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Kong S, Zhu M, Pan D, Lane B, Smith RS, Roeder AHK. Tradeoff Between Speed and Robustness in Primordium Initiation Mediated by Auxin-CUC1 Interaction. bioRxiv 2023:2023.11.30.569401. [PMID: 38076982 PMCID: PMC10705432 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.30.569401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Robustness is the reproducible development of a phenotype despite stochastic noise. It often involves tradeoffs with other performance metrics, but the mechanisms underlying such tradeoffs were largely unknown. An Arabidopsis flower robustly develops four sepals from four precisely positioned auxin maxima. The development related myb-like 1 (drmy1) mutant generates stochastic noise in auxin signaling that disrupts both the robust position and number of sepal primordia. Here, we found that increased expression of CUP-SHAPED COTYLEDON1 (CUC1), a boundary specification transcription factor, in the drmy1 mutant underlies this loss of robustness. CUC1 surrounds and amplifies stochastic auxin patches in drmy1 to form variably positioned auxin maxima and sepal primordia. Removing CUC1 from drmy1 provides time for the noise in auxin signaling to resolve into four precisely positioned auxin maxima, restoring robust sepal initiation. However, removing CUC1 decreases auxin maxima intensity and slows down sepal initiation. Thus, CUC1 increases morphogenesis speed but impairs robustness against auxin noise. Further, using a computational model, we found that the observed phenotype can be explained by the effect of CUC1 in repolarizing PIN FORMED1 (PIN1), a polar auxin transporter. Thus, our study illustrates a tradeoff between speed and robustness during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuyao Kong
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Mingyuan Zhu
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Present address: Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - David Pan
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Brendan Lane
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Richard S. Smith
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Adrienne H. K. Roeder
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Lead Contact
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Mollier C, Skrzydeł J, Borowska-Wykręt D, Majda M, Bayle V, Battu V, Totozafy JC, Dulski M, Fruleux A, Wrzalik R, Mouille G, Smith RS, Monéger F, Kwiatkowska D, Boudaoud A. Spatial consistency of cell growth direction during organ morphogenesis requires CELLULOSE SYNTHASE INTERACTIVE1. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112689. [PMID: 37352099 PMCID: PMC10391631 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular matrices contain fibril-like polymers often organized in parallel arrays. Although their role in morphogenesis has been long recognized, it remains unclear how the subcellular control of fibril synthesis translates into organ shape. We address this question using the Arabidopsis sepal as a model organ. In plants, cell growth is restrained by the cell wall (extracellular matrix). Cellulose microfibrils are the main load-bearing wall component, thought to channel growth perpendicularly to their main orientation. Given the key function of CELLULOSE SYNTHASE INTERACTIVE1 (CSI1) in guidance of cellulose synthesis, we investigate the role of CSI1 in sepal morphogenesis. We observe that sepals from csi1 mutants are shorter, although their newest cellulose microfibrils are more aligned compared to wild-type. Surprisingly, cell growth anisotropy is similar in csi1 and wild-type plants. We resolve this apparent paradox by showing that CSI1 is required for spatial consistency of growth direction across the sepal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corentin Mollier
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRAE, 69364 Lyon Cedex, France
| | - Joanna Skrzydeł
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-032 Katowice, Poland
| | - Dorota Borowska-Wykręt
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-032 Katowice, Poland
| | - Mateusz Majda
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Colney Lane, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Vincent Bayle
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRAE, 69364 Lyon Cedex, France
| | - Virginie Battu
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRAE, 69364 Lyon Cedex, France
| | - Jean-Chrisologue Totozafy
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles, France
| | - Mateusz Dulski
- Silesian Center for Education and Interdisciplinary Research, University of Silesia in Katowice, 41-500 Chorzów, Poland; Faculty of Science and Technology, Institute of Materials Engineering, University of Silesia in Katowice, 41-500 Chorzów, Poland
| | - Antoine Fruleux
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRAE, 69364 Lyon Cedex, France; LPTMS, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Roman Wrzalik
- Silesian Center for Education and Interdisciplinary Research, University of Silesia in Katowice, 41-500 Chorzów, Poland; August Chełkowski Institute of Physics, University of Silesia in Katowice, 41-500 Chorzów, Poland
| | - Grégory Mouille
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles, France
| | - Richard S Smith
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Colney Lane, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Françoise Monéger
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRAE, 69364 Lyon Cedex, France
| | - Dorota Kwiatkowska
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-032 Katowice, Poland.
| | - Arezki Boudaoud
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRAE, 69364 Lyon Cedex, France; LadHyX, Ecole Polytechnique, CNRS, IP Paris, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France.
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Kong S, Zhu M, Scarpin MR, Pan D, Jia L, Martinez RE, Alamos S, Vadde BVL, Garcia HG, Qian SB, Brunkard JO, Roeder AHK. DRMY1 promotes robust morphogenesis by sustaining translation of a hormone signaling protein. bioRxiv 2023:2023.04.07.536060. [PMID: 37066395 PMCID: PMC10104159 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.07.536060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
Robustness is the invariant development of phenotype despite environmental changes and genetic perturbations. In the Arabidopsis flower bud, four sepals initiate at robust positions and times and grow to equal size to enclose and protect the inner floral organs. We previously characterized the mutant development related myb-like1 (drmy1), where 3-5 sepals initiate at irregular positions and variable times and grow to different sizes, compromising their protective function. The molecular mechanism underlying this loss of robustness was unclear. Here, we show that drmy1 has reduced TARGET OF RAPAMYCIN (TOR) activity, ribosomal content, and translation. Translation reduction decreases the protein level of ARABIDOPSIS RESPONSE REGULATOR7 (ARR7), a rapidly synthesized and degraded cytokinin signaling inhibitor. The resultant upregulation of cytokinin signaling disrupts the robust positioning of auxin signaling, causing variable sepal initiation. Our work shows that the homeostasis of translation, a ubiquitous cellular process, is crucial for the robust spatiotemporal patterning of organogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuyao Kong
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Mingyuan Zhu
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Present address: Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - M. Regina Scarpin
- Laboratory of Genetics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - David Pan
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Longfei Jia
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Ryan E. Martinez
- Laboratory of Genetics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Simon Alamos
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Feedstocks Division, Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Batthula Vijaya Lakshmi Vadde
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Hernan G. Garcia
- Biophysics Graduate Group, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Department of Physics, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Institute for Quantitative Biosciences-QB3, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub-San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Shu-Bing Qian
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Jacob O. Brunkard
- Laboratory of Genetics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Adrienne H. K. Roeder
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Lead Contact
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Mi Y, He R, Wan H, Meng X, Liu D, Huang W, Zhang Y, Yousaf Z, Huang H, Chen S, Wang Y, Sun W. Genetic and molecular analysis of the anthocyanin pigmentation pathway in Epimedium. Front Plant Sci 2023; 14:1133616. [PMID: 37063227 PMCID: PMC10090855 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1133616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Flower color is an ideal trait for studying the molecular basis for phenotypic variations in natural populations of species. Epimedium (Berberidaceae) species exhibit a wide range of flower colors resulting from the varied accumulation of anthocyanins and other pigments in their spur-like petals and petaloid sepals. METHODS In this work, the anthocyanidins of eight different Epimedium species with different floral pigmentation phenotypes were analyzed using HPLC. Twelve genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis were cloned and sequenced, and their expression was quantified. RESULTS The expression levels of the catalytic enzyme genes DFR and ANS were significantly decreased in four species showing loss of floral pigmentation. Complementation of EsF3'H and EsDFR in corresponding Arabidopsis mutants together with overexpression of EsF3'5'H in wild type Arabidopsis analysis revealed that these genes were functional at the protein level, based on the accumulation of anthocyanin pigments. DISCUSSION These results strongly suggest that transcriptional regulatory changes determine the loss of anthocyanins to be convergent in the floral tissue of Epimedium species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaolei Mi
- Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ruikun He
- By-Health Institute of Nutrition and health. By-health Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Huihua Wan
- Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiangxiao Meng
- Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Di Liu
- College of Pharmacy, Hubei University of Chinese Medicine, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Wenjun Huang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yanjun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Zubaida Yousaf
- Department of Botany, Lahore College for Women University, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Hongwen Huang
- Lushan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Jiujiang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Shilin Chen
- Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
- Institute of Herbgenomics, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Ying Wang
- South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Wei Sun
- Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
- Institute of Herbgenomics, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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Liu Z, Zhang D, Zhang W, Xiong L, Liu Q, Liu F, Li H, An X, Cui L, Tian D. Molecular Cloning and Expression Profile of Class E Genes Related to Sepal Development in Nelumbo nucifera. Plants (Basel) 2021; 10:plants10081629. [PMID: 34451674 PMCID: PMC8398900 DOI: 10.3390/plants10081629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The lotus (Nelumbo Adans.) is an important aquatic plant with ornamental, medicinal and edible values and cultural connotations. It has single-, semi-double-, double- and thousand-petalled types of flower shape and is an ideal material for developmental research of flower doubling. The lotus is a basal eudicot species without a morphological difference between the sepals and petals and occupies a critical phylogenetic position in flowering plants. In order to investigate the genetic relationship between the sepals and petals in the lotus, the class E genes which affect sepal formation were focused on and analyzed. Here, SEPALLATA 1(NnSEP1) and its homologous genes AGAMOUS-LIKE MADS-BOXAGL9 (NnAGL9) and MADS-BOX TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR 6-like (NnMADS6-like) of the class E gene family were isolated from the flower buds of the Asian lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.). The protein structure, subcellular localization and expression patterns of these three genes were investigated. All three genes were verified to locate in the nucleus and had typical MADS-box characteristics. NnSEP1 and NnMADS6-like were specifically expressed in the sepals, while NnAGL9 was highly expressed in the petals, suggesting that different developmental mechanisms exist in the formation of the sepals and petals in the lotus. The significant functional differences between NnSEP1, NnMADS6-like and NnAGL9 were also confirmed by a yeast two-hybrid assay. These results expand our knowledge on the class E gene family in sepal formation and will benefit fundamental research on the development of floral organs in Nelumbo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuoxing Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Shanghai Chenshan Plant Science Research Center of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China; (Z.L.); (D.Z.); (L.X.); (Q.L.); (H.L.); (X.A.)
- Development Center of Plant Germplam Resources, College of Life Science, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China;
| | - Dasheng Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Shanghai Chenshan Plant Science Research Center of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China; (Z.L.); (D.Z.); (L.X.); (Q.L.); (H.L.); (X.A.)
| | - Weiwei Zhang
- Department of Plant Science and Technology, Shanghai Vocational College of Agriculture and Forestry, Shanghai 201699, China;
| | - Lei Xiong
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Shanghai Chenshan Plant Science Research Center of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China; (Z.L.); (D.Z.); (L.X.); (Q.L.); (H.L.); (X.A.)
- Development Center of Plant Germplam Resources, College of Life Science, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China;
| | - Qingqing Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Shanghai Chenshan Plant Science Research Center of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China; (Z.L.); (D.Z.); (L.X.); (Q.L.); (H.L.); (X.A.)
| | - Fengluan Liu
- Development Center of Plant Germplam Resources, College of Life Science, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China;
| | - Hanchun Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Shanghai Chenshan Plant Science Research Center of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China; (Z.L.); (D.Z.); (L.X.); (Q.L.); (H.L.); (X.A.)
| | - Xiangjie An
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Shanghai Chenshan Plant Science Research Center of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China; (Z.L.); (D.Z.); (L.X.); (Q.L.); (H.L.); (X.A.)
| | - Lijie Cui
- Development Center of Plant Germplam Resources, College of Life Science, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China;
- Correspondence: (L.C.); (D.T.); Tel.: +86-21-37792288-932; Fax: +86-21-57762652
| | - Daike Tian
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Shanghai Chenshan Plant Science Research Center of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China; (Z.L.); (D.Z.); (L.X.); (Q.L.); (H.L.); (X.A.)
- Correspondence: (L.C.); (D.T.); Tel.: +86-21-37792288-932; Fax: +86-21-57762652
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Skrzydeł J, Borowska-Wykręt D, Kwiatkowska D. Structure, Assembly and Function of Cuticle from Mechanical Perspective with Special Focus on Perianth. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:4160. [PMID: 33923850 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22084160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
This review is devoted to the structure, assembly and function of cuticle. The topics are discussed from the mechanical perspective and whenever the data are available a special attention is paid to the cuticle of perianth organs, i.e., sepals, petals or tepals. The cuticle covering these organs is special in both its structure and function and some of these peculiarities are related to the cuticle mechanics. In particular, strengthening of the perianth surface is often provided by a folded cuticle that functionally resembles profiled plates, while on the surface of the petal epidermis of some plants, the cuticle is the only integral continuous layer. The perianth cuticle is distinguished also by those aspects of its mechanics and development that need further studies. In particular, more investigations are needed to explain the formation and maintenance of cuticle folding, which is typical for the perianth epidermis, and also to elucidate the mechanical properties and behavior of the perianth cuticle in situ. Gaps in our knowledge are partly due to technical problems caused by very small thicknesses of the perianth cuticle but modern tools may help to overcome these obstacles.
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Abstract
The chance to watch floral organs develop live is not to be missed! Here, we outline reasons why quantitative, live-cell imaging is an important approach to study floral morphogenesis, and provide a basic workflow of how to get started. We highlight key advances in morphodynamics of lateral organ development, and discuss recent work that uses live confocal imaging to address the regulation of floral organ number, its robustness, and patterning mechanisms that exploit stochasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Léa Rambaud-Lavigne
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg, Köln, Germany
| | - Angela Hay
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg, Köln, Germany
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Landrein B, Ingram G. Connected through the force: mechanical signals in plant development. J Exp Bot 2019; 70:3507-3519. [PMID: 30821332 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erz103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
As multicellular organisms, plants acquire characteristic shapes through a complex set of biological processes known as morphogenesis. Biochemical signalling underlies much of development, as it allows cells to acquire specific identities based on their position within tissues and organs. However, as growing physical structures, plants, and their constituent cells, also experience internal and external physical forces that can be perceived and can influence key processes such as growth, polarity, and gene expression. This process, which adds another layer of control to growth and development, has important implications for plant morphogenesis. This review provides an overview of recent research into the role of mechanical signals in plant development and aims to show how mechanical signalling can be used, in concert with biochemical signals, as a cue allowing cells and tissues to coordinate their behaviour and to add robustness to developmental processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Landrein
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, Lyon Cedex, France
| | - Gwyneth Ingram
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, Lyon Cedex, France
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Han Y, Tang A, Yu J, Cheng T, Wang J, Yang W, Pan H, Zhang Q. RcAP1, a Homolog of APETALA1, is Associated with Flower Bud Differentiation and Floral Organ Morphogenesis in Rosa chinensis. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E3557. [PMID: 31330828 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20143557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Rosa chinensis is one of the most popular flower plants worldwide. The recurrent flowering trait greatly enhances the ornamental value of roses, and is the result of the constant formation of new flower buds. Flower bud differentiation has always been a major topic of interest among researchers. The APETALA1 (AP1) MADS-box (Mcm1, Agamous, Deficiens and SRF) transcription factor-encoding gene is important for the formation of the floral meristem and floral organs. However, research on the rose AP1 gene has been limited. Thus, we isolated AP1 from Rosa chinensis ‘Old Blush’. An expression analysis revealed that RcAP1 was not expressed before the floral primordia formation stage in flower buds. The overexpression of RcAP1 in Arabidopsis thaliana resulted in an early-flowering phenotype. Additionally, the virus-induced down-regulation of RcAP1 expression delayed flowering in ‘Old Blush’. Moreover, RcAP1 was specifically expressed in the sepals of floral organs, while its expression was down-regulated in abnormal sepals and leaf-like organs. These observations suggest that RcAP1 may contribute to rose bud differentiation as well as floral organ morphogenesis, especially the sepals. These results may help for further characterization of the regulatory mechanisms of the recurrent flowering trait in rose.
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Chen X, Shi L, Chen Y, Zhu L, Zhang D, Xiao S, Aharoni A, Shi J, Xu J. Arabidopsis HSP70-16 is required for flower opening under normal or mild heat stress temperatures. Plant Cell Environ 2019; 42:1190-1204. [PMID: 30426513 DOI: 10.1111/pce.13480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 11/03/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Sepals play important roles in protecting inner floral organs from various stresses and in guaranteeing timely flower opening. However, the exact role of sepals in coordinating interior and exterior signals remains elusive. In this study, we functionally characterized a heat shock protein gene, Arabidopsis HSP70-16, in flower opening and mild heat stress response, using combined genetics with anatomic, physiological, chemical, and molecular analyses. We showed that HSP70-16 is required for flower opening and mild heat response. Mutation of HSP70-16 led to a significant reduction in seed setting rate under 22°C, which was more severe at 27°C. Mutation of HSP70-16 also caused postgenital fusion at overlapping tips of two lateral sepals, leading to failed flower opening, abnormal floral organ formation, and impaired fertilization and seed setting. Chemical and anatomic analyses confirmed specific chemical and morphological changes of cuticle property in mutant lateral sepals, and qRT-PCR data indicated that expression levels of different sets of cuticle regulatory and biosynthetic genes were altered in mutants grown at both 22°C and 27°C temperatures. This study provides a link between thermal and developmental perception signals and expands the understanding of the roles of sepal in plant development and heat response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Chen
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lei Shi
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuqin Chen
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lu Zhu
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Dasheng Zhang
- Shanghai Chenshan Plant Science Research Center of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources (Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden), Shanghai, China
| | - Shi Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Asaph Aharoni
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Jianxin Shi
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jie Xu
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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11
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Monniaux M, Vandenbussche M. How to Evolve a Perianth: A Review of Cadastral Mechanisms for Perianth Identity. Front Plant Sci 2018; 9:1573. [PMID: 30420867 PMCID: PMC6216099 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The flower of angiosperms is considered to be a major evolutionary innovation that impacted the whole biome. In particular, two properties of the flower are classically linked to its ecological success: bisexuality and a differentiated perianth with sepals and petals. Although the molecular basis for floral organ identity is well understood in extant species and summarized in the famous ABC model, how perianth identity appeared during evolution is still unknown. Here we propose that cadastral mechanisms that maintain reproductive organ identities to the center of the flower could have supported perianth evolution. In particular, repressing B- and C-class genes expression toward the inner whorls of the flower, is a key process to isolate domains with sepal and petal identity in the outer whorls. We review from the literature in model species the diverse regulators that repress B- and C-class genes expression to the center of the flower. This review highlights the existence of both unique and conserved repressors between species, and possible candidates to investigate further in order to shed light on perianth evolution.
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12
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Hong L, Brown J, Segerson NA, Rose JKC, Roeder AHK. CUTIN SYNTHASE 2 Maintains Progressively Developing Cuticular Ridges in Arabidopsis Sepals. Mol Plant 2017; 10:560-574. [PMID: 28110092 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2017.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2016] [Revised: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The cuticle is a crucial barrier on the aerial surfaces of land plants. In many plants, including Arabidopsis, the sepals and petals form distinctive nanoridges in their cuticles. However, little is known about how the formation and maintenance of these nanostructures is coordinated with the growth and development of the underlying cells. Here we report the characterization of the Arabidopsis cutin synthase 2 (cus2) mutant, which causes a great reduction in cuticular ridges on the mature sepal epidermis, but only a moderate effect on petal cone cell ridges. Using scanning electron microscopy and confocal live imaging combined with quantification of cellular growth, we find that cuticular ridge formation progresses down the sepal from tip to base as the sepal grows. pCUS2::GFP-GUS reporter expression coincides with cuticular ridge formation, descending the sepal from tip to base. Ridge formation also coincides with the reduction in growth rate and termination of cell division of the underlying epidermal cells. Surprisingly, cuticular ridges at first form normally in the cus2 mutant, but are lost progressively at later stages of sepal development, indicating that CUS2 is crucial for the maintenance of cuticular ridges after they are formed. Our results reveal the dynamics of both ridge formation and maintenance as the sepal grows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilan Hong
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA; Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Joel Brown
- Field of Genetics Genomics and Development, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Nicholas A Segerson
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Jocelyn K C Rose
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Adrienne H K Roeder
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA; Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA; Field of Genetics Genomics and Development, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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13
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Quon T, Lampugnani ER, Smyth DR. PETAL LOSS and ROXY1 Interact to Limit Growth Within and between Sepals But to Promote Petal Initiation in Arabidopsis thaliana. Front Plant Sci 2017; 8:152. [PMID: 28228771 PMCID: PMC5296375 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The activity of genes controlling organ development may be associated with the redox state of subregions within the meristem. Glutaredoxins react to the level of oxidative potential and can reduce cysteine dithiols, in some cases to activate specific transcription factors. In Arabidopsis, loss of function of the glutaredoxin ROXY1 or the trihelix transcription factor PETAL LOSS (PTL) each results in reduced numbers of petals. Here, genetic studies have revealed that loss of petals in ptl mutant plants depends on ROXY1 function. The two genes also act together to restrain stamen-identifying C function from entering the outer whorls. On the other hand, they suppress growth between sepals and in sepal margins, with ROXY1 action partially redundant to that of PTL. Genetic interactions with aux1 mutations indicate that auxin activity is reduced in the petal whorl of roxy1 mutants as in ptl mutants. However, it is apparently increased in the sepal whorl of triple mutants associated with the ectopic outgrowth of sepal margins, and of finger-like extensions of inter-sepal zones that in 20% of cases are topped with bunches of ectopic sepals. These interactions may be indirect, although PTL and ROXY1 proteins can interact directly when co-expressed in a transient assay. Changes of conserved cysteines within PTL to similar amino acids that cannot be oxidized did not block its function. It may be in some cases that under reducing conditions ROXY1 binds PTL and activates it by reducing specific conserved cysteines, thus resulting in growth suppression.
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14
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Balduzzi M, Binder BM, Bucksch A, Chang C, Hong L, Iyer-Pascuzzi AS, Pradal C, Sparks EE. Reshaping Plant Biology: Qualitative and Quantitative Descriptors for Plant Morphology. Front Plant Sci 2017; 8:117. [PMID: 28217137 PMCID: PMC5289971 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
An emerging challenge in plant biology is to develop qualitative and quantitative measures to describe the appearance of plants through the integration of mathematics and biology. A major hurdle in developing these metrics is finding common terminology across fields. In this review, we define approaches for analyzing plant geometry, topology, and shape, and provide examples for how these terms have been and can be applied to plants. In leaf morphological quantifications both geometry and shape have been used to gain insight into leaf function and evolution. For the analysis of cell growth and expansion, we highlight the utility of geometric descriptors for understanding sepal and hypocotyl development. For branched structures, we describe how topology has been applied to quantify root system architecture to lend insight into root function. Lastly, we discuss the importance of using morphological descriptors in ecology to assess how communities interact, function, and respond within different environments. This review aims to provide a basic description of the mathematical principles underlying morphological quantifications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brad M. Binder
- Department of Biochemistry and Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee-KnoxvilleKnoxville, TN, USA
| | - Alexander Bucksch
- Department of Plant Biology, University of GeorgiaAthens, GA, USA
- Warnell School of Forestry and Environmental Resources, University of GeorgiaAthens, GA, USA
- Institute of Bioinformatics, University of GeorgiaAthens, GA, USA
| | - Cynthia Chang
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Washington-BothellBothell, WA, USA
| | - Lilan Hong
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology and Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell UniversityIthaca, NY, USA
| | | | - Christophe Pradal
- INRIA, Virtual PlantsMontpellier, France
- CIRAD, UMR AGAPMontpellier, France
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15
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Meyer HM, Teles J, Formosa-Jordan P, Refahi Y, San-Bento R, Ingram G, Jönsson H, Locke JCW, Roeder AHK. Fluctuations of the transcription factor ATML1 generate the pattern of giant cells in the Arabidopsis sepal. eLife 2017; 6:e19131. [PMID: 28145865 PMCID: PMC5333958 DOI: 10.7554/elife.19131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2016] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Multicellular development produces patterns of specialized cell types. Yet, it is often unclear how individual cells within a field of identical cells initiate the patterning process. Using live imaging, quantitative image analyses and modeling, we show that during Arabidopsis thaliana sepal development, fluctuations in the concentration of the transcription factor ATML1 pattern a field of identical epidermal cells to differentiate into giant cells interspersed between smaller cells. We find that ATML1 is expressed in all epidermal cells. However, its level fluctuates in each of these cells. If ATML1 levels surpass a threshold during the G2 phase of the cell cycle, the cell will likely enter a state of endoreduplication and become giant. Otherwise, the cell divides. Our results demonstrate a fluctuation-driven patterning mechanism for how cell fate decisions can be initiated through a random yet tightly regulated process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather M Meyer
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, United States
- The graduate field of Genetics, Genomics, and Development, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
| | - José Teles
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Pau Formosa-Jordan
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Yassin Refahi
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Rita San-Bento
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, Lyon, France
| | - Gwyneth Ingram
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, Lyon, France
| | - Henrik Jönsson
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Computational Biology and Biological Physics, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - James C W Locke
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Microsoft Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Adrienne H K Roeder
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, United States
- The graduate field of Genetics, Genomics, and Development, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
- Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
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16
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Schwarz EM, Roeder AHK. Transcriptomic Effects of the Cell Cycle Regulator LGO in Arabidopsis Sepals. Front Plant Sci 2016; 7:1744. [PMID: 27920789 PMCID: PMC5118908 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Endoreduplication is a specialized cell cycle in which DNA replication occurs, but mitosis is skipped creating enlarged polyploid cells. Endoreduplication is associated with the differentiation of many specialized cell types. In the Arabidopsis thaliana sepal epidermis endoreduplicated giant cells form interspersed between smaller cells. Both the transcription factor Arabidopsis thaliana MERISTEM LAYER1 (ATML1) and the plant-specific cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor LOSS OF GIANT CELLS FROM ORGANS (LGO)/SIAMESE RELATED1 (SMR1) are required for the formation of giant cells. Overexpression of LGO is sufficient to produce sepals covered in highly endoreduplicated giant cells. Here we ask whether overexpression of LGO changes the transcriptome of these mature sepals. We show that overexpression of LGO in the epidermis (LGOoe) drives giant cell formation even in atml1 mutant sepals. Using RNA-seq we show that LGOoe has significant effects on the mature sepal transcriptome that are primarily ATML1-independent changes of gene activity. Genes activated by LGOoe, directly or indirectly, predominantly encode proteins involved in defense responses, including responses to wounding, insects (a predator of Arabidopsis), and fungus. They also encode components of the glucosinolate biosynthesis pathway, a key biochemical pathway in defense against herbivores. LGOoe-activated genes include previously known marker genes of systemic acquired resistance such as PR1 through PR5. The defensive functions promoted by LGOoe in sepals overlap with functions recently shown to be transcriptionally activated by hyperimmune cpr5 mutants in a LGO-dependent manner. Our findings show that the cell cycle regulator LGO can directly or indirectly drive specific states of gene expression; in particular, they are consistent with recent findings showing LGO to be necessary for transcriptional activation of many defense genes in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erich M. Schwarz
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, IthacaNY, USA
| | - Adrienne H. K. Roeder
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology and Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University, IthacaNY, USA
- *Correspondence: Adrienne H. K. Roeder,
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17
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Ederli L, Dawe A, Pasqualini S, Quaglia M, Xiong L, Gehring C. Arabidopsis flower specific defense gene expression patterns affect resistance to pathogens. Front Plant Sci 2015; 6:79. [PMID: 25750645 PMCID: PMC4335275 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
We investigated whether the Arabidopsis flower evolved protective measures to increase reproductive success. Firstly, analyses of available transcriptome data show that the most highly expressed transcripts in the closed sepal (stage 12) are enriched in genes with roles in responses to chemical stimuli and cellular metabolic processes. At stage 15, there is enrichment in transcripts with a role in responses to biotic stimuli. Comparative analyses between the sepal and petal in the open flower mark an over-representation of transcripts with a role in responses to stress and catalytic activity. Secondly, the content of the biotic defense-associated phytohormone salicylic acid (SA) in sepals and petals is significantly higher than in leaves. To understand whether the high levels of stress responsive transcripts and the higher SA content affect defense, wild-type plants (Col-0) and transgenic plants defective in SA accumulation (nahG) were challenged with the biotrophic fungus Golovinomyces cichoracearum, the causal agent of powdery mildew, and the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea. NahG leaves were more sensitive than those of Col-0, suggesting that in leaves SA has a role in the defense against biotrophs. In contrast, sepals and petals of both genotypes were resistant to G. cichoracearum, indicating that in the flower, resistance to the biotrophic pathogen is not critically dependent on SA, but likely dependent on the up-regulation of stress-responsive genes. Since sepals and petals of both genotypes are equally susceptible to B. cinerea, we conclude that neither stress-response genes nor increased SA accumulation offers protection against the necrotrophic pathogen. These results are interpreted in the light of the distinctive role of the flower and we propose that in the early stages, the sepal may act as a chemical defense barrier of the developing reproductive structures against biotrophic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Ederli
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of PerugiaPerugia, Italy
| | - Adam Dawe
- Division of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and TechnologyThuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Stefania Pasqualini
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of PerugiaPerugia, Italy
| | - Mara Quaglia
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of PerugiaPerugia, Italy
| | - Liming Xiong
- Division of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and TechnologyThuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Chris Gehring
- Division of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and TechnologyThuwal, Saudi Arabia
- *Correspondence: Chris Gehring, Division of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia e-mail:
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18
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Lombardo F, Yoshida H. Interpreting lemma and palea homologies: a point of view from rice floral mutants. Front Plant Sci 2015; 6:61. [PMID: 25741351 PMCID: PMC4331672 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 01/24/2015] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
In contrast to eudicot flowers which typically exhibit sepals and petals at their periphery, the flowers of grasses are distinguished by the presence of characteristic outer organs. In place of sepals, grasses have evolved the lemma and the palea, two bract-like structures that partially or fully enclose the inner reproductive organs. With little morphological similarities to sepals, whether the lemma and palea are part of the perianth or non-floral organs has been a longstanding debate. In recent years, comparative studies of floral mutants as well as the availability of whole genome sequences in many plant species have provided strong arguments in favor of the hypothesis of lemma and palea being modified sepals. In rice, a feature of the palea is the bending of its lateral region into a hook-shaped marginal structure. This allows the palea to lock into the facing lemma region, forming a close-fitting lemma-palea enclosure. In this article, we focus on the rice lemma and palea and review some of the key transcription factors involved in their development and functional specialization. Alternative interpretations of these organs are also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hitoshi Yoshida
- *Correspondence: Hitoshi Yoshida, Rice Biotechnology Research Project, Rice Research Division, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO) Institute of Crop Science, 2-1-18 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8518, Japan. e-mail:
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19
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Abstract
This review is an update of a 2003 review (Journal of Experimental Botany 54,1801-1812) by the same corresponding author. Many examples of flower opening have been recorded using time-lapse photography, showing its velocity and the required elongation growth. Ethylene regulates flower opening, together with at least gibberellins and auxin. Ethylene and gibberellic acid often promote and inhibit, respectively, the expression of DELLA genes and the stability of DELLA proteins. DELLA results in growth inhibition. Both hormones also inhibited and promoted, respectively, the expression of aquaporin genes required for cell elongation. Arabidopsis miRNA319a mutants exhibited narrow and short petals, whereby miRNA319a indirectly regulates auxin effects. Flower opening in roses was controlled by a NAC transcription factor, acting through miRNA164. The regulatory role of light and temperature, in interaction with the circadian clock, has been further elucidated. The end of the life span in many flowers is determined by floral closure. In some species pollination resulted in earlier closure of turgid flowers, compared with unpollinated flowers. It is hypothesized that this pollination-induced effect is only found in flowers in which closure is regulated by ethylene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter G van Doorn
- Mann Laboratory, Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Chanattika Kamdee
- Department of Horticulture, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen campus, Nakhon Pathom 73140, Thailand
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