reduction efficiencies of E. coli and Enterococci during some sampling periods but the level found in the effluent exceeded the recommended guideline value of 1000 cfu/100 mL for faecal indicator organisms in wastewater effluents. Consistent removal efficiencies were observed for Al (32–74%), Fe (7–32%) and Zn (24–94%) in most of the sampling months. In conclusion, the Thohoyandou WWTP is inefficient in treating wastewater to the acceptable quality before discharge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua N Edokpayi
- Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa.
| | - John O Odiyo
- Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa.
| | - Titus A M Msagati
- College of Science, Engineering and Technology, Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability Research Unit, Florida Science Campus, University of South Africa, 1710 Roodepoort, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Elizabeth O Popoola
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Yaba College of Technology, P. M. B. 2011 Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria.
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