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Wang S, Huang J. Fungal genes in the innovation and evolution of land plants. Plant Signal Behav 2021; 16:1879534. [PMID: 33522394 PMCID: PMC7971291 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2021.1879534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Although fungal association has been instrumental to the evolution of land plants, how genes of fungal origin might have contributed to major plant innovations remains unclear. In a recent study, we showed that a macro2 domain-containing gene likely acquired from mycorrhiza-like fungi is important in gametophore development of mosses, suggesting a role of fungi-derived genes in the three-dimensional growth of land plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuanghua Wang
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jinling Huang
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
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2
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Feijen FAA, Vos RA, Nuytinck J, Merckx VSFT. Evolutionary dynamics of mycorrhizal symbiosis in land plant diversification. Sci Rep 2018; 8:10698. [PMID: 30013185 PMCID: PMC6048063 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-28920-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycorrhizal symbiosis between soil fungi and land plants is one of the most widespread and ecologically important mutualisms on earth. It has long been hypothesized that the Glomeromycotina, the mycorrhizal symbionts of the majority of plants, facilitated colonization of land by plants in the Ordovician. This view was recently challenged by the discovery of mycorrhiza-like associations with Mucoromycotina in several early diverging lineages of land plants. Utilizing a large, species-level database of plants' mycorrhiza-like associations and a Bayesian approach to state transition dynamics we here show that the recruitment of Mucoromycotina is the best supported transition from a non-mycorrhizal state. We further found that transitions between different combinations of either or both of Mucoromycotina and Glomeromycotina occur at high rates, and found similar promiscuity among combinations that include either or both of Glomeromycotina and Ascomycota with a nearly fixed association with Basidiomycota. Our results portray an evolutionary scenario of evolution of mycorrhizal symbiosis with a prominent role for Mucoromycotina in the early stages of land plant diversification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frida A A Feijen
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
- ETH Zürich, Institute of Integrative Biology (IBZ), 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Rutger A Vos
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Vondellaan 55, 2332 AA, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jorinde Nuytinck
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Vondellaan 55, 2332 AA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Vincent S F T Merckx
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Vondellaan 55, 2332 AA, Leiden, The Netherlands.
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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Krings M, Harper CJ, Taylor EL. Fungi and fungal interactions in the Rhynie chert: a review of the evidence, with the description of Perexiflasca tayloriana gen. et sp. nov. †. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2018; 373:20160500. [PMID: 29254965 PMCID: PMC5745336 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The Lower Devonian Rhynie chert is one of the most important rock deposits yielding comprehensive information on early continental plant, animal and microbial life. Fungi are especially abundant among the microbial remains, and include representatives of all major fungal lineages except Basidiomycota. This paper surveys the evidence assembled to date of fungal hyphae, mycelial cords and reproductive units (e.g. spores, sporangia, sporocarps), and presents examples of fungal associations and interactions with land plants, other fungi, algae, cyanobacteria and animals from the Rhynie chert. Moreover, a small, chytrid-like organism that occurs singly, in chain-like, linear arrangements, planar assemblages and three-dimensional aggregates of less than 10 to [Formula: see text] individuals in degrading land plant tissue in the Rhynie chert is formally described, and the name Perexiflasca tayloriana proposed for the organism. Perexiflasca tayloriana probably colonized senescent or atrophied plant parts and participated in the process of biological degradation. The fungal fossils described to date from the Rhynie chert constitute the largest body of structurally preserved evidence of fungi and fungal interactions from any rock deposit, and strongly suggest that fungi played important roles in the functioning of the Early Devonian Rhynie ecosystem.This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'The Rhynie cherts: our earliest terrestrial ecosystem revisited'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Krings
- Department für Geo- und Umweltwissenschaften, Paläontologie und Geobiologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, and SNSB-Bayerische Staatssammlung für Paläontologie und Geologie, Richard-Wagner-Straße 10, 80333 Munich, Germany
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, and Biodiversity Institute, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Carla J Harper
- Department für Geo- und Umweltwissenschaften, Paläontologie und Geobiologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, and SNSB-Bayerische Staatssammlung für Paläontologie und Geologie, Richard-Wagner-Straße 10, 80333 Munich, Germany
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, and Biodiversity Institute, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Edith L Taylor
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, and Biodiversity Institute, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
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Abstract
Subtilases, a family of proteases involved in a variety of developmental processes in land plants, are also involved in both mutualistic symbiosis and host-pathogen interactions in different angiosperm lineages. We examined the evolutionary history of subtilase genes across land plants through a phylogenetic analysis integrating amino acid sequence data from full genomes, transcriptomes, and characterized subtilases of 341 species of diverse green algae and land plants along with subtilases from 12 species of other eukaryotes, archaea, and bacteria. Our analysis reconstructs the subtilase gene phylogeny and identifies 11 new gene lineages, six of which have no previously characterized members. Two large, previously unnamed, subtilase gene lineages that diverged before the origin of angiosperms accounted for the majority of subtilases shown to be associated with symbiotic interactions. These lineages expanded through both whole-genome and tandem duplication, with differential neofunctionalization and subfunctionalization creating paralogs associated with different symbioses, including nodulation with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, arbuscular mycorrhizae, and pathogenesis in different plant clades. This study demonstrates for the first time that a key gene family involved in plant-microbe interactions proliferated in size and functional diversity before the explosive radiation of angiosperms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Taylor
- University of Michigan, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Ann Arbor, MI, U.S.A
| | - Yin-Long Qiu
- University of Michigan, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Ann Arbor, MI, U.S.A
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Weiß M, Waller F, Zuccaro A, Selosse MA. Sebacinales - one thousand and one interactions with land plants. New Phytol 2016; 211:20-40. [PMID: 27193559 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
20 I 21 II 21 III 23 IV 29 V 33 VI 35 36 36 References 36 SUMMARY: Root endophytism and mycorrhizal associations are complex derived traits in fungi that shape plant physiology. Sebacinales (Agaricomycetes, Basidiomycota) display highly diverse interactions with plants. Although early-diverging Sebacinales lineages are root endophytes and/or have saprotrophic abilities, several more derived clades harbour obligate biotrophs forming mycorrhizal associations. Sebacinales thus display transitions from saprotrophy to endophytism and to mycorrhizal nutrition within one fungal order. This review discusses the genomic traits possibly associated with these transitions. We also show how molecular ecology revealed the hyperdiversity of Sebacinales and their evolutionary diversification into two sister families: Sebacinaceae encompasses mainly ectomycorrhizal and early-diverging saprotrophic species; the second family includes endophytes and lineages that repeatedly evolved ericoid, orchid and ectomycorrhizal abilities. We propose the name Serendipitaceae for this family and, within it, we transfer to the genus Serendipita the endophytic cultivable species Piriformospora indica and P. williamsii. Such cultivable Serendipitaceae species provide excellent models for root endophytism, especially because of available genomes, genetic tractability, and broad host plant range including important crop plants and the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. We review insights gained with endophytic Serendipitaceae species into the molecular mechanisms of endophytism and of beneficial effects on host plants, including enhanced resistance to abiotic and pathogen stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Weiß
- Steinbeis-Innovationszentrum Organismische Mykologie und Mikrobiologie, Vor dem Kreuzberg 17, 72070, Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Biology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 1, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Frank Waller
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Julius von Sachs Institute for Biosciences, Biocenter, Würzburg University, Julius-von-Sachs Platz 2, 97082, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Alga Zuccaro
- Botanical Institute, Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), BioCenter, University of Cologne, 50674, Cologne, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, 35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Marc-André Selosse
- Département Systématique et Evolution (UMR 7205 ISYEB), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, CP 50, 45 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France
- Department of Plant Taxonomy and Nature Conservation, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
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Rousk K, Sorensen PL, Lett S, Michelsen A. Across-habitat comparison of diazotroph activity in the subarctic. Microb Ecol 2015; 69:778-87. [PMID: 25403111 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-014-0534-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Nitrogen (N) fixation by N2-fixing bacteria (diazotrophs) is the primary N input to pristine ecosystems like boreal forests and subarctic and arctic tundra. However, the contribution by the various diazotrophs to habitat N2 fixation remains unclear. We present results from in situ assessments of N2 fixation of five diazotroph associations (with a legume, lichen, feather moss, Sphagnum moss and free-living) incorporating the ground cover of the associations in five typical habitats in the subarctic (wet and dry heath, polygon-heath, birch forest, mire). Further, we assessed the importance of soil and air temperature, as well as moisture conditions for N2 fixation. Across the growing season, the legume had the highest total as well as the highest fraction of N2 fixation rates at habitat level in the heaths (>85 % of habitat N2 fixation), whereas the free-living diazotrophs had the highest N2 fixation rates in the polygon heath (56 %), the lichen in the birch forest (87 %) and Sphagnum in the mire (100 %). The feather moss did not contribute more than 15 % to habitat N2 fixation in any of the habitats despite its high ground cover. Moisture content seemed to be a major driver of N2 fixation in the lichen, feather moss and free-living diazotrophs. Our results show that the range of N2 fixers found in pristine habitats contribute differently to habitat N2 fixation and that ground cover of the associates does not necessarily mirror contribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Rousk
- Department of Biology, Terrestrial Ecology Section, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 15, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark,
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Liaimer A, Helfrich EJN, Hinrichs K, Guljamow A, Ishida K, Hertweck C, Dittmann E. Nostopeptolide plays a governing role during cellular differentiation of the symbiotic cyanobacterium Nostoc punctiforme. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:1862-7. [PMID: 25624477 PMCID: PMC4330735 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1419543112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Nostoc punctiforme is a versatile cyanobacterium that can live either independently or in symbiosis with plants from distinct taxa. Chemical cues from plants and N. punctiforme were shown to stimulate or repress, respectively, the differentiation of infectious motile filaments known as hormogonia. We have used a polyketide synthase mutant that accumulates an elevated amount of hormogonia as a tool to understand the effect of secondary metabolites on cellular differentiation of N. punctiforme. Applying MALDI imaging to illustrate the reprogramming of the secondary metabolome, nostopeptolides were identified as the predominant difference in the pks2(-) mutant secretome. Subsequent differentiation assays and visualization of cell-type-specific expression of nostopeptolides via a transcriptional reporter strain provided evidence for a multifaceted role of nostopeptolides, either as an autogenic hormogonium-repressing factor or as a chemoattractant, depending on its extracellular concentration. Although nostopeptolide is constitutively expressed in the free-living state, secreted levels dynamically change before, during, and after the hormogonium differentiation phase. The metabolite was found to be strictly down-regulated in symbiosis with Gunnera manicata and Blasia pusilla, whereas other metabolites are up-regulated, as demonstrated via MALDI imaging, suggesting plants modulate the fine-balanced cross-talk network of secondary metabolites within N. punctiforme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton Liaimer
- Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries and Economics, Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, Molecular Environments Group, University of Tromsø, 9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Eric J N Helfrich
- Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, 07745 Jena, Germany; and
| | - Katrin Hinrichs
- Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Microbiology, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Arthur Guljamow
- Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Microbiology, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Keishi Ishida
- Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, 07745 Jena, Germany; and
| | - Christian Hertweck
- Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, 07745 Jena, Germany; and
| | - Elke Dittmann
- Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Microbiology, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
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Strullu-Derrien C, Kenrick P, Pressel S, Duckett JG, Rioult JP, Strullu DG. Fungal associations in Horneophyton ligneri from the Rhynie Chert (c. 407 million year old) closely resemble those in extant lower land plants: novel insights into ancestral plant-fungus symbioses. New Phytol 2014; 203:964-79. [PMID: 24750009 DOI: 10.1111/nph.12805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Fungi (Eumycota) form close associations with plants, with which they have co-existed since the dawn of life on land, but their diversity in early terrestrial ecosystems is still poorly understood. We studied petrographic sections of exceptionally well-preserved petrified plants from the 407 million yr-old Rhynie Chert (Scotland, UK). For comparative purposes, we illustrate fungal associations in four extant lower land plants. We document two new endophytes in the plant Horneophyton lignieri: Palaeoglomus boullardii (sp. nov. Glomeromycota) colonizes parenchyma in a discontinuous zone of the outer cortex of the aerial axes, forming arbuscule-like structures, vesicles and spores; Palaeoendogone gwynne-vaughaniae (gen. nov., sp. nov. Mucoromycotina) colonizes parenchyma in the basal part of the plant, where it is present in intercellular spaces and as intracellular coils but absent from rhizoids. Critical comparisons between the newly discovered Horneophyton endophytes, fungi previously described from the Rhynie Chert and fungal colonization in extant lower land plants reveal several features characteristic of both Mucoromycotina and Glomeromycota. A reappraisal of fungal associations in early land plants indicates that they are more diverse than assumed hitherto, overturning the long-held paradigm that the early endophytes were exclusively Glomeromycota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Strullu-Derrien
- Department of Earth Sciences, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, UK; Laboratoire Mycorhizes, Faculté des Sciences, Université d'Angers, 49045, Angers Cedex, France
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Chagnon PL, Bradley RL, Maherali H, Klironomos JN. A trait-based framework to understand life history of mycorrhizal fungi. Trends Plant Sci 2013; 18:484-91. [PMID: 23756036 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2013.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2013] [Revised: 04/24/2013] [Accepted: 05/01/2013] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Despite the growing appreciation for the functional diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, our understanding of the causes and consequences of this diversity is still poor. In this opinion article, we review published data on AM fungal functional traits and attempt to identify major axes of life history variation. We propose that a life history classification system based on the grouping of functional traits, such as Grime's C-S-R (competitor, stress tolerator, ruderal) framework, can help to explain life history diversification in AM fungi, successional dynamics, and the spatial structure of AM fungal assemblages. Using a common life history classification framework for both plants and AM fungi could also help in predicting probable species associations in natural communities and increase our fundamental understanding of the interaction between land plants and AM fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-Luc Chagnon
- Université de Sherbrooke, Département de Biologie, 2500 boul. de l'Université, Sherbrooke, QC, J1K 2R1, Canada.
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Abstract
Insect association with fungi has a long history. Theories dealing with the evolution of insect herbivory indicate that insects used microbes including fungi as their principal food materials before flowering plants evolved. Subtlety and the level of intricacy in the interactions between insects and fungi indicate symbiosis as the predominant ecological pattern. The nature of the symbiotic interaction that occurs between two organisms (the insect and the fungus), may be either mutualistic or parasitic, or between these two extremes. However, the triangular relationship involving three organisms, viz., an insect, a fungus, and a vascular plant is a relationship that is more complicated than what can be described as either mutualism or parasitism, and may represent facets of both. Recent research has revealed such a complex relationship in the vertically transmitted type-I endophytes living within agriculturally important grasses and the pestiferous insects that attack them. The intricacy of the association depends on the endophytic fungus-grass association and the insect present. Secondary compounds produced in the endophytic fungus-grass association can provide grasses with resistance to herbivores resulting in mutualistic relationship between the fungus and the plant that has negative consequences for herbivorous insects. The horizontally transmitted nongrass type-II endophytes are far less well studied and as such their ecological roles are not fully understood. This forum article explores the intricacy of dependence in such complex triangular relationships drawing from well-established examples from the fungi that live as endophytes in vascular plants and how they impact on the biology and evolution of free-living as well as concealed (e.g., gall-inducing, gall-inhabiting) insects. Recent developments with the inoculation of strains of type-I fungal endophytes into grasses and their commercialization are discussed, along with the possible roles the endophytic fungi play in the galls induced by the Cecidomyiidae (Diptera).
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Affiliation(s)
- A Raman
- Charles Sturt University & E H Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Orange, New South Wales 2800, Australia.
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Ebrahim W, Kjer J, El Amrani M, Wray V, Lin W, Ebel R, Lai D, Proksch P. Pullularins E and F, two new peptides from the endophytic fungus Bionectria ochroleuca isolated from the mangrove plant Sonneratia caseolaris. Mar Drugs 2012; 10:1081-1091. [PMID: 22822358 PMCID: PMC3397455 DOI: 10.3390/md10051081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2012] [Revised: 05/11/2012] [Accepted: 05/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemical investigation of the EtOAc extract of the endophytic fungus Bionectria ochroleuca, isolated from the inner leaf tissues of the plant Sonneratia caseolaris (Sonneratiaceae) from Hainan island (China), yielded two new peptides, pullularins E and F (1 and 2) together with three known compounds (3–5). The structures of the new compounds were unambiguously determined on the basis of one- and two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy as well as by high-resolution mass spectrometry. The absolute configurations of amino acids were determined by HPLC analysis of acid hydrolysates using Marfey’s method. The isolated compounds exhibited pronounced to moderate cytotoxic activity against the mouse lymphoma cells (L5178Y) with EC50 values ranging between 0.1 and 6.7 µg/mL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weaam Ebrahim
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Heinrich-Heine University, Universitaetsstrasse 1, D-40225 Duesseldorf, Germany; or (W.E.); (J.K.); (M.E.A.)
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Julia Kjer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Heinrich-Heine University, Universitaetsstrasse 1, D-40225 Duesseldorf, Germany; or (W.E.); (J.K.); (M.E.A.)
| | - Mustapha El Amrani
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Heinrich-Heine University, Universitaetsstrasse 1, D-40225 Duesseldorf, Germany; or (W.E.); (J.K.); (M.E.A.)
| | - Victor Wray
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Inhoffenstraße 7, Braunschweig D-38124, Germany;
| | - Wenhan Lin
- National Research Laboratories of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Health Science Center, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China;
| | - Rainer Ebel
- Marine Biodiscovery Centre, University of Aberdeen, Meston Walk, Aberdeen, Scotland AB24 3UE, UK;
| | - Daowan Lai
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Heinrich-Heine University, Universitaetsstrasse 1, D-40225 Duesseldorf, Germany; or (W.E.); (J.K.); (M.E.A.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; (D.L.); (P.P.); Tel.: +49-211-81-14187 (D.L.); +49-211-81-14163 (P.P.); Fax: +49-211-81-11923 (D.L.); +49-211-81-11923 (P.P.)
| | - Peter Proksch
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Heinrich-Heine University, Universitaetsstrasse 1, D-40225 Duesseldorf, Germany; or (W.E.); (J.K.); (M.E.A.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; (D.L.); (P.P.); Tel.: +49-211-81-14187 (D.L.); +49-211-81-14163 (P.P.); Fax: +49-211-81-11923 (D.L.); +49-211-81-11923 (P.P.)
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