Male elephant management in AZA institutions: Current status and priorities for the future

Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) populations collectively managed by ex-situ facilities accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) face sustainability challenges. Among the priorities to strengthen animal wellbeing and population sustainability is male elephant management. We conducted a survey of AZA facilities currently housing male elephants to assess the status, challenges, and priorities in three areas of male elephant management: musth, socialization, and semen collection. Surveys were administered to elephant care teams at AZA-accredited institutions between November 2022 and February 2023, and we received responses from 34 institutions (91.9% of AZA-accredited facilities holding adult male elephants), housing 32 adult male Asians and 26 adult male Africans. Most facilities prioritized breeding and male socialization over musth management and semen collection (although most facilities acknowledged that all these efforts are important), citing leadership support and staffing as most important to achieve male management goals. Behaviors most commonly accompanying musth included reduced appetite, difficulty training or shifting, human-directed aggression, and interest in females. Musth timing was variable between males and facilities. Most males were well-socialized with females and/or other males, though elephant compatibility and facility design were limiting factors in managing socialization. Although 60.6% of facilities collected semen or were training for semen collection, very few male elephants could reliably provide viable semen samples, challenging assisted reproductive efforts that could bolster population sustainability in both species. Together, our results provide a better understanding of the state of male elephant management, offering specific areas deserving of research and development to enhance wellbeing and sustainability.

Evaluation of pharmacological alternatives to reduce the pain and discomfort produced by electroejaculation in rams

Electroejaculation (EE) represents the main technique for semen collection from domestic and wild animals independently of libido. However, the technique is associated with intense involuntary muscle contractions, vocalization, ataxia and lying down, caused by the electric stimulation of the nerves in the caudal epigastric region. These clinical manifestations represent important indicators of discomfort. In this context, the objective of this study was to evaluate two protocols of local anaesthetic blockade and two anatomical access for pharmacological desensitization of the caudal epigastric innervation as alternatives to promote comfort and reduce stress associated with EE in rams. For the study, four clinically healthy Dorper rams were selected. All animals were subjected to a design consisting of five semen collection treatments (n = 3 collections per treatment): T1-control, conventional EE without local anaesthetic blockade; T2, EE with ventral blockade (VB) of epigastric innervation using lidocaine hydrochloride 2%; T3, EE with VB of epigastric innervation using a combination of lidocaine hydrochloride 2% and fentanyl citrate; T4, EE with blockade of epigastric innervation through the perineal access using lidocaine hydrochloride 2%; T5, EE with blockade of epigastric innervation through the perineal access using a combination of lidocaine hydrochloride and fentanyl citrate. Seminal samples resulting from EE were subjectively evaluated for sperm motility and concentration, vigour and volume. Additionally, blood serum samples were collected for quantification of cortisol and creatine kinase (CK) enzyme. Assessments of stress and discomfort were conducted by measuring blood pressure, heart rate (HR) and respiratory rate (RR), as well as observing involuntary muscle contractions, ataxia and animal vocalization. No variations in blood pressure, sperm motility, vigour, CK, and cortisol were observed among the treatments. Individual variations were observed for the occurrence of vocalization (p = .0066), but there were no differences between the groups. Anaesthetic blockades conducted using the combination of lidocaine and fentanyl resulted in a lower incidence of ataxia during EE (p < .0001). It is concluded that the combination of fentanyl citrate and lidocaine hydrochloride results in less discomfort for animals undergoing EE, regardless of the anatomical access used for local anaesthetic blockades.

Collection, Handling, and Preservation of Wild Bird Semen: Current Status, Challenges, and Perspectives

Semen preservation is a significant biotechnology used to safeguard the genetic material of birds, especially those with declining populations, through biobanking. However, there are limited reports on the successful chilling or cryopreservation of wild bird semen. In general, these techniques are not yet well-established for several species of wild birds and pose several challenges such as the need for bird handling and training, contamination of semen samples, low volume of semen collected, and inefficient preservation protocols. To address these challenges and improve post-thawing outcomes, new possibilities are being investigated, including alternative collection methods to traditional digital massage, the use of antioxidants and enzymes in the medium for chilling or freezing, storage methods using different straws from the usual pellet, and slower freezing rates. This review aims to discuss the various aspects of applying semen preservation in wild birds to create germplasm banks, highlighting the primary results obtained and the challenges that need to be addressed.

Atipamezole Reverses Cardiovascular Changes Induced by High-Dose Medetomidine in Cats Undergoing Sedation for Semen Collection

This study aimed at describing the change in echocardiographic variables after high-dose medetomidine and the reversal with atipamezole in six cats undergoing sedation for semen collection. Further cardiac Troponin I (cTnI) concentration and the effect of repeated sedation were assessed. Echocardiography was performed before and 20 min after sedation with 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine intramuscularly (IM) for urethral catheterisation. Prior to epididymectomy, S-ketamine was administered intravenously. Twenty minutes after reversal with 0.5 mg/kg atipamezole IM, the third echocardiography was performed. Sedation with medetomidine and reversal with atipamezole was repeated on day 7, 14, 21 and 28. Heart rate (HR) and rhythm were monitored throughout all sedations. On day 0 and 28 cTnI concentrations were measured before and after the procedure. After normality testing, the values were compared over time. The administration of medetomidine led to a marked reduction in HR, cardiac output and ventricular systolic function and a significant increase in left ventricular dimensions. Rhythm abnormalities, such as ventricular premature complexes and idioventricular rhythm, could be observed. The administration of atipamezole completely reversed sedation and the changes in haemodynamic variables. No significant increase in cTnI concentrations could be detected, although two out of six cats showed values above the reference range.

A novel, patented method for semen collection in dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius)

In the current article, a developed, patented method denoted the 'Camel Semen Collection Kit-CSCK', was designed to solve the problem of semen collection in dromedary camels. CSCK is composed of three main parts: (1) Semen collection sac: made from supersensitive flexible low-density polyethylene- (LDPE); (2) Metal stainless steel applicator: designed to introduce the collection sac intravaginally and fixate it to the vaginal wall of a female camel through air insufflation; (3) Fixation sticker: a cushion sheet sticker is used to secure the outer portion of the collection sac to the female's perineal area. Semen was collected twice a week from eight dromedary bulls by using electroejaculation (EJ), artificial vagina (AV) and CSCK. Successful semen collections were 81.3%, 84.4% and 43.8% using EJ, CSCK and AV techniques respectively. Semen obtained by EJ technique showed lower semen volume, gross activity, sperm concentration, total sperm motility and percentage of live sperm cells compared to the other two techniques. Semen collected by CSCK showed a longer collection period and higher volume, gross activity, sperm motility and percentage of live spermatozoa and a lower rate of visible contamination compared to AV technique. The advantages and disadvantages of the three techniques were compared and discussed. In conclusion, CSCK represents a practical and easy method to reliably collect high-quality semen from any untrained male dromedary camel and may facilitate the widespread application of assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) on a large scale in this species.

Analysis of artificial insemination center management factors that contribute to sperm parameters and boar longevity with a major focus on PGF2α treatment

Artificial insemination (AI) centers' economic profitability is directly impacted by the amount of high-quality sperm doses. Many internal and external factors contribute to the quality of ejaculates. To enhance the libido and to reduce the time that is required to train boars for semen collection, prostaglandin products are used routinely at AI centers. The objectives of this study were to analyze sperm parameters of 40,765 ejaculates and the survival of 406 PGF2α-treated and 417 untreated AI boars of five breeds (Duroc [DU], Large White [LW], Landrace [LR], Pietrain [PI], and Large White Sire Line [LS]). Data were assessed in one AI center in Switzerland from 2018 to 2022 and sperm parameters were determined by computer-assisted sperm analysis immediately after semen collection. For further calculations, the ejaculates were divided into four groups depending on the boar's age at semen collection day: 7 to 11, 12 to 18, 19 to 24, and 25 to 87 mo. Along with the boar age, breed, season, and semen collection frequency even the treatment with PGF2α had significant influence on sperm parameters. Overall, 19.5% ejaculates were collected after PGF2α treatment. For every age and breed group, higher ejaculate volume was found for untreated boars than for PGF2α-treated boars (P < 0.001). Higher values for total and progressive sperm motility, total sperm number, and the proportion of morphologically normal sperm were observed in untreated boars across several age and breed groups. Only for sperm concentration, higher values were found for treated boars older than 11 mo (P < 0.001) and the breeds DU, LW, and LR (P < 0.001). The chance of ejaculates being rejected for AI purposes because of low sperm quality was 21% greater for treated boars. There was no difference in survival between treated and untreated boars. The hazard for boar removal increased with decreasing age at first semen collection and decreasing semen collection frequency. The results reveal better sperm quality for untreated boars than for PGF2α-treated boars, which might indicate that the underlying fertility of boars necessitating treatment is inferior compared to boars that can be collected without further treatment. Therefore, AI boar stations that are aiming to reduce PGF2α treatment should pay special attention to high libido and fertility of young prospective AI boars.

Camel semen collection, viscosity, and cryopreservation: a review

Artificial insemination in camels remains undeveloped due to the difficulties in semen collection, semen viscosity, and semen cryopreservation. The semen collection procedure has been facilitated to some extent using camel phantom and/or possibly an intravaginal condom. Main reasons for semen viscosity in camelids have been unraveled and different mechanical and enzymatic approaches were used to alleviate this problem; however, there is still no conclusive protocol to safely remove semen viscosity completely. It seems that along with the problem of semen viscosity, semen cryopreservation in camels remains unresolved. As a result, there is no convincing report on successful and repeatable pregnancies following insemination with frozen semen in camel. This review gathered most of the information that appeared in the peer reviewed journals to highlight major problems in camel semen technology, including semen collection, semen viscosity, and semen cryopreservation.

Normal feline reproduction: The tom

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE

Understanding the normal reproductive anatomy and physiology of the male cat is important for successful breeding. Veterinarians may be called in to troubleshoot when fertility and pregnancy rates decrease in a cattery. By understanding the normal physical parameters, as well as breeding behavior, the veterinarian is better equipped to assess the infertility issue. Also, clients are increasingly requesting breeding soundness examinations prior to mating or purchase. Semen collection is more difficult in the cat than in the dog but can still be accomplished in a clinical setting and provides important information when confronted with breeding males.

AIM

The aim of this review is to provide a practical overview of the breeding male. The reader will receive information on time of puberty, normal reproductive anatomy (both external and internal), and breeding management practices to optimize fertility. The most up-to-date semen collection techniques are discussed, as are sedation/anesthesia options. Also, historical literature on the basic anatomy of the male reproductive system is reviewed, such as how the penile spines work and when they appear; this information is specific to the cat.

EVIDENCE BASE

The information in this article is based on the author's experience, as well as drawing on historical and current literature, and provides the most up-to-date review as possible.

Semen collection by urethral catheterization and electro-ejaculation with different voltages, and the effect of holding temperature and cooling rate before cryopreservation on semen quality in the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata)

In the Japanese macaque, semen has been collected by electro-ejaculation (EE), using the higher voltage stimuli compared to other species including genus Macaca. Semen coagulate immediately after ejaculation, which makes difficult to produce high-quality semen for artificial insemination. Recently, semen collection using urethral catheterization (UC) has been reported in carnivore and this technique may allow semen collection without coagulation in a less invasive manner. Further, the temporal preservation temperature and cooling rate of semen during cryopreservation affect post thawing sperm quality. In this study, to improve semen quality and quantity, as well as the animal welfare, semen collection was performed by EE with high (5-15 V) or low (3-6 V) voltage, UC and a combination of the two (EE-UC). It has been suggested that a high voltage is necessary for semen collection, but 10 V stimulation was effective enough and 15 V is for additional sperm collection. Also, liquid semen was collected by EE-UC and this could increase the total number of sperm. Further, to improve the post thawing sperm motility, semen was kept at four temperatures (4, 15, 25 and 37˚C) for 60 min, and processed with two cooling procedures (slow cooling before second dilution and fast cooling after second dilution). Holding semen at 25˚C and fast cooling after the second dilution maintained progressive motile sperm rate. The present results will contribute to the improvement of semen collection and animal welfare of Japanese macaques.

Cardiopulmonary Parameters and Arterial Blood Gases During Etorphine-Medetomidine-Midazolam Immobilization in Free-Ranging Black Rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) Undergoing Electro-Ejaculation-A Preliminary Study

Conservation management interventions for the critically endangered black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) require immobilization, which offer opportunities for semen collection and cryopreservation to establish genetic reservoirs. In free-ranging rhinoceroses, a combination of the potent opioid etorphine and the tranquilizer azaperone is routinely used for chemical immobilization but is associated with muscle rigidity and severe cardiopulmonary changes. Additionally, azaperone inhibits semen emission. Seven free-ranging, male, sexually mature black rhinoceroses were immobilized with an alternative protocol consisting of 4.5 mg etorphine, 5 mg medetomidine, 50 mg midazolam and 2,500 IU hyaluronidase delivered remotely by darting from a helicopter. During the immobilization, electro-ejaculation was performed with a portable electro-ejaculator, and a species-specific rectal probe. Animals were observed for muscle tremors. Longitudinal changes in respiratory rate, heart rate and peripheral oxyhemoglobin saturation, measured at 5 min intervals, were assessed using a general mixed model. Non-invasive oscillometric blood pressure and arterial blood gas variables were measured at first handling and before reversal and compared using the Wilcoxon rank sum test. All animals were successfully immobilized, showed no muscle tremors, presented with normal heart rates and lactate concentration (<5 mmol/L), recovered uneventfully, but experienced acidemia, hypoxemia and hypercapnia. Induction time and total time in recumbency were 4.2 ± 0.41 and 38.4 ± 6.9 min, respectively. Electro-stimulation commenced after 11.7 ± 3.98 min and completed after 24.3 ± 6.65 min. Semen-rich fractions were successfully collected from six animals. Our observations indicate that etorphine-medetomidine-midazolam provides a promising immobilization protocol for free-ranging black rhinoceroses, that allows for successful electro-ejaculation.

A Preliminary Study on Semen Collection, Its Evaluation, and Testicular and Sperm Morphometries in The Wild Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis Larvatus)

Introduction

The proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) is an endangered species with a declining population. This article describes the first successful attempt at sperm collection and evaluation, and the testicular and sperm morphometries of the wild proboscis monkey in Sabah, Malaysia.

Material and Methods

Eight semen collection procedures using electro-ejaculation and digital manipulation were conducted in three wild adult male proboscis monkeys. A total of 21 ejaculates were collected. The testicular biometry was measured with the aid of ultrasonography. Sample evaluation included semen volume and pH and sperm concentration, viability, and abnormality. The sperm morphometry was undertaken using phase contrast microscopy.

Results

The mean (±SD) total testicular volume of these animals was 5.77 cm³ (±1.58). Semen collection by electro-ejaculation resulted in an 84% success rate, while digital manipulation did not result in any ejaculation. Each animal showed different semen characteristics, where the volume was 5-540 μL, pH 8-9, and sperm concentration 0.041-83.00 ×106/mL. The percentage of abnormal sperm was high at 76.8% (±89.60), largely due to midpiece abnormality. Normal sperm had a spherical head and long tail with a head : midpiece : tail length ratio of 1 : 2: 8.

Conclusion

The social status of these animals may contribute to the generally low quality of the semen. The techniques and data from this study are useful for future conservation and application of assisted reproductive technology in this species.

Hastening Time to Ejaculation in Donkey Jacks Treated with the PGF2α Analog, Cloprostenol Sodium

Simple Summary

Semen collection in donkey jacks can last up to 90 min due to the long courtship needed for this species’ males to obtain sexual excitation and erection. In several domestic animals, ProstaglandinF2α successfully stimulated excitement in the male prior to collection and enhanced semen production. In our study, the prostaglandin analog cloprostenol sodium, administered prior to the semen collection, hastened erection and ejaculation in almost all donkey jacks. No differences have been found in semen production compared to control.

Abstract

Due to the long courtship needed to attain excitation and erection, donkey semen collection can take up to 90 min. ProstaglandinF2α (PGF2α) has been reported to hasten the onset of erection and ejaculation in domesticated mammals, presumably by inducing smooth muscle contractions in the internal genitalia. However, while it has been anecdotally used in donkeys, it has yet to be critically evaluated. This study aimed to compare behavioral and semen parameters in Catalan, Balearic, Amiata, and Miranda jacks treated with the PGF2α analogue cloprostenol sodium immediately prior to exposure to an estrus jenny. Nineteen donkeys were assigned in a crossover design to receive cloprostenol sodium (125 µg, i.m.; n = 53 collections) or saline (1 mL, i.m.; n = 53 collections). There were no differences for erection (52/53 vs. 52/53) or ejaculation (52/53 vs. 48/53) for collection attempts assigned to saline or cloprostenol sodium, respectively. Cloprostenol sodium significantly hastened treatment-to-erection and treatment-to-ejaculation times from 12.0 ± 1.6 to 6.0 ± 1.6 min and from 14.0 ± 1.4 to 9.6 ± 1.4 min, respectively. Significant effects of breed and age were observed in behavioral and parameters, but there were no effects of cloprostenol sodium administration on semen parameters. In conclusion, cloprostenol sodium administration immediately prior to semen collection hastened time to collect semen in donkeys with no detrimental effects on semen quality and can be used by practitioners to circumvent long delays in donkey semen collection.

Novel Low-Voltage Electro-Ejaculation Approach for Sperm Collection from Zoo Captive Lanyu Miniature Pigs (Sus barbatus sumatranus)

Semen collection can be achieved via hand penile massage or rectal stimulation using electro-ejaculation methods. Traditional electro-ejaculation procedure applied relatively high voltage of 3-15 volts with a maximum current of 900 mA. However, these manipulations often result in great stress and discomforts in animals. In this study, we showed low-voltage electro-ejaculation procedure using 2-3 volts with a maximum current of 500 mA can efficiently stimulated ejaculations in zoo captive lanyu miniature pigs with a high success rate of 81.3% (13/16). Besides normal semen properties (semen volume, pH, sperm concentration), we demonstrated that low-voltage electro-ejaculation caused less stress in the animals, and sperm cells obtained via low-voltage electro-ejaculation exhibit low abnormality (10.3%), high viability (84.3%), motility (75.7%), progressive motility (63.7%), and acrosome integrity (88%). However, cryopreservation protocol used in the current study requires further optimization, as sperm mitochondrial function was partially compromised during freezing procedures. Taken together, we demonstrated in this study that a low-voltage electro-ejaculation approach can be used to obtain quality sperm cells from zoo captive lanyu miniature pig with less physical stress during electro-ejaculation procedure.

Plasma Concentration Rise after the Intramuscular Administration of High Dose Medetomidine (0.13 mg/kg) for Semen Collection in Cats

High dose medetomidine 0.13 mg/kg can be used for semen collection in cats with variable results in terms of quantity and quality. Therefore, a variation in terms of distribution and elimination among patients has been hypothesised. The aim of the study was to characterise the pharmacokinetics of medetomidine (0.13 mg/kg) administered intramuscularly (IM) in healthy male cats. Eighteen male cats undergoing castration were included, and medetomidine (0.13 mg/kg) was administered IM. Venous blood samples were collected at 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75 and 90 minutes after medetomidine administration. Before orchiectomy, at T20, sperm collection was attempted. Plasma medetomidine concentrations were determined by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis. Semen collection was successful in 15/18 cats. The medetomidine plasma concentration following the IM administration of a bolus was best described using a non-compartment model. Time of maximum concentration was observed at 40 minutes (range 20–90); maximum concentration was 32.8 ng/mL (range 26.8–51.2). The median apparent clearance was 11.9 mL/kg/minute (range 0.7–43.8). In conclusion, medetomidine administered IM at 0.13 mg/kg reached its peak plasma concentration slowly and with variability among patients. In addition, it was characterised by low total body clearance probably due to the cardiovascular alterations associated with medetomidine administration.

Post-thawing effects of three cryopreservation diluents on Rusa deer (Rusa timorensis) spermatozoa

The aim of this study was to evaluate home-made and commercial extenders for the cryopreservation of Rusa deer semen. After collection by electroejaculation, six ejaculates were diluted and frozen in TES-based, Tris-based and Triladyl^® extenders. Subjective motility, viability, morphology, acrosome integrity and membrane functionality were assessed post-thawing and after 1-hr incubation at 37°C (Thermal stress test). Total and progressive motility, and kinematic parameters were also assessed through CASA system. Post-thawing sperm progressive motility (PM), velocity according to the straight path (VSL) and linearity (LIN) showed significant differences, and higher values were detected for spermatozoa diluted with Triladyl^® and TES (p < 0.05) as compared with Tris (PM of Triladyl^® 14.7% vs. 3.2% TES and 2.5% Tris; VSL 56 for Triladyl^® , 59.2 for TES and 41.7 for Tris; LIN 45.6 for Triladyl^® , 52 for TES and 36.5 for Tris). Triladyl^® and TES extender led to better post-thawing sperm parameters, but these preliminary results need to be verified through artificial insemination trials.

Semen collection and ejaculate characteristics of the Leopard Tortoise (Stigmochelys pardalis)

The preservation of spermatozoa is an important tool used in conservation programs to increase the genetic diversity of threatened and endangered species. Although routinely used to manage conservation programs for higher vertebrates, there have been limited attempts to establish reproductive assistance programs for tortoises. The purpose of this study was to develop a model for collecting and characterizing semen in Testudinidae. Semen was collected from 13/16 (81.2%, 95% CI: 62-100) adult male leopard tortoises (Stigmochelys pardalis) via electroejaculation under propofol anesthesia. Semen samples were collected most frequently after the second series of electrostimulations (6/13, 46.1%), with fewer animals producing semen after the first (5/13, 38.5%) or third (2/13, 15.4%) electrostimulations. The average volume of a semen sample in the tortoises was 0.26 ml (standard deviation: 0.16, minimum-maximum: 0.1-0.6), the average spermatozoal concentration was 101.62 × 10⁶/ml, and the average motility at time of collection was 57.3%. A rapid decrease in motility was observed in refrigerated samples over 24 h resulting in a median motility of 0% at 24 h post-collection. The results of this study suggest that electroejaculation is a safe and efficient method for collecting semen from leopard tortoises.

Ejaculation does not contribute to the stress response to electroejaculation in sheep

Electroejaculation procedures (EEPs) provoke stress; nevertheless, ejaculation produces physiological changes similar as those usually used to measure stress responses. The application of EEP to animals that cannot ejaculate-as ewes-may be useful to discriminate the responses induced by ejaculation from those provoked by EEP. The aim was to determine the stress response to EEP in rams and ewes. The EEPs were applied to 10 rams and 10 ewes during the non-breeding season, and the number of vocalizations, the heart rate, rectal temperature, serum cortisol concentration, biochemical and haematological parameters were measured. Overall, EEP provoked increases in cortisol concentration, glycaemia, rectal temperature and concentration of creatine kinase (all them: p < .0001) as well as relative concentration of granulocytes (p = .003) and absolute granulocyte concentration (p = .0002) in both, rams and ewes. Heart rate, relative concentration of lymphocytes (p = .001), haematocrit (p = .02) and haemoglobin (p = .045) decreased in animals from both genders after EEP. Besides, cortisol (p < .0001), rectal temperature (p = .002) and glycaemia (p = .001) were greater in ewes than rams, and creatine kinase also tended to be greater in ewes than rams (p = .054). On the other hand, the number of animals that vocalized (p = .006), white blood cells (p = .02) and absolute lymphocytes (p = .02) were greater in rams than ewes. The general trends show a similar pattern of stress responses in animals from both genders. Therefore, we concluded that ejaculation does not contribute to the stress response provoked by the EEP. This procedure also provokes muscular damage and probably pain.

When to ask male adolescents to provide semen sample for fertility preservation?

Background

Fertility preservation in adolescents undergoing sterilizing radiation and/or chemotherapy is the standard of care in oncology. The opportunity for patients to provide a semen sample by ejaculation is a critical issue in adolescent fertility preservation.

Methods

Fifty males with no medical or sexual developmental abnormalities were evaluated. The subjects were screened for evidence of orgasmic, erectile, and ejaculatory dysfunction. A detailed sexual development history was obtained under an Institutional Review Board (IRB)-approved protocol.

Results

Fifty males, aged 18-65 years (mean 39±16.03 years) volunteered to be part of this study. The mean reported age for the onset of puberty was 12.39 years (95% CI, 11.99-12.80 years), 13.59 years (95% CI, 13.05-14.12 years) for the first ejaculation, 12.56 years (95% CI, 11.80-13.32 years) for the start of masturbation, and 17.26 years (95% CI, 16.18-18.33 years) for the first experienced intercourse. Seventy-five percent of the cohort reached puberty by the age of 13.33, experienced masturbation by 14.5, first ejaculated by the age of 14.83, and had intercourse at age of 19.15 years. The first experienced ejaculation fell 1.5 years after the onset of puberty in 80% present of the cohort, and 84% starts masturbation 1.5 years after the onset of puberty. The mean response between the younger and the older subject was not statistical significance.

Conclusions

It is appropriate to consider a request for semen specimens by masturbation from teenagers at one year and six months after the onset of puberty; the onset age of puberty plus 1.5 years is an important predictor of ejaculation and sample collection for cryopreservation.

Spermiotoxicity of commercial condoms made from polyurethane, polyisoprene and latex, using domestic ruminants as an experimental animal model

The use of condoms could provide a means of collecting high-quality spermatozoa from different species under physiological ejaculation conditions. However, certain condom materials may affect sperm functionality. This study examined the spermiotoxicity of different commercial condom materials towards ram and goat spermatozoa. Sperm samples were diluted in Tyrode's medium and placed in contact with a piece of condom material (polyurethane, polyisoprene or latex) and incubated for 30 or 90 min. Contact time in the polyisoprene and latex treatments affected some sperm variables; no such effects were seen, however, in the polyurethane treatments. For ram spermatozoa in contact with polyisoprene, the percentage of dead spermatozoa with a damaged acrosome increased at 90 min, while for spermatozoa in contact with latex, the percentage of live spermatozoa with an intact acrosome decreased. For goat spermatozoa in contact with both polyisoprene and latex, the percentage of dead spermatozoa with a damaged acrosome increased at 90 min, while for spermatozoa in contact with polyisoprene, the percentage of live spermatozoa with an intact acrosome decreased. In conclusion, latex and polyisoprene contain components that affect sperm motility, plasma membrane integrity and acrosome function. Polyurethane does not seem to reduce the quality of semen.

Spermatocele in a South African Boerboel dog

A 2-year-old intact male South African Boerboel presented for semen cryopreservation and was discovered to be azoospermic. The dog had excellent libido and had sired litters within 6 months, so a further investigation of why his collection lacked sperm was warranted. On further examination of his scrotal contents, his right epididymis had an enlarged area with a hard texture. Ultrasonography revealed that the enlarged area of the right epididymis was fluid filled. A sample of the fluid was aspirated for aerobic culture. No bacteria showed growth. Although the culture was negative, it was suspected that this dog had an epididymitis or epididymal abscess, and treatment with enrofloxacin at 10mg/kg orally was initiated for 4 weeks. The abnormal texture and fluid-filled cavity in the right epididymis persisted, despite antibiotic therapy. Cytology of a repeat aspiration of the fluid-filled area after antibiotic therapy revealed a mixture of red blood cells and sperm. Owing to the potential for blood-testis barrier disruption, a unilateral orchiectomy of the right testicle was performed, as an attempt to protect future sperm production of the remaining testicle. A spermatocele was confirmed on histopathology. After another month, an excellent-quality semen sample was collected, with 90% progressive motility, good concentration, and few morphologic abnormalities. A subsequent collection was acquired and was successfully cryopreserved for future breeding. In dogs with spermatoceles, semen quality can be preserved with aggressive treatment to remove the affected testicle. The disruption of the blood-testis barrier in spermatoceles may result in antisperm antibody production and eventual infertility; however, cryopreservation can result in long-term options for owners seeking to continue using an animal in their breeding program.

Randomised controlled trial of whether erotic material is required for semen collection: impact of informed consent on outcome

Semen is collected to evaluate male fertility or cryostore sperm preferentially in laboratories but such collection facilities have no standard fit-out. It is widely believed but untested whether providing erotic material (EM) is required to collect semen by masturbation in the unfamiliar environment. To test this assumption, 1520 men (1046 undergoing fertility evaluation, 474 sperm cryostorage, providing 1932 semen collection episodes) consecutively attending the semen laboratory of a major metropolitan teaching hospital for semen analysis were eligible for randomization to be provided or not with printed erotic material EM (X-rated, soft-core magazines) during semen collection. Randomization was performed by providing magazines in the collection rooms (as a variation on non-standard fit-out) on alternate weeks using a schedule concealed from participants. In the pilot study, men were randomized without seeking consent. In the second part of the study, which continued on from the first without interruption, an approved informed consent procedure was added. The primary outcome, the time to collect semen defined as the time from receiving to returning the sample receptacle, was significantly longer (by ~6%, 14.9 ± 0.3 [mean ± standard error of mean] vs. 14.0 ± 0.2 minutes, p = 0.02) among men provided with EM than those randomized to not being provided. There was no significant increase in the failure to collect semen samples (2.6% overall) nor any difference in age, semen volume or sperm concentration, output or motility according to whether EM was provided or not. The significantly longer time to collect was evident in the pilot study and the study overall, but not in the main study where the informed consent procedure was used. This study provides evidence that refutes the assumption that EM needs to be provided for semen collection in a laboratory. It also provides an example of a usually unobservable participation bias influencing study outcome of a randomized controlled trials.