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Adenotonsillectomy for Snoring and Mild Sleep Apnea in Children: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA 2023; 330:2084-2095. [PMID: 38051326 PMCID: PMC10698619 DOI: 10.1001/jama.2023.22114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
Importance The utility of adenotonsillectomy in children who have habitual snoring without frequent obstructive breathing events (mild sleep-disordered breathing [SDB]) is unknown. Objectives To evaluate early adenotonsillectomy compared with watchful waiting and supportive care (watchful waiting) on neurodevelopmental, behavioral, health, and polysomnographic outcomes in children with mild SDB. Design, Setting, and Participants Randomized clinical trial enrolling 459 children aged 3 to 12.9 years with snoring and an obstructive apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) less than 3 enrolled at 7 US academic sleep centers from June 29, 2016, to February 1, 2021, and followed up for 12 months. Intervention Participants were randomized 1:1 to either early adenotonsillectomy (n = 231) or watchful waiting (n = 228). Main Outcomes and Measures The 2 primary outcomes were changes from baseline to 12 months for caregiver-reported Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) Global Executive Composite (GEC) T score, a measure of executive function; and a computerized test of attention, the Go/No-go (GNG) test d-prime signal detection score, reflecting the probability of response to target vs nontarget stimuli. Twenty-two secondary outcomes included 12-month changes in neurodevelopmental, behavioral, quality of life, sleep, and health outcomes. Results Of the 458 participants in the analyzed sample (231 adenotonsillectomy and 237 watchful waiting; mean age, 6.1 years; 230 female [50%]; 123 Black/African American [26.9%]; 75 Hispanic [16.3%]; median AHI, 0.5 [IQR, 0.2-1.1]), 394 children (86%) completed 12-month follow-up visits. There were no statistically significant differences in change from baseline between the 2 groups in executive function (BRIEF GEC T-scores: -3.1 for adenotonsillectomy vs -1.9 for watchful waiting; difference, -0.96 [95% CI, -2.66 to 0.74]) or attention (GNG d-prime scores: 0.2 for adenotonsillectomy vs 0.1 for watchful waiting; difference, 0.05 [95% CI, -0.18 to 0.27]) at 12 months. Behavioral problems, sleepiness, symptoms, and quality of life each improved more with adenotonsillectomy than with watchful waiting. Adenotonsillectomy was associated with a greater 12-month decline in systolic and diastolic blood pressure percentile levels (difference in changes, -9.02 [97% CI, -15.49 to -2.54] and -6.52 [97% CI, -11.59 to -1.45], respectively) and less progression of the AHI to greater than 3 events/h (1.3% of children in the adenotonsillectomy group compared with 13.2% in the watchful waiting group; difference, -11.2% [97% CI, -17.5% to -4.9%]). Six children (2.7%) experienced a serious adverse event associated with adenotonsillectomy. Conclusions In children with mild SDB, adenotonsillectomy, compared with watchful waiting, did not significantly improve executive function or attention at 12 months. However, children with adenotonsillectomy had improved secondary outcomes, including behavior, symptoms, and quality of life and decreased blood pressure, at 12-month follow-up. Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02562040.
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Exploring the interplay of dopaminergic genotype and parental behavior in relation to executive function in early childhood. Dev Psychopathol 2023; 35:1147-1158. [PMID: 34779374 PMCID: PMC9107528 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579421001061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Child genotype is an important biologically based individual difference conferring differential sensitivity to the effect of parental behavior. This study explored dopaminergic polygenic composite × parental behavior interactions in relation to young children's executive function. Participants were 135 36-month-old children and their mothers drawn from a prospective cohort followed longitudinally from pregnancy. A polygenic composite was created based on the number of COMT, DAT1, DRD2, and DRD4 alleles associated with increased reward sensitivity children carried. Maternal negative reactivity and responsiveness were coded during a series of structured mother-child interactions. Executive function was operationalized as self-control and working memory/inhibitory control. Path analysis supported a polygenic composite by negative reactivity interaction for self-control. The nature of the interaction was one of diathesis-stress, such that higher negative reactivity was associated with poorer self-control for children with higher polygenic composite scores. This result suggests that children with a higher number of alleles may be more vulnerable to the negative effect of negative reactivity. Negative reactivity may increase the risk for developing behavior problems in this population via an association with poorer self-control. Due to the small sample size, these initial findings should be treated with caution until they are replicated in a larger independent sample.
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Children's neural responses to a novel mathematics concept. Trends Neurosci Educ 2020; 20:100128. [PMID: 32917301 DOI: 10.1016/j.tine.2020.100128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Functional MRI studies have suggested a 'frontoparietal shift' over the course of development, whereby children tend to engage prefrontal neural regions to a greater extent than adults when completing mathematics tasks. Although this literature hints that lateral prefrontal regions may be involved in acquiring mathematics knowledge, a key limitation of existing studies is that they have included mathematics content that children already are familiar with as opposed to examining the dynamic learning process. We aimed to address this gap by examining children's neural responses when exposed to a new, unfamiliar mathematics concept. METHOD Eighteen 8-11 year old children viewed blocked demonstrations of base-2/binary (unfamiliar) and base-10/decimal (familiar) number systems while undergoing functional MRI (fMRI). Children's behavioral understanding of binary numbers was measured between fMRI runs. RESULTS Counter to hypotheses, there were no overall differences in prefrontal activity for binary relative to decimal blocks. However, children with higher levels of behavioral understanding of the novel, binary concept showed enhanced neural activity in the left rostral middle frontal gyrus specifically during binary concept exposure. They also showed enhanced connectivity between this region and pre-and post-central gyri and left parahippocampal regions. CONCLUSIONS Individual differences in children's behavioral grasp of a new mathematics concept correlate with prefrontal activity and functional connectivity during exposure to the concept, suggesting that rostral prefrontal cortex may play a role in mathematics learning.
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Dimension- and context-specific expression of preschoolers' disruptive behaviors associated with prenatal tobacco exposure. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2020; 81:106915. [PMID: 32693011 PMCID: PMC7484981 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2020.106915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2019] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Precise phenotypic characterization of prenatal tobacco exposure (PTE)-related disruptive behavior (DB) that integrates nuanced measures of both exposures and outcomes is optimal for elucidating underlying mechanisms. Using this approach, our goals were to identify dimensions of DB most sensitive to PTE prior to school entry and assess contextual variation in these dimensions. METHODS A community obstetric sample of N = 369 women (79.2% lifetime smokers; 70.2% pregnancy smokers) from two Midwestern cities were assessed for PTE using cotinine-calibrated interview-based reports at 16, 28, and 40 weeks of gestation. A subset of n = 244 who completed observational assessments with their 5-year-old children in a subsequent preschool follow-up study constitute the analytic sample. Using two developmentally-meaningful dimensions previously associated with emergent clinical risk for DB-irritability and noncompliance-we assessed children with 2 parent-report scales: the Multidimensional Assessment Profile of Disruptive Behavior (MAP-DB) and the Early Childhood Inventory (ECI). We also assessed children by direct observation across 3 interactional contexts with the Disruptive Behavior Diagnostic Observation Schedule (DB-DOS). We used generalized linear models to examine between-child variability across behavioral dimensions, and mixed effects models to examine directly observed within-child variability by interactional context. RESULTS Increasing PTE predicted increasing impairment in preschoolers' modulation of negative affect (irritability), but not negative behavior (noncompliance) across reported (MAP-DB) and observed (DB-DOS) dimensional measures. Moreover, children's PTE-related irritability was more pronounced when observed with parents than with the examiner. The ECI did not detect PTE-related irritability nor noncompliance. CONCLUSIONS Nuanced, dimension- and context-specific characterization of PTE-related DB described can optimize early identification of at-risk children.
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Simulating a Computational Biological Model, Rather Than Reading, Elicits Changes in Brain Activity during Biological Reasoning. CBE LIFE SCIENCES EDUCATION 2020; 19:ar45. [PMID: 32870080 PMCID: PMC8711807 DOI: 10.1187/cbe.19-11-0237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The creation and analysis of models is integral to all scientific disciplines, and modeling is considered a core competency in undergraduate biology education. There remains a gap in understanding how modeling activities may support changes in students' neural representations. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of simulating a model on undergraduates' behavioral accuracy and neural response patterns when reasoning about biological systems. During brief tutorials, students (n = 30) either simulated a computer model or read expert analysis of a gene regulatory system. Subsequently, students underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while responding to system-specific questions and system-general questions about modeling concepts. Although groups showed similar behavioral accuracy, the Simulate group showed higher levels of activation than the Read group in right cuneal and postcentral regions during the system-specific task and in the posterior insula and cingulate gyrus during the system-general task. Students' behavioral accuracy during the system-specific task correlated with lateral prefrontal brain activity independent of instruction group. Findings highlight the sensitivity of neuroimaging methods for identifying changes in representations that may not be evident at the behavioral level. This work provides a foundation for research on how distinct pedagogical approaches may affect the neural networks students engage when reasoning about biological phenomena.
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Socioeconomic status and executive function in early childhood: Exploring proximal mechanisms. Dev Sci 2020; 23:e12917. [PMID: 31680392 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Revised: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Although there is substantial evidence that socioeconomic status (SES) predicts children's executive function (EF), the mechanisms underlying this association are poorly understood. This study tested the utility of two theories proposed to link SES to children's EF: the family stress model and the family investment model. Data came from the Midwestern Infant Development Study (N = 151). To measure SES, parental education and income were assessed during pregnancy, and income was also assessed when children were 6 and 36 months old. Children's EF, operationalized as working memory/inhibitory control (WMIC) and self-control, was assessed at 36 months of age, along with potential mediators including maternal psychological distress, harsh parenting, and cognitive stimulation. Using structural equation modeling, we tested simultaneous pathways from SES to EF: (a) via maternal psychological distress to harsh parenting (family stress model) and (b) via cognitive stimulation (family investment model). Of the SES measures, lower education predicted poorer WMIC directly and indirectly via greater maternal psychological distress. Lower education also predicted poorer self-control via greater maternal psychological distress. This effect was partially suppressed by an indirect path from lower education to better self-control via greater psychological distress and increased harsh parenting. Cognitive stimulation did not act as a mediator. Income was not directly or indirectly associated with EF. These findings provide partial support for the family stress model and suggest that family functioning is an important proximal mechanism for children's EF development. This study also highlights the importance of considering SES as a multidimensional construct.
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Does early maternal responsiveness buffer prenatal tobacco exposure effects on young children's behavioral disinhibition? Dev Psychopathol 2019; 31:1285-1298. [PMID: 30428950 PMCID: PMC6520205 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579418000706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Children with prenatal tobacco exposure (PTE) exhibit early self-regulatory impairments, reflecting a life-course persistent propensity toward behavioral disinhibition. Previously, we demonstrated the protective role of parental responsiveness for reducing the risk of exposure-related disruptive behavior in adolescence. Here, we expanded this line of inquiry, examining whether responsiveness moderates the relation of PTE to a broader set of behavioral disinhibition features in early childhood and testing alternative diathesis-stress versus differential susceptibility explanatory models. PTE was assessed prospectively using interviews and bioassays in the Midwestern Infant Development Study (MIDS). Mother-child dyads (N = 276) were re-assessed at approximately 5 years of age in a preschool follow-up. We quantified maternal responsiveness and child behavioral disinhibition using a combination of directly observed activities in the lab and developmentally sensitive questionnaires. Results supported a diathesis-stress pattern. Children with PTE and less responsive mothers showed increased disruptive behavior and lower effortful control compared with children without PTE. In contrast, exposed children with more responsive mothers had self-regulatory profiles similar to their non-exposed peers. We did not observe sex differences. Findings provide greater specification of the protective role of maternal responsiveness for self-regulation in children with PTE and help clarify mechanisms that may underscore trajectories of exposure-related behavioral disinhibition.
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The "eyes have it," but when in development?: The importance of a developmental perspective in our understanding of behavioral memory formation and the hippocampus. Hippocampus 2019; 30:815-828. [PMID: 31465140 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.23149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2019] [Revised: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 08/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Lynn Nadel has been a trailblazer in memory research for decades. In just one example, Nadel and Zola-Morgan [Infantile amnesia, In Infant memory, Springer, Boston, MA, 1984, pp. 145-172] were the first to present the provocative notion that the extended development of the hippocampus may underlie the period of infantile amnesia. In this special issue of Hippocampus to honor Lynn Nadel, we review some of his major contributions to the field of memory development, with an emphasis on his observations that behavioral memory assessments follow an uneven, yet protracted developmental course. We present data emphasizing this point from memory-related eye movements [Hannula & Ranganath, Neuron, 2009, 63(5), 592-599]. Eye tracking is a sensitive behavioral measure, allowing for an indication of memory function even without overt responses, which is seemingly ideal for the investigation of memory in early childhood or in other nonverbal populations. However, the behavioral manifestation of these eye movements follows a U-shaped trajectory-and one that must be understood before these indictors could be broadly used as a marker of memory. We examine the change in preferential looking time to target stimuli in school-aged children and adults, and compare these eye movement responses to explicit recall measures. Our findings indicate change in the nature and timing of these eye movements in older children, causing us to question how 6-month-old infants may produce eye movements that initially appear to have the same properties as those measured in adulthood. We discuss these findings in the context of our current understanding of memory development, particularly the period of infantile amnesia.
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Positive parenting behaviors in women who spontaneously quit smoking during pregnancy: Clues to putative targets for preventive interventions. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2018; 67:18-24. [PMID: 29501649 PMCID: PMC5970967 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2018.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND While the majority of pregnant smokers do not respond to intervention, little is known about how a subset of pregnant smokers known as spontaneous quitters achieve sustained biologically-confirmed abstinence through delivery in the absence of intervention. We explore a developmental framework to address this question by viewing spontaneous quitting as an adaptive parenting behavior, facilitated by abilities necessary for sensitive parenting, or responsiveness. Utilizing existing data, we examined responsiveness from parenting assessments in women who exhibited a variety of smoking patterns during pregnancy, including spontaneous quitting. METHODS Participants were N = 305 pregnant women assessed for smoking prospectively and biochemically at 16 weeks, 28 weeks, delivery, and 4 weeks postpartum, then reassessed with their children 5 years later with directly-observed home- and lab-based measures of parenting. We used linear regression analysis to compare spontaneous quitters with women who exhibited other prenatal smoking patterns on parenting responsiveness, controlling for potential confounders. RESULTS In home-based observations, spontaneous quitters (n = 22) exhibited greater responsiveness with their children relative to intermittent pregnancy smokers [n = 70; β = 0.258, p = .022]; persistent pregnancy smokers [n = 66; β = 0.228, p = .040]; former smokers (quit before pregnancy) [n = 78; β = 266, p = .028]; and never smokers [n = 69; β = 0.312, p = .009]. Hypothesized differences were not observed in lab-based and self-report measures. CONCLUSIONS Putative protective characteristics in spontaneous quitters were captured in mother-child interactions at home, but not in lab-based and maternal report measures of responsiveness. Specification of these characteristics using prospective designs that oversample for spontaneous quitters is recommended to enable translation to preventive interventions.
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VI. EXECUTIVE CONTROL IN PRESCHOOLERS: NEW MODELS, NEW RESULTS, NEW IMPLICATIONS. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 2018; 81:111-128. [PMID: 27943317 DOI: 10.1111/mono.12273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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III. DISTINGUISHING EXECUTIVE CONTROL FROM OVERLAPPING FOUNDATIONAL COGNITIVE ABILITIES DURING THE PRESCHOOL PERIOD. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 2018; 81:47-68. [PMID: 27943324 DOI: 10.1111/mono.12270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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IV. A NEW LOOK AT THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE SOCIO-FAMILIAL CONTEXT FOR YOUNG CHILDREN'S EXECUTIVE CONTROL: CLARIFYING THE MECHANISMS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 2018; 81:69-95. [PMID: 27943321 DOI: 10.1111/mono.12271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
Executive control (EC) is a central construct in developmental science, although measurement limitations have hindered understanding of its nature and development in young children, relation to social risk, and prediction of important outcomes. Disentangling EC from the foundational cognitive abilities it regulates and that are inherently required for successful executive task completion (e.g., language, visual/spatial perception, and motor abilities) is particularly challenging at preschool age, when these foundational abilities are still developing and consequently differ substantially among children. A novel latent bifactor modeling approach delineated respective EC and foundational cognitive abilities components that undergird executive task performance in a socio demographically stratified sample of 388 preschoolers in a longitudinal, cohort-sequential study. The bifactor model revealed a developmental shift, where both EC and foundational cognitive abilities contributed uniquely to executive task performance at ages 4.5 and 5.25 years, but were not separable at ages 3 and 3.75. Contrary to the view that EC is vulnerable to socio-familial risk, the contributions of household financial and learning resources to executive task performance were not specific to EC but were via their relation to foundational cognitive abilities. EC, though, showed a unique, discriminant relation with hyperactive symptoms late in the preschool period, whereas foundational cognitive abilities did not predict specific dimensions of dysregulated behavior. These findings form the basis for a new, integrated approach to the measurement and conceptualization of EC, which includes dual consideration of the contributions of EC and foundational cognitive abilities to executive task performance, particularly in the developmental context of preschool.
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Executive control goes to school: Implications of preschool executive performance for observed elementary classroom learning engagement. Dev Psychol 2017; 53:836-844. [PMID: 28358540 PMCID: PMC5436807 DOI: 10.1037/dev0000296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The transition to elementary school is accompanied by increasing demands for children to regulate their attention and behavior within the classroom setting. Executive control (EC) may be critical for meeting these demands; however, few studies have rigorously examined the association between EC and observed classroom behavior. This study examined EC in preschool (age 5 years 3 months) as a predictor of classroom learning engagement behaviors in first grade, using a battery of performance-based EC tasks and live classroom observations in a longitudinal sample of 313 children. Multilevel modeling results indicated that stronger EC predicted more focused engagement and fewer task management and competing responses, controlling for socioeconomic status, child sex, and age at observations. Results suggest that early EC may support subsequent classroom engagement behaviors that are critical for successful transition to elementary school and long-term learning trajectories. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Does MAOA increase susceptibility to prenatal stress in young children? Neurotoxicol Teratol 2017; 61:82-91. [PMID: 28163169 PMCID: PMC5453809 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2017.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Revised: 11/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We previously demonstrated a gene-by-prenatal-environment interaction whereby the monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) modified the impact of prenatal tobacco exposure (PTE) on adolescent disruptive behavior (DB), with the MAOA risk genotype varying by sex. We extend this work by examining whether this mechanism is evident with another common adversity, prenatal stress exposure (PSE), and whether sex differences are present earlier in development in closer proximity to exposure. METHODS Participants were 281 mothers and their 285 children derived from a prenatal cohort with in-depth prospective measures of PSE and PTE. We assessed DB at age 5 via dimensional developmentally-sensitive measurement. Analyses were stratified by sex based on prior evidence for sex differences. RESULTS Concurrent stress exposure predicted DB in children (β=0.310, p=0.001), while main effects of prenatal exposures were seen only in boys. We found a three-way interaction of MAOA×PSE×sex on DB (β=0.813, p=0.022). Boys with MAOA-H had more DB as a function of PSE, controlling for PTE (β=0.774, p=0.015), and as a function of PTE, controlling for PSE (β=0.362, p=0.037). Boys with MAOA-L did not show this susceptibility. MAOA did not interact with PSE (β=-0.133, p=0.561) nor PTE (β=-0.144; p=0.505) in predicting DB in girls. Examination of gene-environment correlation (rGE) showed a correlation between paternal MAOA-L and daughters' concurrent stress exposure (r=-0.240, p=0.013). DISCUSSION Findings underscore complex mechanisms linking genetic susceptibility and early adverse exposures. Replication in larger cohorts followed from the pregnancy through adolescence is suggested to elucidate mechanisms that appear to have varying developmental expression.
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Intersections between cardiac physiology, emotion regulation and interpersonal warmth in preschoolers: Implications for drug abuse prevention from translational neuroscience. Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 163 Suppl 1:S60-9. [PMID: 27306733 PMCID: PMC4911543 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.01.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2015] [Revised: 01/01/2016] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Early childhood is characterized by dramatic gains in emotion regulation skills that support social adjustment and mental health. Understanding the physiological substrates of healthy emotion regulation may offer new directions for altering trajectories toward initiation and escalation of substance abuse. Here, we describe the intersections between parasympathetic and sympathetic tone, emotion regulation and prosocial behavior in a high-risk sample of preschoolers. METHOD Fifty-two 3-6 year old children completed an assessment of attention regulation in response to affective stimuli. Cardiac respiratory sinus arrhythmia, an index of parasympathetic tone, and pre-ejection period, a marker of sympathetic activation, were recorded at rest and while children engaged in social interactions with their mothers and an unfamiliar research assistant. Mothers reported on children's emotional reactivity and prosocial behavior. RESULTS Controlling for age and psychosocial risk, higher parasympathetic tone predicted better attention regulation in response to angry emotion and higher levels of prosocial behavior, whereas a reciprocal pattern of higher parasympathetic tone and lower sympathetic arousal predicted better attention in response to positive emotion and lower emotional reactivity. Children exposed to fewer risk factors and higher levels of maternal warmth were more able to sustain a high level of parasympathetic tone during interaction episodes. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest that autonomic measures represent biomarkers for socio-emotional competence in young children. They also point to the importance of early experiences in the establishment of physiological regulation and the promise of family-based intervention to promote healthy emotion regulation and prevent substance dependence in high-risk populations.
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Attachment status and mother-preschooler parasympathetic response to the strange situation procedure. Biol Psychol 2015; 114:39-48. [PMID: 26738633 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2015] [Revised: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Early attachment relationships are important for children's development of behavioral and physiological regulation strategies. Parasympathetic nervous system activity, indexed by respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), is a key indicator of self-regulation, with links to numerous developmental outcomes. Attachment-related changes in and associations between mother and child RSA during the Strange Situation procedure (SSP) can elucidate individual differences in physiological response to stress that are important for understanding the development of and intervention for psychopathology. METHODS A sample of 142 at-risk mothers and preschool-age children participated in the SSP and provided time-synchronized RSA data during the 7 episodes, which included 2 separations and 2 reunions. Attachment classifications were obtained using the Cassidy et al. (1992) coding system. Linear mixed-effects models were constructed to examine attachment-related change in RSA during the SSP and the concordance between mother and child RSA over time. RESULTS Findings demonstrated attachment-related differences in children's RSA. Secure children's RSA was relatively stable over time, whereas insecure-avoidant children showed RSA increases during the first separation and insecure-resistant children's RSA declined across the SSP. Mothers showed RSA withdrawal during separation regardless of child's attachment classification. Mother-child RSA showed a positive concordance that was strongest in the insecure-resistant group, compared with the other groups. CONCLUSIONS Results support attachment theories concerning parasympathetic response to stress and the role of the mother-child relationship in physiological regulation. Our findings advance previous research by focusing on at-risk mother-preschooler dyads within diverse attachment classifications.
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Developmental pathways from prenatal tobacco and stress exposure to behavioral disinhibition. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2015; 53:64-74. [PMID: 26628107 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2015.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2015] [Revised: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal tobacco exposure (PTE) and prenatal stress exposure (PSE) both have been linked to externalizing behavior, although their effects generally have been considered in isolation. Here, we aimed to characterize the joint or interactive roles of PTE and PSE in early developmental pathways to behavioral disinhibition, a profile of cognitive and behavioral under-control that presages severe externalizing behavior. As part of a prospective, longitudinal study, 296 children were assessed at a mean age of 5 years. Exposures were assessed via repeated interviews across the prenatal period and bioassays of cotinine were obtained. Behavioral disinhibition was assessed using temperament measures in infancy, performance-based executive control tasks and measures of disruptive and inattentive behavior. PSE was associated with a higher probability of difficult temperament in infancy. Each exposure independently predicted poorer executive control at age 5 years. Difficult temperament and executive control difficulties in turn predicted elevated levels of disruptive behavior, although links from PTE and PSE to parent-reported attention problems were less robust. Children who experienced these prenatal exposures in conjunction with higher postnatal stress exposure showed the lowest executive control and highest levels of disruptive behavior. Findings highlight the compounding adverse impact of PTE and PSE on children's behavioral trajectories. Given their high concordance, prenatal health campaigns should target these exposures in tandem.
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Separating Family-Level and Direct Exposure Effects of Smoking During Pregnancy on Offspring Externalizing Symptoms: Bridging the Behavior Genetic and Behavior Teratologic Divide. Behav Genet 2015; 46:389-402. [PMID: 26581695 DOI: 10.1007/s10519-015-9762-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Maternal smoking during pregnancy (MSDP) has been robustly associated with externalizing problems and their developmental precursors in offspring in studies using behavioral teratologic designs (Wakschlag et al., Am J Public Health 92(6):966-974, 2002; Espy et al., Dev Psychol 47(1):153-169, 2011). In contrast, the use of behavior genetic approaches has shown that the effects commonly attributed to MSDP can be explained by family-level variables (D'Onofrio et al., Dev Psychopathol 20(01):139-164, 2008). Reconciling these conflicting findings requires integration of these study designs. We utilize longitudinal data on a preschool proband and his/her sibling from the Midwest Infant Development Study-Preschool (MIDS-P) to test for teratologic and family level effects of MSDP. We find considerable variation in prenatal smoking patterns both within and across pregnancies within families, indicating that binary smoking measures are not sufficiently capturing exposure. Structural equation models indicate that both conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms showed unique effects of MSDP over and above family level effects. Blending high quality exposure measurement with a within-family design suggests that it is premature to foreclose the possibility of a teratologic effect of MSDP on externalizing problems. Implications and recommendations for future studies are discussed.
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Building an adaptive brain across development: targets for neurorehabilitation must begin in infancy. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:232. [PMID: 26441566 PMCID: PMC4565977 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Much progress has been made toward behavioral and pharmacological intervention in intellectual disability, which was once thought too difficult to treat. Down syndrome (DS) research has shown rapid advances, and clinical trials are currently underway, with more on the horizon. Here, we review the literature on the emergent profile of cognitive development in DS, emphasizing that treatment approaches must consider how some "end state" impairments, such as language deficits, may develop from early alterations in neural systems beginning in infancy. Specifically, we highlight evidence suggesting that there are pre- and early postnatal alterations in brain structure and function in DS, resulting in disturbed network function across development. We stress that these early alterations are likely amplified by Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression and poor sleep. Focusing on three network hubs (prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum), we discuss how these regions may relate to evolving deficits in cognitive function in individuals with DS, and to their language profile in particular.
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Relation of perinatal risk and early parenting to executive control at the transition to school. Dev Sci 2014; 18:525-42. [PMID: 25288501 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2013] [Accepted: 06/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Executive control (EC) develops rapidly during the preschool years and is central to academic achievement and functional outcome. Although children with perinatal adversity are at known risk for EC impairments, little is known about the underlying nature of these impairments or the mechanisms that contribute to their development over time. Drawing on a cohort of 110 high-risk children born very preterm (VPT; < 33 weeks / < 1500 g) and 113 healthy full-term children, this study examined the implications of perinatal adversity and early parenting for children's EC as they transitioned to formal schooling. Parent supportive presence, intrusiveness, and parent-child synchrony were observed during a series of problem-solving tasks at ages 2 and 4 years. At age 6, children completed a comprehensive battery of EC tasks. Academic outcomes were assessed at age 9. The VPT group showed global EC impairments at age 6, although the unitary factor that best characterized the structure of EC was the same in both groups. High-risk dyads were characterized by more intrusive and less synchronous parent-child interactions in early childhood, which in turn predicted poorer child EC at age 6. EC partially mediated the relation of risk status to poorer academic achievement at age 9. Findings demonstrate the cumulative effects of perinatal adversity on children's EC in the crucial transition to schooling. They also highlight the importance of the parent-child relationship as a target for intervention efforts to help mitigate these effects.
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Sociodemographic risk and early environmental factors that contribute to resilience in executive control: A factor mixture model of 3-year-olds. Child Neuropsychol 2014; 21:354-78. [DOI: 10.1080/09297049.2014.910300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Gaining control: changing relations between executive control and processing speed and their relevance for mathematics achievement over course of the preschool period. Front Psychol 2014; 5:107. [PMID: 24596563 PMCID: PMC3925940 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Early executive control (EC) predicts a range of academic outcomes and shows particularly strong associations with children's mathematics achievement. Nonetheless, a major challenge for EC research lies in distinguishing EC from related cognitive constructs that also are linked to achievement outcomes. Developmental cascade models suggest that children's information processing speed is a driving mechanism in cognitive development that supports gains in working memory, inhibitory control and associated cognitive abilities. Accordingly, individual differences in early executive task performance and their relation to mathematics may reflect, at least in part, underlying variation in children's processing speed. The aims of this study were to: (1) examine the degree of overlap between EC and processing speed at different preschool age points; and (2) determine whether EC uniquely predicts children's mathematics achievement after accounting for individual differences in processing speed. As part of a longitudinal, cohort-sequential study, 388 children (50% boys; 44% from low income households) completed the same battery of EC tasks at ages 3, 3.75, 4.5, and 5.25 years. Several of the tasks incorporated baseline speeded naming conditions with minimal EC demands. Multidimensional latent models were used to isolate the variance in executive task performance that did not overlap with baseline processing speed, covarying for child language proficiency. Models for separate age points showed that, while EC did not form a coherent latent factor independent of processing speed at age 3 years, it did emerge as a distinct factor by age 5.25. Although EC at age 3 showed no distinct relation with mathematics achievement independent of processing speed, EC at ages 3.75, 4.5, and 5.25 showed independent, prospective links with mathematics achievement. Findings suggest that EC and processing speed are tightly intertwined in early childhood. As EC becomes progressively decoupled from processing speed with age, it begins to take on unique, discriminative importance for children's mathematics achievement.
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Relation of neural structure to persistently low academic achievement: a longitudinal study of children with differing birth weights. Neuropsychology 2013; 27:364-377. [PMID: 23688218 DOI: 10.1037/a0032273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study examined the relation of cerebral tissue reductions associated with VLBW to patterns of growth in core academic domains. METHOD Children born <750 g, 750 to 1,499 g, or >2,500 g completed measures of calculation, mathematical problem solving, and word decoding at time points spanning middle childhood and adolescence. K. A. Espy, H. Fang, D. Charak, N. M. Minich, and H. G. Taylor (2009, Growth mixture modeling of academic achievement in children of varying birth weight risk, Neuropsychology, Vol. 23, pp. 460-474) used growth mixture modeling to identify two growth trajectories (clusters) for each academic domain: an average achievement trajectory and a persistently low trajectory. In this study, 97 of the same participants underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in late adolescence, and cerebral tissue volumes were used to predict the probability of low growth cluster membership for each domain. RESULTS Adjusting for whole brain volume (wbv), each 1-cm(3) reduction in caudate volume was associated with a 1.7- to 2.1-fold increase in the odds of low cluster membership for each domain. Each 1-mm(2) decrease in corpus callosum surface area increased these odds approximately 1.02-fold. Reduced cerebellar white matter volume was associated specifically with low calculation and decoding growth, and reduced cerebral white matter volume was associated with low calculation growth. Findings were similar when analyses were confined to the VLBW groups. CONCLUSIONS Reduced volume of structures involved in connectivity, executive attention, and motor control may contribute to heterogeneous academic trajectories among children with VLBW.
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Abstract
Despite acknowledgement of the importance of executive control for learning and behavior, there is a dearth of research charting its developmental trajectory as it unfolds against the background of children's sociofamilial milieus. Using a prospective, cohort-sequential design, this study describes growth trajectories for inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility across the preschool period in relation to child sex and sociofamilial resources. At ages 3, 3.75, 4.5, and 5.25 years, children (N = 388) from a broad range of social backgrounds were assessed using the Shape School, a graduated measure of executive control incorporating baseline, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility conditions. Measures of children's proximal access to learning resources and social network supports were collected at study entry. Findings revealed substantial gains in accuracy and speed for all Shape School conditions, these gains being particularly accelerated between ages 3 and 3.75 years. Improvements in inhibitory control were more rapid than those in flexible switching. Age-related differences in error and self-correction patterns on the Shape School also suggest qualitative changes in the underlying processes supporting executive performance across early childhood. Children from homes with fewer learning resources showed a subtle lag in inhibition and cognitive flexibility performance that persisted at kindergarten entry age, despite exhibiting gradual catch up to their more advantaged peers for the nonexecutive, baseline task condition. The study provides a unique characterization of the early developmental pathways for inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility and highlights the critical role of stimulating early educational resources for shaping the dynamic ontogeny of executive control.
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Longitudinal associations between executive control and developing mathematical competence in preschool boys and girls. Child Dev 2012; 84:662-77. [PMID: 23006040 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01854.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Executive control (EC) is related to mathematics performance in middle childhood. However, little is known regarding how EC and informal numeracy differentially support mathematics skill acquisition in preschoolers. A sample of preschoolers (115 girls, 113 boys), stratified by social risk, completed an EC task battery at 3 years, informal numeracy assessments at 3.75 and 4.5 years, and a broad mathematics assessment during kindergarten. Strong associations were observed between latent EC at age 3 and mathematics achievement in kindergarten, which remained robust after accounting for earlier informal numeracy, socioeconomic status, language and processing speed. Relations between EC and mathematics achievement were stronger in girls than in boys. Findings highlight the unique role of EC in predicting which children may have difficulty transitioning to formal mathematics instruction.
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Underpinnings of the costs of flexibility in preschool children: the roles of inhibition and working memory. Dev Neuropsychol 2012; 37:99-118. [PMID: 22339225 DOI: 10.1080/87565641.2011.632458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
This study addressed the respective contributions of inhibition and working memory to two underlying components of flexibility, goal representation (as assessed by mixing costs) and switch implementation (as assessed by local costs), across the preschool period. By later preschool age (4 years, 6 months and 5 years, 3 months), both inhibition and working-memory performance were associated with mixing costs, but not with local costs, whereas no relation was observed earlier (3 years, 9 months). The relations of inhibition and working memory to flexibility appear to emerge late in the preschool period and are mainly driven by goal representation.
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Neonatal white matter abnormalities predict global executive function impairment in children born very preterm. Dev Neuropsychol 2011; 36:22-41. [PMID: 21253989 DOI: 10.1080/87565641.2011.540530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Using prospective longitudinal data from 110 very preterm and 113 full term children, this article describes the executive functioning abilities of very preterm children at age 4, and examines relations between the extent of white matter abnormality on neonatal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and later executive function outcomes. Very preterm children performed less well than full term children on measures of planning ability, cognitive flexibility, selective attention, and inhibitory control. Executive impairments at age 4 were confined to preterm children with mild or moderate-severe white matter abnormalities on MRI. Findings support the importance of cerebral white matter integrity for later executive function.
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The structure of executive function in 3-year-olds. J Exp Child Psychol 2011; 108:436-52. [PMID: 20884004 PMCID: PMC3033982 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2010.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 389] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2009] [Revised: 08/18/2010] [Accepted: 08/20/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Although the structure of executive function (EF) during adulthood is characterized by both unity and diversity, recent evidence suggests that preschool EF may be best described by a single factor. The latent structure of EF was examined in 228 3-year-olds using confirmatory factor analysis. Children completed a battery of executive tasks that differed in format and response requirements and in putative working memory and inhibitory control demands. Tasks appeared to be age appropriate, with adequate sensitivity across the range of performance and without floor or ceiling effects. Tests of the relative fit of several alternative models supported a single latent EF construct. Measurement invariance testing revealed less proficient EF in children at higher sociodemographic risk relative to those at lower risk and no differences between boys and girls. At 3years of age, when EF skills are emerging, EF appears to be a unitary, more domain-general process.
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Preschool executive functioning abilities predict early mathematics achievement. Dev Psychol 2010; 46:1176-1191. [PMID: 20822231 DOI: 10.1037/a0019672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 291] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Impairments in executive function have been documented in school-age children with mathematical learning difficulties. However, the utility and specificity of preschool executive function abilities in predicting later mathematical achievement are poorly understood. This study examined linkages between children's developing executive function abilities at age 4 and children's subsequent achievement in mathematics at age 6, 1 year after school entry. The study sample consisted of a regionally representative cohort of 104 children followed prospectively from ages 2 to 6 years. At age 4, children completed a battery of executive function tasks that assessed planning, set shifting, and inhibitory control. Teachers completed the preschool version of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. Clinical and classroom measures of children's mathematical achievement were collected at age 6. Results showed that children's performance on set shifting, inhibitory control, and general executive behavior measures during the preschool period accounted for substantial variability in children's early mathematical achievement at school. These associations persisted even after individual differences in general cognitive ability and reading achievement were taken into account. Findings suggest that early measures of executive function may be useful in identifying children who may experience difficulties learning mathematical skills and concepts. They also suggest that the scaffolding of these executive skills could potentially be a useful additional component in early mathematics education.
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Neonatal Cerebral Abnormalities and Later Verbal and Visuospatial Working Memory Abilities of Children Born Very Preterm. Dev Neuropsychol 2010; 35:622-42. [PMID: 21038157 DOI: 10.1080/87565641.2010.508669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Early school-based learning difficulties in children born very preterm. Early Hum Dev 2009; 85:215-24. [PMID: 19022593 DOI: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2008.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2008] [Revised: 10/10/2008] [Accepted: 10/13/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Educational underachievement is a major morbidity associated with very preterm (VPT) birth. However, few studies have examined early school outcomes with most employing global, clinic based measures. OBJECTIVE To examine the early school achievement in a cohort of children born VPT and studied to age 6 years. METHODS A regional cohort of 102 VPT children (</=33 weeks GA) were followed prospectively alongside a comparison group of 108 full term (FT) children born during the same period (1998-2000). At 6 years corrected age, all children underwent a comprehensive neurodevelopmental evaluation that included the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement (WJ-III), teacher report and national numeracy and literacy test results. Rates of specific learning disabilities (LD) were also examined. RESULTS VPT children performed less well than FT children on WJ-III subtests (ps<.05), national tests (ps<.01), and in all curricular areas rated by teachers (ps<.01) except expressive language. Even VPT children without severe neurodevelopmental impairment scored lower on the WJ-III math, national tests (ps<.05) and were 2-3 times more likely to show delays (ps<.02) in math (43% vs. 19%), written language (36% vs. 22%), language comprehension (26% vs. 14%), handwriting (36% vs. 17%), spelling (38% vs. 30%) and physical education (33% vs. 11%). They were also twice as likely as FT children to have math LD (47% vs. 21%). CONCLUSIONS By age 6, a substantial proportion of VPT children are lagging behind their FT peers across multiple curriculum areas, with difficulties being most prominent in math. Findings highlight the need for early identification and educational supports to help maximise VPT children's learning opportunities during the transition to school.
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Development of Emotional and Behavioral Regulation in Children Born Extremely Preterm and Very Preterm: Biological and Social Influences. Child Dev 2008; 79:1444-62. [PMID: 18826535 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01198.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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