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Hannachi C, Egels M, Pannier P, Tatu SO. Tolerance Considerations for MHMIC Manufacturing Process at Millimeter-Wave Band. Sensors (Basel) 2024; 24:2486. [PMID: 38676103 PMCID: PMC11054484 DOI: 10.3390/s24082486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
This paper investigates the manufacturing uncertainties at a 60 GHz millimeter-wave band for the monolithic hybrid microwave integrated circuits (MHMIC) fabrication process. It specifically deals with the implementation tolerances of thin-film gold microstrip transmission lines, titanium oxide thin-layer resistors, microstrip quarter-wavelength radial stubs, and active device implementation using the gold-bonding ribbons. The impacts of these manufacturing tolerances are assessed and experimentally quantified through prototyped MHMIC circuits. This allows us, on one hand, to identify the acceptable amount of dimensional variation enabling reasonable performances. On the other hand, it aims to establish a relationship between the manufacturing tolerances and the circuit parameters to provide more flexibility for the tolerance compensation and accuracy enhancement of the MHMIC fabrication processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaouki Hannachi
- Institut Matériaux Microélectronique Nanosciences de Provence (IM2NP), CNRS, UMR 7334, Aix-Marseille Université, 13000 Marseille, France; (M.E.); (P.P.)
| | - Matthieu Egels
- Institut Matériaux Microélectronique Nanosciences de Provence (IM2NP), CNRS, UMR 7334, Aix-Marseille Université, 13000 Marseille, France; (M.E.); (P.P.)
| | - Philippe Pannier
- Institut Matériaux Microélectronique Nanosciences de Provence (IM2NP), CNRS, UMR 7334, Aix-Marseille Université, 13000 Marseille, France; (M.E.); (P.P.)
| | - Serioja Ovidiu Tatu
- Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), Centre Énergie Matériaux Télécommunications, Montréal, QC H2X 1E3, Canada
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2
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Lin QH, Hou D, Wang L, Chen P, Luo Z. A Millimeter-Wave Broadband Multi-Mode Substrate-Integrated Gap Waveguide Traveling-Wave Antenna with Orbit Angular Momentum. Sensors (Basel) 2024; 24:1184. [PMID: 38400341 PMCID: PMC10893378 DOI: 10.3390/s24041184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Orbit angular momentum (OAM) has been considered a new dimension for improving channel capacity in recent years. In this paper, a millimeter-wave broadband multi-mode waveguide traveling-wave antenna with OAM is proposed by innovatively utilizing the transmitted electromagnetic waves (EMWs) characteristic of substrate-integrated gap waveguides (SIGWs) to introduce phase delay, resulting in coupling to the radiate units with a phase jump. Nine "L"-shaped slot radiate elements are cut in a circular order at a certain angle on the SIGW to generate spin angular momentum (SAM) and OAM. To generate more OAM modes and match the antenna, four "Π"-shaped slot radiate units with a 90° relationship to each other are designed in this circular array. The simulation results show that the antenna operates at 28 GHz, with a -10 dB fractional bandwidth (FBW) = 35.7%, ranging from 25.50 to 35.85 GHz and a VSWR ≤ 1.5 dB from 28.60 to 32.0 GHz and 28.60 to 32.0 GHz. The antenna radiates a linear polarization (LP) mode with a gain of 9.3 dBi at 34.0~37.2 GHz, a l = 2 SAM-OAM (i.e., circular polarization OAM (CP-OAM)) mode with 8.04 dBi at 25.90~28.08 GHz, a l = 1 and l = 2 hybrid OAM mode with 5.7 dBi at 28.08~29.67 GHz, a SAM (i.e., left/right hand circular polarization (L/RHCP) mode with 4.6 dBi at 29.67~30.41 GHz, and a LP mode at 30.41~35.85 GHz. In addition, the waveguide transmits energy with a bandwidth ranging from 26.10 to 38.46 GHz. Within the in-band, only a quasi-TEM mode is transmitted with an energy transmission loss |S21| ≤ 2 dB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiu-Hua Lin
- School of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China; (Q.-H.L.); (D.H.); (L.W.); (P.C.)
| | - Da Hou
- School of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China; (Q.-H.L.); (D.H.); (L.W.); (P.C.)
- Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen 518107, China
| | - Lihui Wang
- School of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China; (Q.-H.L.); (D.H.); (L.W.); (P.C.)
| | - Pengpeng Chen
- School of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China; (Q.-H.L.); (D.H.); (L.W.); (P.C.)
| | - Zhiyong Luo
- School of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China; (Q.-H.L.); (D.H.); (L.W.); (P.C.)
- Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen 518107, China
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3
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Moon I, Kim W, Seo Y, Kahng S. A Metamaterial Surface Avoiding Loss from the Radome for a Millimeter-Wave Signal-Sensing Array Antenna. Sensors (Basel) 2024; 24:1018. [PMID: 38339735 DOI: 10.3390/s24031018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Radar systems are a type of sensor that detects radio signals reflected from objects located a long distance from transmitters. For covering a longer range and a higher resolution in the operation of a radar, a high-frequency band and an array antenna are measures to take. Given a limited size to the antenna aperture in the front end of the radar, the choice of a millimeter-wave band leads to a denser layout for the array antenna and a higher antenna gain. Millimeter-wave signals tend to become attenuated faster by a larger loss of the covering material like the radome, implying this disadvantage offsets the advantage of high antenna directivity, compared to the C-band and X-band ones. As the radome is essential to the radar system to protect the array antenna from rain and dust, a metamaterial surface in the layer is suggested to meet multiple objectives. Firstly, the proposed electromagnetic structure is the protection layer for the source of radiation. Secondly, the metasurface does not disturb the millimeter-wave signal and makes its way through the cover layer to the air. This electromagnetically transparent surface transforms the phase distribution of the incident wave into the equal phase in the transmitted wave, resulting in an increased antenna gain. This is fabricated and assembled with the array antenna held in a 3D-printed jig with harnessing accessories. It is examined in view of S21 as the transfer coefficient between two ports of the VNA, having the antenna alone and with the metasurface. Additionally, the far-field test comes next to check the validity of the suggested structure and design. The bench test shows around a 7 dB increase in the transfer coefficient, and the anechoic chamber field test gives about a 5 dB improvement in antenna gain for a 24-band GHz array antenna.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inyeol Moon
- Department of Information & Telecommunication Engineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea
- Global R&D Center, NISSHA Korea, Inc., 7F, 26, Hwangsaeul-ro 312beon-gil, Bundang-gu, Seongnam-si 13591, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Woogon Kim
- Department of Information & Telecommunication Engineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea
| | - Yejune Seo
- Department of Information & Telecommunication Engineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea
| | - Sungtek Kahng
- Department of Information & Telecommunication Engineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea
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4
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Ijima E, Li K, Hikage T, Nagai A, Murakami Y, Arima T, Ishitake T, Masuda H. Intensity-dependent Temperature Rise Induced by Local Exposure to 26.5 GHz Quasi- Millimeter-Wave in Rat. In Vivo 2023; 37:2092-2099. [PMID: 37652500 PMCID: PMC10500540 DOI: 10.21873/invivo.13306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIM The widespread use of fifth-generation 5G millimeter-waves (MMW) generates concern about potential adverse health effects. The latest international guidelines for MMW exposure adopt an absorbed power density (APD) of 200 W/m2 to avoid a local temperature rise of 5°C in human tissues as an operational adverse health effect threshold. However, because APD is estimated by simulations using human tissue models, it is unknown whether a similar value can be confirmed for living tissues. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between APD and skin temperature rise in vivo, and to validate the estimated values. MATERIALS AND METHODS The rat dorsal skin was locally exposed to a 26.5 GHz quasi-MMW (qMMW) for 18 min using a patch antenna. The qMMW exposure intensities estimated by dosimetry were set to 0-500 W/m2 of APD. The temperatures in the dorsal skin and rectum were simultaneously measured during exposure. RESULTS The qMMW-induced local temperature increase at different sites. The dorsal skin temperature increased by approximately 11.3°C at a maximum intensity of 500 W/m2, but the rectal temperature increased by only 0.6°C, indicating highly localized effects of exposure to rats. A significant correlation was observed between APD and skin temperature rise. The relationship provided a linear regression model, and a temperature rise of less than 5°C was estimated in the skin exposed to 200 W/m2 of APD. CONCLUSION These results suggest that the operational threshold for the MMW exposure guidelines is valid under the present experimental conditions using rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etsuko Ijima
- Department of Environmental Medicine, Kurume University School of Medicine, Fukuoka, Japan;
| | - Kun Li
- Advanced Wireless and Communication Research Center (AWCC), The University of Electro-Communications, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takashi Hikage
- Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Akiko Nagai
- Department of Anatomy, Aichi-Gakuin University School of Dentistry, Aichi, Japan
| | - Yasutaka Murakami
- Graduate School of Information and Engineering, Department of Computer and Network Engineering, The University of Electro-Communications, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takuji Arima
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Faculty of Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Ishitake
- Department of Environmental Medicine, Kurume University School of Medicine, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Masuda
- Department of Environmental Medicine, Kurume University School of Medicine, Fukuoka, Japan
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5
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Morshed KM, Karmokar DK, Esselle KP, Matekovits L. Beam-Switching Antennas for 5G Millimeter-Wave Wireless Terminals. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:6285. [PMID: 37514580 PMCID: PMC10383819 DOI: 10.3390/s23146285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Beam-switching is one of the paramount focuses of 28 GHz millimeter-wave 5G devices. In this paper, a one-dimensional (1D) pattern reconfigurable leaky-wave antenna (LWA) was investigated and developed for wireless terminals. In order to provide a cost-effective solution, a uniform half-width LWA was used. The 1D beam-switching LWA was designed using three feed points at three different positions; by selecting the feeds, the direction of the beam can be switched. The antenna can switch the beam in three different directions along the antenna axis, such as backward, broadside, and forward. The 1D beam-switching antenna was fabricated, and because of the wide beamwidth, the measured radiation patterns can fill 128∘ of space (3 dB coverage), from θ = -64∘ to +64∘ at ϕ = 0∘. Following this, two of these antennas were placed at right angles to each other to achieve two-directional (2D) beam switching. The 2D beam-switching antenna pair was also prototyped and tested after integrating them into the ground plane of a wireless device. The antenna is able to point the beam in five different directions; moreover, its beam covers 167∘ (θ = -89∘ to +78∘) at ϕ = 0∘, and 154∘ (θ = -72∘ to +82∘) at ϕ = 90∘.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khaled M Morshed
- School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Debabrata K Karmokar
- UniSA STEM, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, Adelaide, SA 5095, Australia
| | - Karu P Esselle
- School of Electrical and Data Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Ladislau Matekovits
- Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Turin, Italy
- Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e Delle Telecomunicazioni, National Research Council of Italy, 10129 Turin, Italy
- Department of Measurements and Optical Electronics, Politehnica University Timisoara, 300006 Timisoara, Romania
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6
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Govindarajulu SR, Tarek MNA, Guerra MR, Hassan A, Alwan E. Modified U Slot Patch Antenna with Large Frequency Ratio for Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:6108. [PMID: 37447957 DOI: 10.3390/s23136108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents a single-fed, single-layer, dual-band antenna with a large frequency ratio of 4.74:1 for vehicle-to-vehicle communication. The antenna consists of a 28 GHz inset-fed rectangular patch embedded into a 5.9 GHz patch antenna for dual-band operation. The designed dual-band antenna operates from 5.81 to 5.99 GHz (Dedicated Short Range Communications, DSRC) and 27.9 to 30.1 GHz (5G millimeter-wave (mm-wave) band). Furthermore, the upper band patch was modified by inserting slots near the inset feed line to achieve an instantaneous bandwidth of 4.5 GHz. The antenna was fabricated and measured. The manufactured prototype operates simultaneously from 5.8 to 6.05 GHz and from 26.8 to 31.3 GHz. Notably, the designed dual-band antenna offers a high peak gain of 7.7 dBi in the DSRC band and 6.38 dBi in the 5G mm-wave band.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandhiya Reddy Govindarajulu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida International University, 10555 West Flagler St. EC 3900, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Md Nurul Anwar Tarek
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida International University, 10555 West Flagler St. EC 3900, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Marisol Roman Guerra
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida International University, 10555 West Flagler St. EC 3900, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Asif Hassan
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida International University, 10555 West Flagler St. EC 3900, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Elias Alwan
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida International University, 10555 West Flagler St. EC 3900, Miami, FL 33199, USA
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7
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Cracan D, Elsayed N, Sanduleanu M. A 28 GHz Phased-Array Transceiver for 5G Applications in 22 nm FD-SOI CMOS. Micromachines (Basel) 2023; 14:mi14051040. [PMID: 37241662 DOI: 10.3390/mi14051040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents the design and implementation of a 28 GHz phased array transceiver for 5G applications using 22 nm FD-SOI CMOS technology. The transceiver consists of a four-channel phased array receiver and transmitter, which employs phase shifting based on coarse and fine controls. The transceiver employs a zero-IF architecture, which is suitable for small footprints and low power requirements. The receiver achieves a 3.5 dB NF with a 1 dB compression point of -21 dBm and a gain of 13 dB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Cracan
- Nordic Semiconductor ASA, Swindon SN5 6NX, UK
| | | | - Mihai Sanduleanu
- System on Chip Center, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
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8
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Chung SH, Shin JH, Kim YK, Baek CW. Fabrication of Substrate-Integrated Waveguide Using Micromachining of Photoetchable Glass Substrate for 5G Millimeter-Wave Applications. Micromachines (Basel) 2023; 14:288. [PMID: 36837988 PMCID: PMC9966312 DOI: 10.3390/mi14020288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
A millimeter-wave substrate-integrated waveguide (SIW) was firstly demonstrated using the micromachining of photoetchable glass (PEG) for 5G applications. A PEG substrate was used as a dielectric material of the SIW, and its photoetchable properties were used to fabricate through glass via (TGV) holes. Instead of the conventional metallic through glass via (TGV) array structures that are typically used for the SIW, two continuous empty TGV holes with metallized sidewalls connecting the top metal layer to the bottom ground plane were used as waveguide walls. The proposed TGV walls were fabricated by using optical exposure, heat development and anisotropic HF (hydrofluoric acid) etching of the PEG substrate, followed by a metal sputtering technique. The SIW was fed by microstrip lines connected to the waveguide through tapered microstrip-to-waveguide transitions. The top metal layer, including these feedlines and transitions, was fabricated by selective metal sputtering through a silicon shadow mask, which was prefabricated by a silicon deep-reactive ion-etching (DRIE) technique. The developed PEG-based process provides a relatively simple, wafer-level manufacturing method to fabricate the SIW in a low-cost glass dielectric substrate, without the formation of individual of TGV holes, complex time-consuming TGV filling processes and repeated photolithographic steps. The fabricated SIW had a dimension of 6 × 10 × 0.42 mm3 and showed an average insertion loss of 2.53 ± 0.55 dB in the Ka-band frequency range from 26.5 GHz to 40 GHz, with a return loss better than 13.86 dB. The proposed process could be used not only for SIW-based devices, but also for various millimeter-wave applications where a glass substrate with TGV structures is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung-Han Chung
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Hyun Shin
- School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Kweon Kim
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Wook Baek
- School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
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9
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Kumar P, Ali T, Kumar OP, Vincent S, Kumar P, Nanjappa Y, Pathan S. An Ultra-Compact 28 GHz Arc-Shaped Millimeter-Wave Antenna for 5G Application. Micromachines (Basel) 2022; 14:5. [PMID: 36677066 PMCID: PMC9862727 DOI: 10.3390/mi14010005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The 5th generation (5G) network was planned to provide a fast, stable, and future-proof mobile communication network to existing society. This research presents a highly compact arc shape structure antenna resonating at 28 GHz for prospective millimeter-wave purposes in the 5G frequency spectrum. The circular monopole antenna is designed with a radius of 1.3 mm. An elliptical slot on the radiating plane aids in achieving an enhanced bandwidth resonating at the frequency of 28 GHz. Including an elliptical slot creates new resonance and helps improve the bandwidth. The antenna has an ultra-compact dimension of 5 × 3 × 1.6 mm3, which corresponds to an electrical length of 0.46λ × 0.28λ × 0.14λ, where λ is free space wavelength at the resonant frequency. The projected antenna has an impedance bandwidth of 15.73 % (25.83-30.24 GHz). The antenna has a good radiation efficiency of 89%, and the average gain is almost 4 dB over the entire impedance bandwidth. The simulated and experimental S11 findings are in good agreement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praveen Kumar
- Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, India
| | - Tanweer Ali
- Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, India
| | - Om Prakash Kumar
- Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, India
| | - Shweta Vincent
- Department of Mechatronics, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, India
| | - Pradeep Kumar
- Discipline of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa
| | - Yashwanth Nanjappa
- Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, India
| | - Sameena Pathan
- Department of Information and Communication Technology, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, India
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10
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Abd Rahman NA, Mohd Yasin MN, Ibrahim IM, Jusoh M, Noor SK, Ekscalin Emalda Mary MR, Zamin N, Nurhayati N. A Review of Circularly Polarized Dielectric Resonator Antennas: Recent Developments and Applications. Micromachines (Basel) 2022; 13:2178. [PMID: 36557477 PMCID: PMC9786784 DOI: 10.3390/mi13122178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive review on recent developments and applications of circularly polarized (CP) dielectric resonator antennas (DRAs) is proposed in this paper. DRAs have received more considerations in various applications due to their advantages such as wide bandwidth, high gain, high efficiency, low losses, and low profile. A broad justification for circular polarization and DRAs is stated at the beginning of the review. Various techniques such as single feed, dual, or multiple feeds used by different researchers for generating circular polarization in DRAs are briefly studied in this paper. Multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) CP DRAs, which can increase channel capacity, link reliability, and data rate, have also been analyzed. Additionally, innovative design solutions for broadening the circular polarization bandwidth and reducing mutual coupling are studied. Several applications of DRA are also discussed comprehensively. This paper finishes with concluding remarks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Akmal Abd Rahman
- Advanced Communication Engineering (ACE) Centre of Excellence, Faculty Electronic Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Kangar 01000, Perlis, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Najib Mohd Yasin
- Advanced Communication Engineering (ACE) Centre of Excellence, Faculty Electronic Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Kangar 01000, Perlis, Malaysia
| | - Imran Mohd Ibrahim
- Centre for Telecommunication Research and Innovation (CeTRI), Faculty of Electronic and Computer Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM), Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia
| | - Muzammil Jusoh
- Advanced Communication Engineering (ACE) Centre of Excellence, Faculty Electronic Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Kangar 01000, Perlis, Malaysia
| | - Shehab Khan Noor
- Advanced Communication Engineering (ACE) Centre of Excellence, Faculty Electronic Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Kangar 01000, Perlis, Malaysia
| | | | - Norshuhani Zamin
- Department of Information Technology, College of Computing and Informatics, Saudi Electronic University, Riyadh 13323, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nurhayati Nurhayati
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya 60231, Indonesia
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11
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Hao Z, Peng J, Dang X, Yan H, Wang R. mmSafe: A Voice Security Verification System Based on Millimeter-Wave Radar. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:9309. [PMID: 36502011 PMCID: PMC9739021 DOI: 10.3390/s22239309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
With the increasing popularity of smart devices, users can control their mobile phones, TVs, cars, and smart furniture by using voice assistants, but voice assistants are susceptible to intrusion by outsider speakers or playback attacks. In order to address this security issue, a millimeter-wave radar-based voice security authentication system is proposed in this paper. First, the speaker's fine-grained vocal cord vibration signal is extracted by eliminating static object clutter and motion effects; second, the weighted Mel Frequency Cepstrum Coefficients (MFCCs) are obtained as biometric features; and finally, text-independent security authentication is performed by the WMHS (Weighted MFCCs and Hog-based SVM) method. This system is highly adaptable and can authenticate designated speakers, resist intrusion by other unspecified speakers as well as playback attacks, and is secure for smart devices. Extensive experiments have verified that the system achieves a 93.4% speaker verification accuracy and a 5.8% miss detection rate for playback attacks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhanjun Hao
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China
- Gansu Province Internet of Things Engineering Research Centre, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Jianxiang Peng
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Xiaochao Dang
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China
- Gansu Province Internet of Things Engineering Research Centre, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Hao Yan
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Ruidong Wang
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China
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12
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Lee Y, Kim S, Shin H. A 24 GHz CMOS Direct-Conversion RF Receiver with I/Q Mismatch Calibration for Radar Sensor Applications. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:8246. [PMID: 36365944 PMCID: PMC9658703 DOI: 10.3390/s22218246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
A 24 GHz millimeter-wave direct-conversion radio-frequency (RF) receiver with wide-range and precise I/Q mismatch calibration is designed in 65 nm CMOS technology for radar sensor applications. The CMOS RF receiver is based on a quadrature direct-conversion architecture. Analytic relations are derived to clearly exhibit the individual contributions of the I/Q amplitude and phase mismatches to the image-rejection ratio (IRR) degradation, which provides a useful design guide for determining the range and resolution of the I/Q mismatch calibration circuit. The designed CMOS RF receiver comprises a low-noise amplifier, quadrature down-conversion mixer, baseband amplifier, and quadrature LO generator. Controlling the individual gate bias voltages of the switching FETs in the down-conversion mixer having a resistive load is found to induce significant changes at the amplitude and phase of the output signal. In the calibration process, the mixer gate bias tuning is first performed for the amplitude mismatch calibration, and the remaining phase mismatch is then calibrated out by the varactor capacitance tuning at the LO buffer's LC load. Implemented in 65 nm CMOS process, the RF receiver achieves 31.5 dB power gain, -35.2 dBm input-referred 1 dB compression power, and 4.8-7.1 dB noise figure across 22.5-26.1 GHz band, while dissipating 106.2 mA from a 1.2 V supply. The effectiveness of the proposed I/Q mismatch calibration is successfully verified by observing that the amplitude and phase mismatches are improved from 1.0-1.5 dB to 0.02-0.19 dB, and from 10.8-23.8 to 1.1-3.2 degrees, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongho Lee
- Department of Electronic Convergence Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 01897, Korea
| | - Soyeon Kim
- Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd., Suwon 16677, Korea
| | - Hyunchol Shin
- Department of Electronic Convergence Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 01897, Korea
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13
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An S, Bu X, Wymeersch H, Zirath H, He ZS. Millimeter-Wave Multi-Channel Backscatter Communication and Ranging with an FMCW Radar. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:7104. [PMID: 36236212 PMCID: PMC9570682 DOI: 10.3390/s22197104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
A multi-channel backscatter communication and radar sensing system is proposed and demonstrated in this paper. Frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar ranging is integrated with simultaneous uplink data transmission from a self-packaged active radio frequency (RF) tag. A novel package solution is proposed for the RF tag. With the proposed package, the RF tag can transmit a 32-QAM signal up to 2.5 Gbps and QPSK signal up to 8 Gbps. For a multi-tag scenario, we proposed using spread spectrum code to separate the data from each tag. In this case, tags can be placed at arbitrary locations without adjacent channel interference. Proof-of-concept simulations and measurements are demonstrated. A 625 Mbps data rate is achieved in a dual-tag scenario for two tags.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sining An
- Microwave Electronics Laboratory, Department of Microtechnology and Nanoscience, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Xiangyuan Bu
- School of Information Science and Electronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Henk Wymeersch
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Herbert Zirath
- Microwave Electronics Laboratory, Department of Microtechnology and Nanoscience, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Zhongxia Simon He
- Microwave Electronics Laboratory, Department of Microtechnology and Nanoscience, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
- SinoWave AB, SE-43650 Hovås, Sweden
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14
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Maruta K, Nishiuchi H, Nakazato J, Tran GK, Sakaguchi K. 5G/B5G mmWave Cellular Networks with MEC Prefetching Based on User Context Information. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:6983. [PMID: 36146329 PMCID: PMC9506074 DOI: 10.3390/s22186983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Revised: 08/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
To deal with recent increasing mobile traffic, ultra-broadband communication with millimeter-wave (mmWave) has been regarded as a key technology for 5G cellular networks. In a previous study, a mmWave heterogeneous network was composed of several mmWave small cells overlaid on the coverage of a macro cell. However, as seen from the optical fiber penetration rate worldwide, it is difficult to say that backhaul with Gbps order is available everywhere. In the case of using mmWave access under a limited backhaul capacity, it becomes a bottleneck at the backhaul; thus, mmWave access cannot fully demonstrate its potential. On the other hand, the concept of multi-access edge computing (MEC) has been proposed to decrease the response latency compared to cloud computing by deploying storage and computation resources to the user side of mobile networks. This paper introduces MEC into mmWave heterogeneous networks and proposes a content prefetching algorithm to resolve such backhaul issues. Context information, such as the destination, mobility, and traffic tendency, is shared through the macro cell to the prefetch application and data that the users request. Prefetched data is stored in the MEC and then transmitted via mmWave without a backhaul bottleneck. The effectiveness is verified through computer simulations where we implement realistic user mobility as well as traffic and backhauling models. The results show that the proposed framework achieved 95% system capacity even under the constraint of a 1 Gbps backhaul link.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuki Maruta
- Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan
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15
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Hao Z, Yan H, Dang X, Ma Z, Jin P, Ke W. Millimeter-Wave Radar Localization Using Indoor Multipath Effect. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:5671. [PMID: 35957228 PMCID: PMC9371179 DOI: 10.3390/s22155671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 07/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The positioning of indoor electronic devices is an essential part of human-computer interaction, and the accuracy of positioning affects the level of user experience. Most existing methods for RF-based device localization choose to ignore or remove the impact of multipath effects. However, exploiting the multipath effect caused by the complex indoor environment helps to improve the model's localization accuracy. In response to this question, this paper proposes a multipath-assisted localization (MAL) model based on millimeter-wave radar to achieve the localization of indoor electronic devices. The model fully considers the help of the multipath effect when describing the characteristics of the reflected signal and precisely locates the target position by using the MAL area formed by the reflected signal. At the same time, for the situation where the radar in the traditional Single-Input Single-Output (SISO) mode cannot obtain the 3D spatial position information of the target, the advantage of the MAL model is that the 3D information of the target can be obtained after the mining process of the multipath effect. Furthermore, based on the original hardware, it can achieve a breakthrough in angular resolution. Experiments show that our proposed MAL model enables the millimeter-wave multipath positioning model to achieve a 3D positioning error within 15 cm.
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16
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Zhao C, Xu L, Bai X, Chen J. Near-Field High-Resolution SAR Imaging with Sparse Sampling Interval. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:5548. [PMID: 35898051 DOI: 10.3390/s22155548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 07/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Near-field high-resolution synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging is mostly accompanied by a large number of data acquisition processes, which increases the system complexity and device cost. According to extensive reports, reducing the number of sampling points of a radar in space can greatly reduce the amount of data. However, when spatial sparse sampling is carried out, a ghost normally appears in the imaging results due to the high side lobes generated in the azimuth. To address this issue, a technique is introduced in this paper to recover the blank data through amplitude and phase compensation based on the correlation between sparse array sampling through adjacent points. Firstly, the data sampled by the sparse array is compressed in the range direction to obtain the expected data slices in the same range direction. Then, the blank element of the slice is compensated for with amplitude and phase to obtain full aperture data. Finally, the matched filter method is used to aid in the image reconstruction. The simulation results verified that the method proposed in this paper can effectively reconstruct the image under two kinds of sparse sampling conditions. Thus, a simple single-input single-output (SISO) synthetic aperture radar imaging test bench is established. Compared with the results of a 1 mm (1/4 λ) sampling interval, the quality of the reconstructed image under the condition of a 4 mm (1 λ) sampling interval still stands using our proposed method. Demonstrated by the experiment, the normalized root-mean-square error(NMSE) is 5.75%. Additionally, when the spatial sampling points are sampled randomly with 30% of the full sampling condition, this method can also restore and reconstruct the image with high quality. Due to the decrease of sampling points, the data volume can be reduced, which is beneficial for improving the scanning speed and alleviating the pressure of data transmission for near-field high resolution SAR imaging systems.
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17
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Zhang R, Tan W, Nie W, Wu X, Liu T. Deep Learning-Based Channel Estimation for mmWave Massive MIMO Systems in Mixed-ADC Architecture. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:s22103938. [PMID: 35632347 PMCID: PMC9143546 DOI: 10.3390/s22103938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 05/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Millimeter-wave (mmWave) massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems can significantly reduce the number of radio frequency (RF) chains by using lens antenna arrays, because it is usually the case that the number of RF chains is often much smaller than the number of antennas, so channel estimation becomes very challenging in practical wireless communication. In this paper, we investigated channel estimation for mmWave massive MIMO system with lens antenna array, in which we use a mixed (low/high) resolution analog-to-digital converter (ADC) architecture to trade-off the power consumption and performance of the system. Specifically, most antennas are equipped with low-resolution ADC and the rest of the antennas use high-resolution ADC. By utilizing the sparsity of the mmWave channel, the beamspace channel estimation can be expressed as a sparse signal recovery problem, and the channel can be recovered by the algorithm based on compressed sensing. We compare the traditional channel estimation scheme with the deep learning channel-estimation scheme, which has a better advantage, such as that the estimation scheme based on deep neural network is significantly better than the traditional channel-estimation algorithm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Zhang
- School of Computer Science and Cyber Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China;
| | - Weiqiang Tan
- School of Computer Science and Cyber Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China;
- Correspondence:
| | - Wenliang Nie
- School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Chongqing 404000, China;
| | - Xianda Wu
- School of Electronics and Information Engineering, South China Normal University, Foshan 528000, China;
| | - Ting Liu
- School of Artificial Intelligence, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China;
- National Mobile Communications Research Laboratory, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
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18
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Tarafder P, Choi W. MAC Protocols for mmWave Communication: A Comparative Survey. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:3853. [PMID: 35632265 DOI: 10.3390/s22103853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
With the increase in the number of connected devices, to facilitate more users with high-speed transfer rate and enormous bandwidth, millimeter-wave (mmWave) technology has become one of the promising research sectors in both industry and academia. Owing to the advancements in 5G communication, traditional physical (PHY) layer-based solutions are becoming obsolete. Resource allocation, interference management, anti-blockage, and deafness are crucial problems needing resolution for designing modern mmWave communication network architectures. Consequently, comparatively new approaches such as medium access control (MAC) protocol-based utilization can help meet the advancement requirements. A MAC layer accesses channels and prepares the data frames for transmission to all connected devices, which is even more significant in very high frequency bands, i.e., in the mmWave spectrum. Moreover, different MAC protocols have their unique limitations and characteristics. In this survey, to deal with the above challenges and address the limitations revolving around the MAC layers of mmWave communication systems, we investigated the existing state-of-the-art MAC protocols, related surveys, and solutions available for mmWave frequency. Moreover, we performed a categorized qualitative comparison of the state-of-the-art protocols and finally examined the probable approaches to alleviate the critical challenges in future research.
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19
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Hussain S, Qu SW, Sharif AB, Abubakar HS, Wang XH, Imran MA, Abbasi QH. Current Sheet Antenna Array and 5G: Challenges, Recent Trends, Developments, and Future Directions. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:3329. [PMID: 35591019 DOI: 10.3390/s22093329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Designing an ultra-wideband array antenna for fifth generation (5G) is challenging for the antenna designing community because of the highly fragmented electromagnetic spectrum. To overcome bandwidth limitations, several millimeter-wave bands for 5G and beyond applications are considered; as a result, many antenna arrays have been proposed during the past decades. This paper aims to explore recent developments and techniques regarding a specific type of phased array antenna used in 5G applications, called current sheet array (CSA). CSA consists of capacitively coupled elements placed over a ground plane, with mutual coupling intentionally introduced in a controlled manner between the elements. CSA concept evolved and led to the realization of new array antennas with multiple octaves of bandwidth. In this review article, we provide a comprehensive overview of the existing works in this line of research. We analyze and discuss various aspects of the proposed array antennas with the wideband and wide-scan operation. Additionally, we discuss the significance of the phased array antenna in 5G communication. Moreover, we describe the current research challenges and future directions for CSA-based phased array antennas.
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20
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Khan J, Ullah S, Ali U, Tahir FA, Peter I, Matekovits L. Design of a Millimeter-Wave MIMO Antenna Array for 5G Communication Terminals. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:2768. [PMID: 35408383 PMCID: PMC9003117 DOI: 10.3390/s22072768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 03/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents a design of multiple input multiple output (MIMO) antenna array for 5G millimeter-wave (mm-wave) communication systems. The proposed MIMO configuration consists of a two antenna arrays combination. Each antenna array consists of four elements which are arranged in an even manner, while two arrays are then assembled with a 90-degree shift with respect to each other. The substrate used is a 0.254 mm thick Rogers RT5880 with a dielectric constant of 2.2 and loss tangent of 0.0009, correspondingly. The proposed MIMO antenna array covers the 37 GHz frequency band, dedicated for 5G millimeter-wave communication applications. The proposed antenna element yields a gain of 6.84 dB, which is enhanced up to 12.8 dB by adopting a four elements array configuration. The proposed MIMO antenna array performance metrics, such as envelope correlation coefficient (ECC) and diversity gain (DG), are observed, which are found to be under the standard threshold. More than 85% of the radiation efficiency of the proposed MIMO antenna array is observed to be within the desired operating frequency band. All the proposed designs are simulated in computer simulation technology (CST) software. Furthermore, the measurements are carried out for the proposed MIMO antenna array, where a good agreement with simulated results is observed. Thus, the proposed design can be a potential candidate for 5G millimeter-wave communication systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jalal Khan
- Department of Telecommunication Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Mardan 23200, Pakistan; (J.K.); (U.A.)
| | - Sadiq Ullah
- Department of Telecommunication Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Mardan 23200, Pakistan; (J.K.); (U.A.)
| | - Usman Ali
- Department of Telecommunication Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Mardan 23200, Pakistan; (J.K.); (U.A.)
| | - Farooq Ahmad Tahir
- Research Institute for Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Studies (RIMMS), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad 44000, Pakistan;
| | - Ildiko Peter
- Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Targu Mures, Str. N.Iorga nr. 1, 540139 Târgu Mureş, Romania
| | - Ladislau Matekovits
- Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Turin, Italy;
- Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell’Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni, National Research Council of Italy, 10129 Turin, Italy
- Department of Measurements and Optical Electronics, Politehnica University Timisoara, 300006 Timisoara, Romania
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21
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Owda AY. Passive Millimeter-Wave Imaging for Burns Diagnostics under Dressing Materials. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:2428. [PMID: 35408043 PMCID: PMC9003280 DOI: 10.3390/s22072428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents a feasibility study of using a passive millimeter-wave imaging (PMMWI) system to assess burn wounds and the potential for monitoring the healing process under dressing materials, without their painful removal. Experimental images obtained from ex vivo porcine skin samples indicate that a ThruVision passive imager operating over the band 232-268 GHz can be used for diagnosing burns and for potentially monitoring the healing under dressing materials. Experimental images show that single and multiple burns are observed throughout dressing materials. As the interaction of millimeter-wave (MMW) radiation with the human body is almost exclusively with the skin, the major outcomes of the research are that PMMWI is capable of discriminating burn-damaged skin from unburned skin, and these measurements can be made through bandages without the imager making any physical contact with the skin or the bandage. This highlights the opportunity that the healing of burn wounds can be assessed and monitored without the removal of dressing materials. The key innovation in this work is in detecting single and multiple burns under dressing materials in noncontact with the skin and without exposing the skin to any type of manmade radiation (i.e., passive sensing technology). These images represent the first demonstration of burns wound under dressing materials using a passive sensing imager.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amani Yousef Owda
- Department of Natural, Engineering and Technology Sciences, Arab American University, Ramallah P600, Palestine
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22
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Hussain R, Abou-Khousa M, Iqbal N, Algarni A, Alhuwaimel SI, Zerguine A, Sharawi MS. A Multiband Shared Aperture MIMO Antenna for Millimeter-Wave and Sub-6GHz 5G Applications. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:s22051808. [PMID: 35270955 PMCID: PMC8915104 DOI: 10.3390/s22051808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A shared aperture 2-element multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) antenna design for 5G standards is presented in this study, one which uses the same radiating structure to cover both the sub-6GHz and millimeter-wave (millimeter-wave) bands. The proposed antenna comprises four concentric pentagonal slots that are uniformly separated from one another. For the sub-6GHz band, the antenna is excited by a single open-end microstrip transmission-line, while a 1 × 8 power divider (PD) connected via a T-junction structure excites the millimeter-wave band. Both the sub-6GHz and mm-wave antennas operate in a MIMO configuration. The proposed antenna design was fabricated on a 120 × 60 mm2 substrate with an edge-to-edge distance of 49 mm. The proposed sub-6GHz antenna covers the following frequency bands: 4-4.5 GHz, 3.1-3.8 GHz, 2.48-2.9 GHz, 1.82-2.14 GHz, and 1.4-1.58 GHz, while the millimeter-wave antenna operates at 28 GHz with at least 500 MHz of bandwidth. A complete antenna analysis is provided via a step-by-step design procedure, an equivalent circuit diagram showing the operation of the shared aperture antenna, and current density analysis at both millimeter-wave and sub-6GHz bands. The proposed antenna design is also characterized in terms of MIMO performance metrics with a good MIMO operation with maximum envelop correlation coefficient value of 0.113. The maximum measured gain and efficiency values obtained were 91% and 8.5 dBi over the entire band of operation. The antenna is backward compatible with 4G bands and also encompasses the sub-6GHz and 28 GHz bands for future 5G wireless communcation systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rifaqat Hussain
- Electrical Engineering Department, King Fahd University for Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia; (R.H.); (N.I.); (A.A.); (A.Z.)
| | - Mohamed Abou-Khousa
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi 127788, United Arab Emirates;
| | - Naveed Iqbal
- Electrical Engineering Department, King Fahd University for Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia; (R.H.); (N.I.); (A.A.); (A.Z.)
| | - Abdullah Algarni
- Electrical Engineering Department, King Fahd University for Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia; (R.H.); (N.I.); (A.A.); (A.Z.)
| | - Saad I. Alhuwaimel
- King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence:
| | - Azzedine Zerguine
- Electrical Engineering Department, King Fahd University for Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia; (R.H.); (N.I.); (A.A.); (A.Z.)
- Center for Communication Systems and Sensing, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammad S. Sharawi
- Electrical Engineering Department, Polytechnique Montréal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada;
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Ahamed MM, Faruque S. 5G Network Coverage Planning and Analysis of the Deployment Challenges. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:s21196608. [PMID: 34640928 PMCID: PMC8512478 DOI: 10.3390/s21196608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The 5G cellular network is no longer hype. Mobile network operators (MNO) around the world (e.g., Verizon and AT&T in the USA) started deploying 5G networks in mid-frequency bands (i.e., 3–6 GHz) with existing 4G cellular networks. The mid-frequency band can significantly boost the existing network performance additional spectrum (i.e., 50 MHz–100 MHz). However, the high-frequency bands (i.e., 24 GHz–100 GHz) can offer a wider spectrum (i.e., 400~800 MHz), which is needed to meet the ever-growing capacity demands, highest bitrates (~20 Gb/s), and lowest latencies. As we move to the higher frequency bands, the free space propagation loss increases significantly, which will limit the individual cell site radius to 100 m for the high-frequency band compared to several kilometers in 4G. Therefore, the MNOs will need to deploy hundreds of new small cells (e.g., 100 m cell radius) compared to one large cell site (e.g., Macrocell with several km in radius) to ensure 100% network coverage for the same area. It will be a big challenge for the MNOs to accurately plan and acquire these massive numbers of new cell site locations to provide uniform 5G coverage. This paper first describes the 5G coverage planning with a traditional three-sector cell. It then proposes an updated cell architecture with six sectors and an advanced antenna system that provides better 5G coverage. Finally, it describes the potential challenges of 5G network deployment with future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Maruf Ahamed
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
- School of Electrical Engineering & Computer Science, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA;
- Correspondence:
| | - Saleh Faruque
- School of Electrical Engineering & Computer Science, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA;
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24
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Arab H, Ghaffari I, Chioukh L, Tatu S, Dufour S. Machine Learning Based Object Classification and Identification Scheme Using an Embedded Millimeter-Wave Radar Sensor. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:s21134291. [PMID: 34201765 PMCID: PMC8272183 DOI: 10.3390/s21134291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A target’s movements and radar cross sections are the key parameters to consider when designing a radar sensor for a given application. This paper shows the feasibility and effectiveness of using 24 GHz radar built-in low-noise microwave amplifiers for detecting an object. For this purpose a supervised machine learning model (SVM) is trained using the recorded data to classify the targets based on their cross sections into four categories. The trained classifiers were used to classify the objects with varying distances from the receiver. The SVM classification is also compared with three methods based on binary classification: a one-against-all classification, a one-against-one classification, and a directed acyclic graph SVM. The level of accuracy is approximately 96.6%, and an F1-score of 96.5% is achieved using the one-against-one SVM method with an RFB kernel. The proposed contactless radar in combination with an SVM algorithm can be used to detect and categorize a target in real time without a signal processing toolbox.
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Affiliation(s)
- Homa Arab
- École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada; (I.G.); (L.C.); (S.D.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-514-340-4711
| | - Iman Ghaffari
- École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada; (I.G.); (L.C.); (S.D.)
| | - Lydia Chioukh
- École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada; (I.G.); (L.C.); (S.D.)
| | - Serioja Tatu
- Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), Montréal, QC H2X 1E3, Canada;
| | - Steven Dufour
- École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada; (I.G.); (L.C.); (S.D.)
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Anim K, Lee JN, Jung YB. High-Gain Millimeter-Wave Patch Array Antenna for Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Application. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:s21113914. [PMID: 34204076 PMCID: PMC8201145 DOI: 10.3390/s21113914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A high-gain millimeter-wave patch array antenna is presented for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). For the large-scale patch array antenna, microstrip lines and higher-mode surface wave radiations contribute enormously to the antenna loss, especially at the millimeter-wave band. Here, the element of a large patch array antenna is implemented with a substrate integrated waveguide (SIW) cavity-backed patch fed by the aperture-coupled feeding (ACF) structure. However, in this case, a large coupling aperture is used to create strongly bound waves, which maximizes the coupling level between the patch and the feedline. This approach helps to improve antenna gain, but at the same time leads to a significant level of back radiation due to the microstrip feedline and unwanted surface-wave radiation, especially for the large patch arrays. Using the SIW cavity-backed patch and stripline feedline of the ACF in the element design, therefore, provides a solution to this problem. Thus, a full-corporate feed 32 × 32 array antenna achieves realized gain of 30.71–32.8 dBi with radiation efficiency above 52% within the operational band of 25.43–26.91 GHz. The fabricated antenna also retains being lightweight, which is desirable for UAVs, because it has no metal plate at the backside to support the antenna.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyei Anim
- Electronics Engineering Department, Hanbat National University, Daejeon 34158, Korea;
| | - Jung-Nam Lee
- Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute (ETRI), Daejeon 34129, Korea;
| | - Young-Bae Jung
- Electronics Engineering Department, Hanbat National University, Daejeon 34158, Korea;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-42-821-1136
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Kesavan A, Al-Hassan M, Ben Mabrouk I, Denidni TA. Wideband Circular Polarized Dielectric Resonator Antenna Array for Millimeter-Wave Applications. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:3614. [PMID: 34067355 DOI: 10.3390/s21113614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A novel circular polarized dielectric antenna array (DRA) for millimeter-wave applications at 30 GHz is presented in this paper. The unit element array is a flower-shaped DRA fed with a cross slot. To obtain circular polarization, a sequential network combined with the cross slots is used to feed the 2×2 array. The prototype of the proposed antenna array is fabricated and measured to obtain a wide resonance bandwidth from 27 GHz to 38 GHz frequency band. Furthermore, this left-hand polarized antenna array has achieved a peak gain of 9.5 dBi with 3-dB axial ratio at 30 GHz. The proposed DRA array with wideband resonance and gain bandwidth has the potential to be used for millimeter-wave wireless communications at the 30 GHz band.
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Hashima S, Hatano K, Kasban H, Mahmoud Mohamed E. Wi-Fi Assisted Contextual Multi-Armed Bandit for Neighbor Discovery and Selection in Millimeter Wave Device to Device Communications. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:2835. [PMID: 33920717 DOI: 10.3390/s21082835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The unique features of millimeter waves (mmWaves) motivate its leveraging to future, beyond-fifth-generation/sixth-generation (B5G/6G)-based device-to-device (D2D) communications. However, the neighborhood discovery and selection (NDS) problem still needs intelligent solutions due to the trade-off of investigating adjacent devices for the optimum device choice against the crucial beamform training (BT) overhead. In this paper, by making use of multiband (μW/mmWave) standard devices, the mmWave NDS problem is addressed using machine-learning-based contextual multi-armed bandit (CMAB) algorithms. This is done by leveraging the context information of Wi-Fi signal characteristics, i.e., received signal strength (RSS), mean, and variance, to further improve the NDS method. In this setup, the transmitting device acts as the player, the arms are the candidate mmWave D2D links between that device and its neighbors, while the reward is the average throughput. We examine the NDS’s primary trade-off and the impacts of the contextual information on the total performance. Furthermore, modified energy-aware linear upper confidence bound (EA-LinUCB) and contextual Thomson sampling (EA-CTS) algorithms are proposed to handle the problem through reflecting the nearby devices’ withstanding battery levels, which simulate real scenarios. Simulation results ensure the superior efficiency of the proposed algorithms over the single band (mmWave) energy-aware noncontextual MAB algorithms (EA-UCB and EA-TS) and traditional schemes regarding energy efficiency and average throughput with a reasonable convergence rate.
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Verdecia-Peña R, Alonso JI. A Two-Hop mmWave MIMO NR-Relay Nodes to Enhance the Average System Throughput and BER in Outdoor-to-Indoor Environments. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:s21041372. [PMID: 33669169 PMCID: PMC7919674 DOI: 10.3390/s21041372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Millimeter-Wave (mmWave) bands are receiving enormous attention in 5G mobile communications, due to the capability to provide a multi-gigabit transmission rate. In this paper, a two-hop architecture for 5G communications with the capacity to support high end-to-end performance due to the use of Relay Nodes (RNs) in mmWave-bands is presented. One of the novelties of the paper is the implementation of Amplify-and-Forward (A&F) and Decode-and-Forward (D&F) RNs along with a mmWave-band transceiver chain (Tx/Rx). In addition, two approaches for channel estimation were implemented at the D&F RN for decoding the backhaul link. One of them assumes complete knowledge of the channel (PCE), and the other one performs the channel estimation through Least Square (LS) estimator. A large number of simulations, using MATLABTM and SimulinkTM software, were performed to verify the potential benefits of the proposal two-hop 5G architecture in an outdoor-to-indoor scenario. The main novelty in performing these simulations is the use of signals with 5G features, as DL-SCH transport channel coding, PDSCH generation, and SS Burst generation, which is another of the main contributions of the paper. On the other hand, mmWave transmitter and receiver chains were designed and implemented with off-the shelf components. The simulations show that the two-hop network substantially improves the Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), Bit Error Rate (BER), and Throughput, in the communications between the logical 5G Radio Node (gNodeB), and the New Radio User Equipment (NR-UE). For example, a throughput improvement of 22 Mbps is obtained when a 4 × 4 × 2 MIMO D&F with LS architecture is used versus a SISO D&F with PCE architecture for Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) = 20 dB and 64-QAM signal. This improvement reaches 96 Mbps if a 256-QAM signal is considered. The improvement in BER is 11 dB and 10.5 dB, respectively, for both cases. This work also shows that the obtained results with D&F RNs are better than with A&F RNs. For example, an improvement of 17 Mbps in the use of SISO D&F with LS vs. SISO A&F, for the 64-QAM signal is obtained. Besides, this paper constitutes a first step to the implementation of a mmWave MIMO 5G cooperative network platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randy Verdecia-Peña
- Information Processing and Telecommunications Center, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
- ETSI de Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - José I. Alonso
- Information Processing and Telecommunications Center, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
- ETSI de Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Samad MA, Diba FD, Choi DY. A Survey of Rain Attenuation Prediction Models for Terrestrial Links-Current Research Challenges and State-of-the-Art. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:1207. [PMID: 33572178 DOI: 10.3390/s21041207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Millimeter-wave (30-300 GHz) frequency is a promising candidate for 5G and beyond wireless networks, but atmospheric elements limit radio links at this frequency band. Rainfall is the significant atmospheric element that causes attenuation in the propagated wave, which needs to estimate for the proper operation of fade mitigation technique (FMT). Many models have been proposed in the literature to estimate rain attenuation. Various models have a distinct set of input parameters along with separate estimation mechanisms. This survey has garnered multiple techniques that can generate input dataset for the rain attenuation models. This study extensively investigates the existing terrestrial rain attenuation models. There is no survey of terrestrial rain mitigation models to the best of our knowledge. In this article, the requirements of this survey are first discussed, with various dataset developing techniques. The terrestrial links models are classified, and subsequently, qualitative and quantitative analyses among these terrestrial rain attenuation models are tabulated. Also, a set of error performance evaluation techniques is introduced. Moreover, there is a discussion of open research problems and challenges, especially the exigency for developing a rain attenuation model for the short-ranged link in the E-band for 5G and beyond networks.
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Wang M, Ma S, Jin Y, Wang W, Chen J, Hu L, He S. A RF Redundant TSV Interconnection for High Resistance Si Interposer. Micromachines (Basel) 2021; 12:mi12020169. [PMID: 33567782 PMCID: PMC7914721 DOI: 10.3390/mi12020169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Through Silicon Via (TSV) technology is capable meeting effective, compact, high density, high integration, and high-performance requirements. In high-frequency applications, with the rapid development of 5G and millimeter-wave radar, the TSV interposer will become a competitive choice for radio frequency system-in-package (RF SIP) substrates. This paper presents a redundant TSV interconnect design for high resistivity Si interposers for millimeter-wave applications. To verify its feasibility, a set of test structures capable of working at millimeter waves are designed, which are composed of three pieces of CPW (coplanar waveguide) lines connected by single TSV, dual redundant TSV, and quad redundant TSV interconnects. First, HFSS software is used for modeling and simulation, then, a modified equivalent circuit model is established to analysis the effect of the redundant TSVs on the high-frequency transmission performance to solidify the HFSS based simulation. At the same time, a failure simulation was carried out and results prove that redundant TSV can still work normally at 44 GHz frequency when failure occurs. Using the developed TSV process, the sample is then fabricated and tested. Using L-2L de-embedding method to extract S-parameters of the TSV interconnection. The insertion loss of dual and quad redundant TSVs are 0.19 dB and 0.46 dB at 40 GHz, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengcheng Wang
- Department of Mechanical & Electrical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China;
| | - Shenglin Ma
- Department of Mechanical & Electrical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China;
- Correspondence:
| | - Yufeng Jin
- School of Electronic and Computer Engineering, Shenzhen Graduate School of Peking University, Shenzhen 518055, China;
| | - Wei Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Micro/Nano Fabrication, School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; (W.W.); (J.C.)
| | - Jing Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Micro/Nano Fabrication, School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; (W.W.); (J.C.)
| | - Liulin Hu
- Chengdu Ganide Technology Co., Ltd, Chengdu 610000, China; (L.H.); (S.H.)
| | - Shuwei He
- Chengdu Ganide Technology Co., Ltd, Chengdu 610000, China; (L.H.); (S.H.)
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Bechta K, Kelner JM, Ziółkowski C, Nowosielski L. Inter-Beam Co-Channel Downlink and Uplink Interference for 5G New Radio in mm-Wave Bands. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:s21030793. [PMID: 33504025 PMCID: PMC7866160 DOI: 10.3390/s21030793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents a methodology for assessing co-channel interference that arises in multi-beam transmitting and receiving antennas used in fifth-generation (5G) systems. This evaluation is essential for minimizing spectral resources, which allows for using the same frequency bands in angularly separated antenna beams of a 5G-based station (gNodeB). In the developed methodology, a multi-ellipsoidal propagation model (MPM) provides a mapping of the multipath propagation phenomenon and considers the directivity of antenna beams. To demonstrate the designation procedure of interference level we use simulation tests. For exemplary scenarios in downlink and uplink, we showed changes in a signal-to-interference ratio versus a separation angle between the serving (useful) and interfering beams and the distance between the gNodeB and user equipment. This evaluation is the basis for determining the minimum separation angle for which an acceptable interference level is ensured. The analysis was carried out for the lower millimeter-wave band, which is planned to use in 5G micro-cells base stations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamil Bechta
- Nokia Solutions and Networks, 54-130 Wrocław, Poland;
| | - Jan M. Kelner
- Institute of Communications Systems, Faculty of Electronics, Military University of Technology, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland; (C.Z.); (L.N.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-261-839-517
| | - Cezary Ziółkowski
- Institute of Communications Systems, Faculty of Electronics, Military University of Technology, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland; (C.Z.); (L.N.)
| | - Leszek Nowosielski
- Institute of Communications Systems, Faculty of Electronics, Military University of Technology, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland; (C.Z.); (L.N.)
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Kim H, Jeong J. Non-Contact Measurement of Human Respiration and Heartbeat Using W-band Doppler Radar Sensor. Sensors (Basel) 2020; 20:E5209. [PMID: 32932671 PMCID: PMC7570872 DOI: 10.3390/s20185209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents a W-band continuous-wave (CW) Doppler radar sensor for non-contact measurement of human respiration and heartbeat. The very short wavelength of the W-band signal allows a high-precision detection of the displacement of the chest surface by the heartbeat as well as respiration. The CW signal at 94 GHz is transmitted through a high-gain horn antenna to the human chest at a distance of 1 m. The phase-modulated reflection signal is down-converted to the baseband by the quadrature mixer with an excellent amplitude and phase matches between I and Q channels, which makes the IQ mismatch correction in the digital domain unnecessary. The baseband I and Q data are digitized using data acquisition (DAQ) board. The arctangent demodulation with automatic phase unwrapping is applied to the low-pass filtered I and Q data to effectively solve the null point problem. A slow-varying DC component is rejected in the demodulated signal by the trend removal algorithm. Then, the respiration signal with a frequency of 0.27 Hz and a displacement of ~6.1 mm is retrieved by applying a low-pass filter. Finally, the respiration signal is removed by the band-pass filter and the heartbeat signal is extracted, showing a frequency of 1.35 Hz and a displacement of ~0.26 mm. The extracted respiration and heartbeat rates are very close to the manual measurement results. The demonstrated W-band CW radar sensors can be easily applied to find the angular location of the human body by using a phased array under a compact size.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jinho Jeong
- Department of Electronic Engineering, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul 04107, Korea;
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Saha RK. A Hybrid Interweave-Underlay Countrywide Millimeter-Wave Spectrum Access and Reuse Technique for CR Indoor Small Cells in 5G/6G Era. Sensors (Basel) 2020; 20:E3979. [PMID: 32709008 DOI: 10.3390/s20143979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we propose a hybrid interweave–underlay spectrum access and reuse technique for the dynamic spectrum access and reuse of the countrywide 28 GHz millimeter-wave (mmWave) spectrum to in-building small cells of each mobile network operator (MNO) in a country. For the spectrum access, the proposed technique explores both interweave and underlay spectrum access techniques, whereas, for the spectrum reuse, it considers reusing the countrywide spectrum to each three-dimensional (3D) cluster of small cells in a building. To access the countrywide spectrum, each MNO is considered by paying a licensing fee following its number of subscribers. We present the 3D clustering of in-building of small cells and derive average capacity, spectral efficiency (SE), and energy efficiency (EE). We then perform extensive numerical and simulation results and analyses for an MNO of a country consisting of four MNOs. It is shown that, for no spectrum reuse to in-building small cells, the proposed technique improves average capacity and SE by 3.63 and 2.42 times, respectively, whereas EE improves by 72.79%. However, for vertical spatial reuse of six times (as an example) to small cells in a building, average capacity, SE, and EE improve further by 21.77 times, 14.51 times, and 95.66%, respectively. Moreover, the proposed technique can satisfy SE and EE requirements for sixth-generation (6G) mobile systems by horizontal spatial reuse of the countrywide spectrum to small cells of about 40.62%, 9.37%, and 6.25% less buildings than that required by the traditional static licensed spectrum access (SLSA) technique.
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Saha RK. On Exploiting Millimeter-Wave Spectrum Trading in Countrywide Mobile Network Operators for High Spectral and Energy Efficiencies in 5G/6G Era. Sensors (Basel) 2020; 20:s20123495. [PMID: 32575769 PMCID: PMC7348869 DOI: 10.3390/s20123495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we propose a dynamic exclusive-use spectrum access (DESA) method to improve the overall licensed millimeter-wave (mmWave) spectrum utilization of all mobile network operators (MNOs) in a country. By exploiting secondary spectrum trading, the proposed DESA method shares partly and exclusively the licensed mmWave spectrum of one MNO to another in a dynamic and on-demand basis for a certain agreement term. We formulate the proposed DESA method for an arbitrary number of MNOs in a country. We then present an iterative algorithm to find the optimal amount of shared spectrum for each MNO, which is updated at each agreement term. We derive average capacity, spectral efficiency, energy efficiency, and cost efficiency performance metrics for all MNOs countrywide and present extensive numerical and simulation results and analyses for an example scenario of a country with four MNOs each assigned statically with an equal amount of 28-GHz mmWave spectrum. By applying DESA, we show that MNOs with a lack of minimum licensed spectra to serve their data traffic can lease at the cost of payment of the required additional spectra from other MNOs having unused or under-utilized licensed spectra. Moreover, it is shown that the overall countrywide average capacity, spectral efficiency, energy efficiency, and cost efficiency can be improved, respectively, by 25%, 25%, 17.5%, and 20%. Furthermore, we show that, by applying DESA to all MNOs countrywide, the expected spectral efficiency and energy efficiency requirements for sixth-generation (6G) mobile systems can be achieved by reusing the same mmWave spectrum to 20% fewer buildings of small cells. Finally, using the statistics of subscribers of all MNOs, we present a case study for fifth-generation (5G) networks to demonstrate the application of the proposed DESA method to an arbitrary country of four MNOs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rony Kumer Saha
- Radio and Spectrum Laboratory, KDDI Research Inc., 2-1-15 Ohara, Fujimino-shi, Saitama 356-8502, Japan
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Sharaf MH, Zaki AI, Hamad RK, Omar MMM. A Novel Dual-Band (38/60 GHz) Patch Antenna for 5G Mobile Handsets. Sensors (Basel) 2020; 20:E2541. [PMID: 32365711 DOI: 10.3390/s20092541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A compact dual-frequency (38/60 GHz) microstrip patch antenna with novel design is proposed for 5G mobile handsets to combine complicated radiation mechanisms for dual-band operation. The proposed antenna is composed of two electromagnetically coupled patches. The first patch is directly fed by a microstrip line and is mainly responsible for radiation in the lower band (38 GHz). The second patch is fed through both capacitive and inductive coupling to the first patch and is mainly responsible for radiation in the upper frequency band (60 GHz). Numerical and experimental results show good performance regarding return loss, bandwidth, radiation patterns, radiation efficiency, and gain. The impedance matching bandwidths achieved in the 38 GHz and 60 GHz bands are about 2 GHz and 3.2 GHz, respectively. The minimum value of the return loss is −42 dB for the 38 GHz band and −47 for the 60 GHz band. Radiation patterns are omnidirectional with a balloon-like shape for both bands, which makes the proposed single antenna an excellent candidate for a multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) system constructed from a number of properly allocated elements for 5G mobile communications with excellent diversity schemes. Numerical comparisons show that the proposed antenna is superior to other published designs.
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Neufeld E, Samaras T, Kuster N. Discussion on Spatial and Time Averaging Restrictions Within the Electromagnetic Exposure Safety Framework in the Frequency Range Above 6 GHz for Pulsed and Localized Exposures. Bioelectromagnetics 2019; 41:164-168. [PMID: 31885092 DOI: 10.1002/bem.22244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Both the current and newly proposed safety guidelines for local human exposure to millimeter-wave frequencies aim at restricting the maximum local temperature increase in the skin to prevent tissue damage. In this study, we show that the application of the current and proposed limits for pulsed fields can lead to a temperature increase of 10°C for short pulses and frequencies between 6 and 30 GHz. We also show that the proposed averaging area of 4 cm2 , that is greatly reduced compared with the current limits, does not prevent high-temperature increases in the case of narrow beams. A realistic Gaussian beam profile with a 1 mm radius can result in a temperature increase about 10 times higher than the 0.4°C increase the same averaged power density would produce for a plane wave. In the case of pulsed narrow beams, the values for the time and spatial-averaged power density allowed by the proposed new guidelines could result in extreme temperature increases. Bioelectromagnetics. 2020;41:164-168. © 2019 Bioelectromagnetics Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esra Neufeld
- Foundation for Research on Information Technologies in Society (IT'IS), Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Theodoros Samaras
- Department of Physics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece.,Department of Physics, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
| | - Niels Kuster
- Foundation for Research on Information Technologies in Society (IT'IS), Zurich, Switzerland.,Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich, Switzerland
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Bhutani A, Marahrens S, Gehringer M, Göttel B, Pauli M, Zwick T. The Role of Millimeter-Waves in the Distance Measurement Accuracy of an FMCW Radar Sensor. Sensors (Basel) 2019; 19:s19183938. [PMID: 31547328 PMCID: PMC6767344 DOI: 10.3390/s19183938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
High-accuracy, short-range distance measurement is required in a variety of industrial applications e.g., positioning of robots in a fully automated production process, level measurement of liquids in small containers. An FMCW radar sensor is suitable for this purpose, since many of these applications involve harsh environments. Due to the progress in the field of semiconductor technology, FMCW radar sensors operating in different millimeter-wave frequency bands are available today. An important question in this context, which has not been investigated so far is how does a millimeter-wave frequency band influence the sensor accuracy, when thousands of distance measurements are performed with a sensor. This topic has been dealt with for the first time in this paper. The method used for analyzing the FMCW radar signal combines a frequency- and phase-estimation algorithm. The frequency-estimation algorithm based on the fast Fourier transform and the chirp-z transform provides a coarse estimate of the target distance. Subsequently, the phase-estimation algorithm based on a cross-correlation function provides a fine estimate of the target distance. The novel aspects of this paper are as follows. First, the estimation theory concept of Cramér-Rao lower bound (CRLB) has been used to compare the accuracy of two millimeter-wave FMCW radars operating at 60 GHz and 122 GHz. In this comparison, the measurement parameters (e.g., bandwidth, signal-to-noise ratio) as well as the signal-processing algorithm used for both the radars are the same, thus ensuring an unbiased comparison of the FMCW radars, solely based on the choice of millimeter-wave frequency band. Second, the improvement in distance measurement accuracy obtained after each step of the combined frequency- and phase-estimation algorithm has been experimentally demonstrated for both the radars. A total of 5100 short-range distance measurements are made using the 60 GHz and 122 GHz FMCW radar. The measurement results are analyzed at various stages of the frequency- and phase-estimation algorithm and the measurement error is calculated using a nanometer-precision linear motor. At every stage, the mean error values measured with the 60 GHz and 122 GHz FMCW radars are compared. The final accuracy achieved using both radars is of the order of a few micrometers. The measured standard deviation values of the 60 GHz and 122 GHz FMCW radar have been compared against the CRLB. As predicted by the CRLB, this paper experimentally validates for the first time that the 122 GHz FMCW radar provides a higher repeatability of micrometer-accuracy distance measurements than the 60 GHz FMCW radar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akanksha Bhutani
- Institute of Radio Frequency Engineering and Electronics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus South, Engesserstrasse 5, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany.
| | - Sören Marahrens
- Institute of Radio Frequency Engineering and Electronics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus South, Engesserstrasse 5, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany.
| | - Michael Gehringer
- Institute of Radio Frequency Engineering and Electronics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus South, Engesserstrasse 5, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany.
| | - Benjamin Göttel
- Wellenzahl Radar- und Sensortechnik GmbH & Co. KG, Im Vogelsand, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany.
| | - Mario Pauli
- Institute of Radio Frequency Engineering and Electronics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus South, Engesserstrasse 5, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany.
| | - Thomas Zwick
- Institute of Radio Frequency Engineering and Electronics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus South, Engesserstrasse 5, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany.
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Schreiner NS, Sauer-Greff W, Urbansky R, von Freymann G, Friederich F. Multilayer Thickness Measurements below the Rayleigh Limit Using FMCW Millimeter and Terahertz Waves. Sensors (Basel) 2019; 19:E3910. [PMID: 31514296 DOI: 10.3390/s19183910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We present thickness measurements with millimeter and terahertz waves using frequency-modulated continuous-wave (FMCW) sensors. In contrast to terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (TDS), our FMCW systems provide a higher penetration depth and measurement rates of several kilohertz at frequency modulation bandwidths of up to 175 GHz. In order to resolve thicknesses below the Rayleigh resolution limit given by the modulation bandwidth, we employed a model-based signal processing technique. Within this contribution, we analyzed the influence of multiple reflections adapting a modified transfer matrix method. Based on a brute force optimization, we processed the models and compared them with the measured signal in parallel on a graphics processing unit, which allows fast calculations in less than 1 s. TDS measurements were used for the validation of our results on industrial samples. Finally, we present results obtained with reduced frequency modulation bandwidths, opening the window to future miniaturization based on monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) radar units.
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Lee YS, Chung JY, Jeon SB, Lee AK, Choi HD. Proposal of 28 GHz In Vitro Exposure System Based on Field Uniformity for Three-Dimensional Cell Culture Experiments. Bioelectromagnetics 2019; 40:445-457. [PMID: 31429952 DOI: 10.1002/bem.22215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This paper proposes a novel in vitro exposure system operating at millimeter-wave (mmWave) 28 GHz, one of the frequency bands under consideration for fifth generation (5G) communication. We employed the field uniformity concept along cross-sectional observation planes at shorter distances from the radiation antenna for better efficiency and a small-size system. A choke-ring antenna was designed for this purpose in consideration of a wider beamwidth (BW) and a symmetric far-field pattern across three principal planes. The permittivity of Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium solution was measured to examine the specific absorption rate (SAR) of the skin cell layer inside a Petri dish model for a three-dimensional (3D) cell culture in vitro experiment. The best deployment of Petri dishes, taking into account a geometrical field symmetry, was proposed. Local SAR values within the cell layer among the Petri dishes were determined with different polarization angles. It was determined that this polarization effect should be considered when the actual exposure and deployment were conducted. We finally proposed an in vitro exposure system based on the field uniformity including downward exposure from an antenna for 3D cell culture experiments. A small-size chamber system was obtained, and the size was estimated using the planar near-field chamber design rule. Bioelectromagnetics. 2019;40:445-457. © 2019 Bioelectromagnetics Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Seung Lee
- Radio & Satellite Research Division, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Jae-Young Chung
- Department of Electrical & Information Engineering, Seoul National University of Science & Technology, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang Bong Jeon
- Radio & Satellite Research Division, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Ae-Kyoung Lee
- Radio & Satellite Research Division, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Hyung-Do Choi
- Radio & Satellite Research Division, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Korea
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40
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Owda AY, Salmon N, Shylo S, Owda M. Assessment of Bandaged Burn Wounds Using Porcine Skin and Millimetric Radiometry. Sensors (Basel) 2019; 19:s19132950. [PMID: 31277437 PMCID: PMC6651191 DOI: 10.3390/s19132950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 06/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes the experimental setup and measurements of the emissivity of porcine skin samples over the band of 80–100 GHz. Measurements were conducted on samples with and without dressing materials and before and after the application of localized heat treatments. Experimental measurements indicate that the differences in the mean emissivity values between unburned skin and burned damaged skin was up to ~0.28, with an experimental measurement uncertainty of ±0.005. Measured differences in the mean emissivity values between unburned and burn damaged skin increases with the depth of the burn, indicating a possible non-contact technique for assessing the degree of a burn. The mean emissivity of the dressed burned skin was found to be slightly higher than the undressed burned skin, typically ~0.01 to ~0.02 higher. This indicates that the signature of the burn caused by the application of localized heat treatments is observable through dressing materials. These findings reveal that radiometry, as a non-contact method, is capable of distinguishing between normal and burn-damaged skin under dressing materials without their often-painful removal. This indicates the potential of using millimeter wave (MMW) radiometry as a new type of medical diagnostic to monitor burn wounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amani Yousef Owda
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Manchester, Sackville Street Building, Manchester M13 9PL, UK.
| | - Neil Salmon
- School of Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK
| | - Sergiy Shylo
- Usikov Institute of Radiophysics and Electronics National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 61085 Kharkov, Ukraine
| | - Majdi Owda
- School of Computing, Mathematics and Digital Technology, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK
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Rothbart N, Holz O, Koczulla R, Schmalz K, Hübers HW. Analysis of Human Breath by Millimeter-Wave/Terahertz Spectroscopy. Sensors (Basel) 2019; 19:E2719. [PMID: 31212999 PMCID: PMC6630364 DOI: 10.3390/s19122719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Breath gas analysis is a promising tool for medical research and diagnosis. A particularly powerful technological approach is millimeter-wave/terahertz (mmW/THz) spectroscopy, because it is a very sensitive and highly selective technique. In addition, it offers the potential for compact and affordable sensing systems for wide use. In this work, we demonstrate the capability of a mmW/THz spectrometer for breath analysis. Samples from three volunteers and a sample from ambient air were analyzed with respect to 31 different molecular species. High-resolution absorption spectra were measured by scanning two absorption lines from each species. Out of the 31, a total of 21 species were detected. The results demonstrate the potential of mmW/THz spectroscopy for breath analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick Rothbart
- Institute of Optical Sensor Systems, German Aerospace Center (DLR), 12489 Berlin, Germany.
- Department of Physics, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 12489 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Olaf Holz
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine ITEM, Biomedical Research in Endstage and Obstructive Lung Disease Hannover (BREATH), 30625 Hannover, Germany.
- The German Center for Lung Research (DZL), 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Rembert Koczulla
- The German Center for Lung Research (DZL), 35392 Giessen, Germany.
- Department of Pulmonology, Institute for Internal Medicine, Philipps-University of Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany.
- Schön Klinik Berchtesgadener Land, Department for Pulmonology, Teaching Hospital of the Philipps-University, 35043 Marburg, Germany.
- Teaching Department of the Paracelsus University Salzburg, 5020 Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Klaus Schmalz
- IHP-Leibniz-Institut für innovative Mikroelektronik, 15236 Frankfurt (Oder), Germany.
| | - Heinz-Wilhelm Hübers
- Institute of Optical Sensor Systems, German Aerospace Center (DLR), 12489 Berlin, Germany.
- Department of Physics, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 12489 Berlin, Germany.
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42
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Mohyuddin W, Kim DH, Choi HC, Kim KW. Comparative Study of Square and Circular Loop Frequency Selective Surfaces for Millimeter-Wave Imaging Diagnostics Systems. Sensors (Basel) 2018; 18:E3079. [PMID: 30217059 DOI: 10.3390/s18093079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Revised: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
A design method of large-sized square-loop and circular-loop frequency selective surface (FSS) filters for protection of mm-wave imagining receivers is presented. Due to fine cell structure requirements, the performance of the FSS structures at mm-wave frequencies can be significantly affected by fabrication tolerances, especially involved with large-size panel fabrication. Through a comprehensive parametric variation study on the performance of square-loop and circular-loop FSS structures, it is found that the circular-loop FSS structure performs much less sensitively to the fabrication tolerances, thereby producing better and consistent performances with given design values. As a design example, square-loop and circular-loop notch filters resonating at 105 GHz were designed and the performances were evaluated with multiple prototypes. The resonant frequencies of the implemented circular-loop FSS filters deviated by only about 0.5 GHz from the accurate designed value, which can be easily adjusted in the design process. The implemented square-loop and circular loop FSS filters provided low-loss in the pass-band and high rejection of 23 dB at the resonant frequency with good oblique angle performance.
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43
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Fromenteze T, Decroze C, Abid S, Yurduseven O. Sparsity-Driven Reconstruction Technique for Microwave/ Millimeter-Wave Computational Imaging. Sensors (Basel) 2018; 18:s18051536. [PMID: 29757241 PMCID: PMC5982233 DOI: 10.3390/s18051536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Revised: 04/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Numerous prototypes of computational imaging systems have recently been presented in the microwave and millimeter-wave domains, enabling the simplification of associated active architectures through the use of radiating cavities and metasurfaces that can multiplex signals encoded in the physical layer. This paper presents a new reconstruction technique leveraging the sparsity of the signals in the time-domain and decomposition of the sensing matrix by support detection, the size of the computational inverse problem being reduced significantly without compromising the image quality.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cyril Decroze
- XLIM UMR 7252, Université de Limoges/CNRS, 87060 Limoges, France .
| | - Sana Abid
- XLIM UMR 7252, Université de Limoges/CNRS, 87060 Limoges, France .
| | - Okan Yurduseven
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA.
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Maeng SJ, Park SH, Cho YS. Hybrid Beamforming for Reduction of Inter-Beam Interference in Millimeter-Wave Cellular Systems. Sensors (Basel) 2018; 18:s18020528. [PMID: 29425172 PMCID: PMC5855150 DOI: 10.3390/s18020528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2017] [Revised: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In millimeter-wave (mm-wave) cellular systems, beamforming antennas are necessary at both the base station (BS) and mobile station (MS) to compensate for high attenuation in mm-wave frequency bands and to extend the transmission range. The beamforming antennas also allow each BS to serve a number of MSs simultaneously, providing a substantial gain in system capacity. In space-division multiple access (SDMA) systems, the challenge is the inter-beam interference (IBI) caused by adjacent beams that are formed by the BS in the same cell and BSs in neighboring cells. The beams that are formed toward MSs in each cell may generate significant interference to MSs in neighboring cells, especially for MSs at the cell boundary. In this paper, we propose four different digital precoding techniques (Type-1, Type-2, Type-3, and Type-4) to reduce IBI in mm-wave cellular systems with a hybrid beamformer. Simulation results show that the proposed techniques can reduce the IBI in mm-wave cellular systems effectively, compared with a single-cell multiuser case.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Joon Maeng
- School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Korea.
| | - Su Ho Park
- School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Korea.
| | - Yong Soo Cho
- School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Korea.
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45
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Zhang Y, Deng B, Yang Q, Gao J, Qin Y, Wang H. Near-Field Three-Dimensional Planar Millimeter-Wave Holographic Imaging by Using Frequency Scaling Algorithm. Sensors (Basel) 2017; 17:s17102438. [PMID: 29073734 PMCID: PMC5677111 DOI: 10.3390/s17102438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 10/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, a fast three-dimensional (3-D) frequency scaling algorithm (FSA) with large depth of focus is presented for near-field planar millimeter-wave (MMW) holographic imaging. Considering the cross-range range coupling term which is neglected in the conventional range migration algorithm (RMA), we propose an algorithm performing the range cell migration correction for de-chirped signals without interpolation by using a 3-D frequency scaling operation. First, to deal with the cross-range range coupling term, a 3-D frequency scaling operator is derived to eliminate the space variation of range cell migration. Then, a range migration correction factor is performed to compensate for the residual range cell migration. Finally, the imaging results are obtained by matched filtering in the cross-range direction. Compared with the conventional RMA, the proposed algorithm is comparable in accuracy but more efficient by using only chirp multiplications and fast Fourier transforms (FFTs). The algorithm has been tested with satisfying results by both simulation and experiment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Zhang
- College of Electronic Science, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China.
| | - Bin Deng
- College of Electronic Science, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China.
| | - Qi Yang
- College of Electronic Science, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China.
| | - Jingkun Gao
- College of Electronic Science, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China.
| | - Yuliang Qin
- College of Electronic Science, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China.
| | - Hongqiang Wang
- College of Electronic Science, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China.
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46
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Abstract
In this paper, a cell selection technique for millimeter-wave (mm-wave) cellular systems with hybrid beamforming is proposed. To select a serving cell, taking into account hybrid beamforming structures in a mm-wave cellular system, the angles of arrival and departure for all candidate cells need to be estimated in the initialization stage, requiring a long processing time. To enable simultaneous multi-beam transmissions in a multi-cell environment, a cell and beam synchronization signal (CBSS) is proposed to carry beam IDs in conjunction with cell IDs. A serving cell maximizing the channel capacity of the hybrid beamformer is selected with the estimated channel information and the optimum precoder. The performance of the proposed technique is evaluated by a computer simulation with a spatial channel model in a simple model of a mm-wave cellular system. It is shown by simulation that the proposed technique with the CBSS can significantly reduce the processing time for channel estimation and cell selection, and can achieve additional gains in channel capacity, or in bit error rate, compared to that obtained by conventional techniques.
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47
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Gimenez S, Roger S, Baracca P, Martín-Sacristán D, Monserrat JF, Braun V, Halbauer H. Performance Evaluation of Analog Beamforming with Hardware Impairments for mmW Massive MIMO Communication in an Urban Scenario. Sensors (Basel) 2016; 16:s16101555. [PMID: 27669241 PMCID: PMC5087344 DOI: 10.3390/s16101555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 09/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The use of massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) techniques for communication at millimeter-Wave (mmW) frequency bands has become a key enabler to meet the data rate demands of the upcoming fifth generation (5G) cellular systems. In particular, analog and hybrid beamforming solutions are receiving increasing attention as less expensive and more power efficient alternatives to fully digital precoding schemes. Despite their proven good performance in simple setups, their suitability for realistic cellular systems with many interfering base stations and users is still unclear. Furthermore, the performance of massive MIMO beamforming and precoding methods are in practice also affected by practical limitations and hardware constraints. In this sense, this paper assesses the performance of digital precoding and analog beamforming in an urban cellular system with an accurate mmW channel model under both ideal and realistic assumptions. The results show that analog beamforming can reach the performance of fully digital maximum ratio transmission under line of sight conditions and with a sufficient number of parallel radio-frequency (RF) chains, especially when the practical limitations of outdated channel information and per antenna power constraints are considered. This work also shows the impact of the phase shifter errors and combiner losses introduced by real phase shifter and combiner implementations over analog beamforming, where the former ones have minor impact on the performance, while the latter ones determine the optimum number of RF chains to be used in practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Gimenez
- iTEAM Research Institute, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia 46022, Spain.
| | - Sandra Roger
- iTEAM Research Institute, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia 46022, Spain.
| | | | | | - Jose F Monserrat
- iTEAM Research Institute, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia 46022, Spain.
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48
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Han DG, Kim YJ, Cho YS. Efficient Preamble Design Technique for Millimeter-Wave Cellular Systems with Beamforming. Sensors (Basel) 2016; 16:E1129. [PMID: 27455260 DOI: 10.3390/s16071129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Revised: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The processing time for beam training in millimeter-wave (mmWave) cellular systems can be significantly reduced by a code division multiplexing (CDM)-based technique, where multiple beams are transmitted simultaneously with their corresponding Tx beam IDs (BIDs) in the preamble. However, mmWave cellular systems with CDM-based preambles require a large number of cell IDs (CIDs) and BIDs, and a high computational complexity for CID and BID (CBID) searches. In this paper, a new preamble design technique that can increase the number of CBIDs significantly is proposed, using a preamble sequence constructed by a combination of two Zadoff-Chu (ZC) sequences. An efficient technique for the CBID detection is also described for the proposed preamble. It is shown by simulations using a simple model of an mmWave cellular system that the proposed technique can obtain a significant reduction in the complexity of the CBID detection without a noticeable performance degradation, compared to the previous technique.
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49
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Liu X, Xiao Z, Bai L, Choi J, Xia P, Xia XG. Beamforming Based Full-Duplex for Millimeter-Wave Communication. Sensors (Basel) 2016; 16:E1130. [PMID: 27455256 DOI: 10.3390/s16071130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 07/09/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we study beamforming based full-duplex (FD) systems in millimeter-wave (mmWave) communications. A joint transmission and reception (Tx/Rx) beamforming problem is formulated to maximize the achievable rate by mitigating self-interference (SI). Since the optimal solution is difficult to find due to the non-convexity of the objective function, suboptimal schemes are proposed in this paper. A low-complexity algorithm, which iteratively maximizes signal power while suppressing SI, is proposed and its convergence is proven. Moreover, two closed-form solutions, which do not require iterations, are also derived under minimum-mean-square-error (MMSE), zero-forcing (ZF), and maximum-ratio transmission (MRT) criteria. Performance evaluations show that the proposed iterative scheme converges fast (within only two iterations on average) and approaches an upper-bound performance, while the two closed-form solutions also achieve appealing performances, although there are noticeable differences from the upper bound depending on channel conditions. Interestingly, these three schemes show different robustness against the geometry of Tx/Rx antenna arrays and channel estimation errors.
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50
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Naganuma H, Kim G, Kawada Y, Inami N, Hatakeyama K, Iihama S, Nazrul Islam KM, Oogane M, Mizukami S, Ando Y. Electrical detection of millimeter-waves by magnetic tunnel junctions using perpendicular magnetized L10-FePd free layer. Nano Lett 2015; 15:623-8. [PMID: 25549140 DOI: 10.1021/nl504114v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Spin dynamics excited by spin-polarized current in magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs) is potentially useful in nanoscale electrical oscillation sources and detection devices. A spin oscillator/detector should work at a high frequency, such as that of a millimeter-wave, where the quality of a semiconductor device is restricted by carrier mobility, the CR time constant, and so on. Developers of spin systems for practical use need to find out how to excite spin dynamics (i) in the millimeter-wave region, (ii) with low power consumption (ex: no external magnetic field, low damping material), and (iii) for broad frequency modulation. Here L10-ordered FePd alloy with perpendicular magnetocrystalline anisotropy (PMA) and a low damping constant, 0.007, was used for the free layer in the MTJs, and a homodyne-detected ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) signal was obtained at around 30 GHz together with the possibility of one-octave frequency modulation. The FMR signal in out-of-plane magnetized L10-ordered FePd free layer could be excited without an external magnetic field by injecting in-plane spin polarized alternating current. This study shows the potential utility of L10-ordered alloy materials such as FePt, CoPt, MnAl, and MnGa in a variety of millimeter-wave spin devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Naganuma
- Department of Applied Physics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University , Sendai 980-8579, Japan
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