Morphological Complexity in Writing: Implications for Writing Quality and Patterns of Change

PURPOSE

The current study examined (a) the relation between morphologically complex word (MCW) use (words containing at least one derivational morpheme such as prefixes and suffixes) and teachers' ratings of writing quality, (b) average change in MCW use in writing across the school year, and (c) differential change in MCW among students with varying language abilities and linguistic backgrounds including students with developmental language disorders (DLDs) and multilingual learners (MLs).

METHOD

Expository writing samples (writing for the purpose of explaining or educating) were collected in October and May from 824 fifth-grade students, including 109 with DLD and 170 who were MLs receiving English as a second language service. Students' written responses were coded for the use of MCW. Pearson product-moment correlations and two-level hierarchical linear models were employed to investigate the association between MCW usage and writing quality, as well as increases in MCW usage over the course of the academic year, taking into account the nested structure of students within classrooms.

RESULTS

The relation between students' MCW use and teachers' writing quality ratings was moderately strong (r = .47). Student use of MCW in expository writing showed significant change from fall to spring across all students. However, the amount of change in MCW use across the school year was significantly lower for MLs (effect size [ES] = .09) and students identified with DLD (ES = .10).

CONCLUSIONS

The relation between MCW use and teachers' writing quality ratings highlights the utility of MCW as a written language measure for progress monitoring or assessment. The presence of differential change and potential Matthew effects for MLs and students with DLD substantiates the need for further exploration of instructional components that support the increased use of complex vocabulary.

Teacher Vocabulary Use and Student Language and Literacy Achievement

PURPOSE

We sought to examine second grade teachers' word use throughout the school day to identify the amount and type of teacher vocabulary use across content areas as well as to examine relationships between this teacher talk and student language and literacy achievement.

METHOD

Second grade teachers (n = 64) and a random sample of half of their students (n = 619) participated. Teachers recorded instruction during the school day throughout the year, and students were assessed on vocabulary, grammar, and reading measures in the fall and spring.

RESULTS

Findings reveal second grade students hear thousands of words spoken by the teacher each hour of the school day, including more than a thousand different words per hour on average. The large majority of words were the most common words in the English language. On average, there were few academic or curriculum vocabulary words used, but this varied widely between teachers. The proportion of academic words used by teachers during the school day significantly predicted students' end-of-year vocabulary. Teachers who used more academic words had students with higher vocabulary achievement at the end of the school year. There were no other significant relationships between teachers' language and student achievement.

CONCLUSIONS

This correlational evidence adds to the existing knowledge of the importance of academic language to student school outcomes and provides implications for further research in the area of academic language at the early elementary level.

Examination of an Automated Procedure for Calculating Morphological Complexity

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to advance the analysis of written language transcripts by validating an automated scoring procedure using an automated open-access tool for calculating morphological complexity (MC) from written transcripts.

METHOD

The MC of words in 146 written responses of students in fifth grade was assessed using two procedures: (a) hand-coding of words containing derivational morphemes by trained scorers and (b) an automated analysis of MC using Morpholex, a newly developed web-based tool. Correlational analysis between the different MC calculations was examined to consider the relation between hand-coded derivational morpheme counts and the automated measures. Additionally, all MC measures were compared to a previously gathered rating of writing quality to consider predictive validity between the automated Morpholex score and teachers' ratings of writing quality.

RESULTS

Automated measures of MC had a strong relation (r = .63) with hand-coding of the number of words with derivational morphemes. Additionally, the number of derivational and inflectional and derivational morphemes accounted for a significant amount of the variation in teachers' overall ratings of writing quality.

CONCLUSION

Automated scoring of MC has potential utility as a valid alternative to hand-coding language samples, which may be valuable for progress monitoring of growth in complexity across repeated samples and measuring components that influence perceived quality of academic writing.

Genetics can inform causation, but the concepts and language we use matters

Madole & Harden describe how genetics can be used in a causal framework. We agree with many of their opinions but argue that comparing within-family designs to experiments is unnecessary and that the proposed influence of genetics on behavior can be better described as inus conditions.

Learning and memory deficits produced by aspartame are heritable via the paternal lineage

Environmental exposures produce heritable traits that can linger in the population for one or two generations. Millions of individuals consume substances such as artificial sweeteners daily that are declared safe by regulatory agencies without evaluation of their potential heritable effects. We show that consumption of aspartame, an FDA-approved artificial sweetener, daily for up to 16-weeks at doses equivalent to only 7-15% of the FDA recommended maximum daily intake value (equivalent to 2-4 small, 8 oz diet soda drinks per day) produces significant spatial learning and memory deficits in mice. Moreover, the cognitive deficits are transmitted to male and female descendants along the paternal lineage suggesting that aspartame's adverse cognitive effects are heritable, and that they are more pervasive than current estimates, which consider effects in the directly exposed individuals only. Traditionally, deleterious environmental exposures of pregnant and nursing women are viewed as risk factors for the health of future generations. Environmental exposures of men are not considered to pose similar risks. Our findings suggest that environmental exposures of men can produce adverse impact on cognitive function in future generations and demonstrate the need for considering heritable effects via the paternal lineage as part of the regulatory evaluations of artificial sweeteners.

The earlier the better: An RCT of treatment timing effects for toddlers on the autism spectrum

LAY ABSTRACT

Behavioral interventions that incorporate naturalistic, developmental strategies have been shown to improve outcomes for young children who receive an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnosis. Although there is broad consensus that children on the spectrum should begin supports as soon as possible, the empirical evidence for this is relatively limited and little is known about the optimal age to start autism-specific interventions. Our team conducted a randomized controlled trial (RCT) to test the effects of starting intervention at different ages, using the Early Social Interaction (ESI) model, a parent-implemented intervention for toddlers on the spectrum. Participants included 82 autistic toddlers and their caregiver(s) who received 9 months of Individual-ESI and 9 months of Group-ESI, with the timing/order of these two treatment conditions randomized. Thus, families received the more intensive and individualized Individual-ESI at either 18 or 27 months of age. Results revealed that children who received Individual-ESI earlier showed greater treatment gains than those who received this intervention later. Gains were demonstrated in several areas, which included the use and understanding of language, social use of communication skills, and self-help skills. Importantly, these findings were specific to the intensive and individualized parent coaching model compared to group-based treatment, allowing us to rule out the possibility that these timing effects were due to children getting older rather than the treatment itself. Our results suggest that even a narrow window of 18 versus 27 months may have an impact on outcomes and underscore the importance of screening and evaluation as young as possible.

Screening screeners: calculating classification indices using correlations and cut-points

Given the recent push for universal screening, it is important to take into account how well a screener identifies children at risk for reading problems as well as how screener and sample information contribute to this classification. Picking the best cut-point for a particular sample and screening goal can be challenging given that test manuals often report classification information for a specific cut-point and sample base rate which may not generalize to other samples. By assuming a bivariate normal distribution, it is possible to calculate all of the classification information for a screener based on the correlation between the screener and outcome, the cut-point on the outcome (i.e., the base rate in the sample), and the cut-point on the screener. We provide an example with empirical data to validate these estimation procedures. This information is the basis for a free online tool that provides classification information for a given correlation between screener and outcome and cut-points on each. Results show that the correlation between screener and outcome needs to be greater than .9 (higher than observed in practice) to obtain good classification. These findings are important for researchers, administrators, and practitioners because current screeners do not meet these requirements. Since a correlation is dependent on the reliability of the measures involved, we need screeners with better reliability and/or multiple measures to increase reliability. Additionally, we demonstrate the impact of base rate on positive predictive power and discuss how gated screening can be useful in samples with low base rates.

Assessing Measurement Invariance Across Multiple Groups: When Is Fit Good Enough?

Complex research questions often need large samples to obtain accurate estimates of parameters and adequate power. Combining extant data sets into a large, pooled data set is one way this can be accomplished without expending resources. Measurement invariance (MI) modeling is an established approach to ensure participant scores are on the same scale. There are two major problems when combining independent data sets through MI. First, sample sizes will often be large leading to small differences becoming noninvariant. Second, not all data sets may include the same combination of measures. In this article, we present a method that can deal with both these problems and is user friendly. It is a combination of generating random normal deviates for variables missing completely in combination with assessing model fit using the root mean square error of approximation good enough principle, based on the hypothesis that the difference between groups is not zero but small. We demonstrate the method by examining MI across eight independent data sets and compare the MI decisions of the traditional and good enough approach. Our results show the approach has potential in combining educational data.

A Simulation Study on the Performance of Different Reliability Estimation Methods

The accuracy of certain internal consistency estimators have been questioned in recent years. The present study tests the accuracy of six reliability estimators (Cronbach's alpha, omega, omega hierarchical, Revelle's omega, and greatest lower bound) in 140 simulated conditions of unidimensional continuous data with uncorrelated errors with varying sample sizes, number of items, population reliabilities, and factor loadings. Estimators that have been proposed to replace alpha were compared with the performance of alpha as well as to each other. Estimates of reliability were shown to be affected by sample size, degree of violation of tau equivalence, population reliability, and number of items in a scale. Under the conditions simulated here, estimates quantified by alpha and omega yielded the most accurate reflection of population reliability values. A follow-up regression comparing alpha and omega revealed alpha to be more sensitive to degree of violation of tau equivalence, whereas omega was affected greater by sample size and number of items, especially when population reliability was low.

Language Variation in the Writing of African American Students: Factors Predicting Reading Achievement

Purpose This study aims to examine the predictive relation between measures obtained from African American students' written narrative language samples and reading achievement, as measured by standardized academic assessments. Method Written language samples were elicited from 207 African American students in Grades 1-8. The samples were examined for morphosyntactic variations from standardized written Generalized American English (GAE). These variations were categorized as either (a) specific to African American English (AAE) or (b) neutral across AAE and standardized written GAE (i.e., considered ungrammatical both in AAE and in standardized written GAE). Structural equation modeling was employed to then examine the predictive relation between the density of AAE-specific forms in students' writing and their performance on standardized assessments of literacy and reading vocabulary. This relation was examined while accounting for the density of dialect-neutral morphosyntactic forms, reported family income, age, and written sample length. Results The written samples were highly variable in terms of morphosyntax. Younger students and those from lower income homes tended to use AAE-specific forms at higher rates. However, the density of AAE-specific forms did not significantly predict standardized literacy scores or reading vocabulary after accounting for dialect-neutral variations, income, and sample length. Conclusions These results support the ongoing need to better understand the language, literacy, and overall academic development of students from all backgrounds. It may be essential to focus on dialect-neutral language forms (i.e., morphosyntactic forms that are consistent across both AAE and standardized written GAE) in written samples to maximize assessment validity across students who speak varying dialects of English. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.16879558.

Trajectories of Response to Treatments in Children with ADHD and Word Reading Difficulties

This study investigated patterns of response to intervention in children with co-occurring attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and reading difficulties (RD), who participated in a randomized clinical trial examining the efficacy of reading intervention, ADHD treatment, or combined treatments. Growth Mixture Modeling (GMM) was used to investigate trajectories of parent and teacher academic impairment ratings and child oral reading fluency, and whether trajectories were predicted by pre-treatment covariates (ADHD severity, reading achievement, phonemic awareness, rapid letter naming, anxiety, oppositional defiant disorder), for 216 children with ADHD/RD in 2nd-5th grade (61.1% male; 72.2% African American; 8.8 ± 1.3 years of age). GMM revealed three trajectories for academic impairment (6.9-24.2% stable, 23.7-78.7% moderately improving, and 14.1-52.1% steeply improving) and oral reading fluency (20.8% low improving, 42.1% moderate improving, and 37.1% high improving). Children in the reading intervention were more likely to be in the stable or moderately improving trajectory than those in the ADHD and combined treatments, who were more likely to be in the steeply improving trajectory for academic impairment. Relative to the ADHD intervention, children in the reading intervention were more likely to be in the high improving trajectory than the moderate or low improving trajectory for oral reading fluency. Children without comorbid anxiety and with better reading skills showed a more positive treatment response for teacher-rated academic progress and oral reading fluency. Results highlight the importance of examining individual differences in response to reading and ADHD interventions. Intervention modality predicted differences in parent/teacher ratings of academic progress as well as reading fluency.

Early Detection of Dyslexia Risk: Development of Brief, Teacher-Administered Screens

Many states now mandate early screening for dyslexia, but vary in how they address these mandates. There is confusion about the nature of screening versus diagnostic assessments, risk versus diagnosis, concurrent versus predictive validity, and inattention to indices of classification accuracy as the basis for determining risk. To help define what constitutes a screening assessment, we summarize efforts to develop short (3-5 min), teacher-administered screens that used multivariate strategies for variable selection, item response theory to select items that are most discriminating at a threshold for predicting risk, and statistical decision theory. These methods optimize prediction and lower the burden on teachers by reducing the number of items needed to evaluate risk. A specific goal of these efforts was to minimize decision errors that would result in the failure to identify a child as at risk of dyslexia/reading problems (false negatives) despite the inevitable increase in identifications of children who eventually perform in the typical range (false positives). Five screens, developed for different periods during kindergarten, Grade 1, and Grade 2, predicted outcomes measured later in the same school year (Grade 2) or in the subsequent year (Grade 1). The results of this approach to development are applicable to other screening methods, especially those that attempt to predict those children at risk of dyslexia prior to the onset of reading instruction. Without reliable and valid early predictive screening measures that reduce the burden on teachers, early intervention and prevention of dyslexia and related reading problems will be difficult.

Evaluating Teacher Language Within General and Special Education Classrooms Serving Elementary Students with Autism

This study examined how teachers and paraprofessionals in 126 kindergarten-second grade general and special education classrooms talked with their 194 students with autism, and further, how individual student characteristics in language, autism symptoms, and social abilities influenced this talk. Using systematic observational methods and factor analysis, we identified a unidimensional model of teacher language for general and special education classrooms yet observed differences between the settings, with more language observed in special education classrooms—much of which included directives and close-ended questions. Students’ receptive vocabulary explained a significant amount of variance in teacher language beyond its shared covariance with social impairment and problem behavior in general education classrooms but was non-significant within special education classrooms. Research implications are discussed.

The practical utility of genetic screening in school settings

Can genetic screening be used to personalize education for students? Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) screen an individual's DNA for specific variations in their genome, and how said variations relate to specific traits. The variations can then be assigned a corresponding weight and summed to produce polygenic scores (PGS) for given traits. Though first developed for disease risk, PGS is now used to predict educational achievement. Using a novel simulation method, this paper examines if PGS could advance screening in schools, a goal of personalized education. Results show limited potential benefits for using PGS to personalize education for individual students. However, further analysis shows PGS can be effectively used alongside progress monitoring measures to screen for learning disability risk. Altogether, PGS is not useful in personalizing education for every child but has potential utility when used simultaneously with additional screening tools to help determine which children may struggle academically.

Open Science in Education Sciences

The Open Science movement has gained considerable traction in the last decade. The Open Science movement tries to increase trust in research results and open the access to all elements of a research project to the public. Central to these goals, Open Science has promoted five critical tenets: Open Data, Open Analysis, Open Materials, Preregistration, and Open Access. All Open Science elements can be thought of as extensions to the traditional way of achieving openness in science, which has been scientific publication of research outcomes in journals or books. Open Science in education sciences, however, has the potential to be much more than a safeguard against questionable research. Open Science in education science provides opportunities to (a) increase the transparency and therefore replicability of research and (b) develop and answer research questions about individuals with learning disabilities and learning difficulties that were previously impossible to answer due to complexities in data analysis methods. We will provide overviews of the main tenets of Open Science (i.e., Open Data, Open Analysis, Open Materials, Preregistration, and Open Access), show how they are in line with grant funding agencies' expectations for rigorous research processes, and present resources on best practices for each of the tenets.

The Relation Between Academic Word Use and Reading Comprehension for Students From Diverse Backgrounds

Purpose

The aims of the current project were twofold: (a) to describe the use of academic words in written language samples by fifth-grade students and (b) to examine the predictive relation between academic word use in academic writing and reading comprehension.

Method

Investigators utilized written expository responses of 1,128 students in fifth grade who differed in English proficiency and language ability. The sample included 214 students who were English learners (ELs) and 144 students with identified language learning disabilities (LLD). Group differences in the use of academic words from the Coxhead word list were examined.

Results

ELs and students with LLD used academic words less frequently than their peers and demonstrated less variety in their academic word use. There was a significant relation between students' use of academic words and reading comprehension. Academic word use accounted for 16% of the variance in reading comprehension, which was not significantly different for ELs or students with LLD. The relation was moderated by economic advantage, with the strength of the relation being lower for students who were eligible for free/reduced lunch.

Conclusions

Findings support the need for additional research on ways to improve academic vocabulary skills to minimize achievement gaps. The relation between academic word use and reading comprehension warrants further consideration.

A randomized controlled trial of central executive training (CET) versus inhibitory control training (ICT) for ADHD

OBJECTIVE

Executive function deficits are well-established in ADHD. Unfortunately, replicated evidence indicates that executive function training for ADHD has been largely unsuccessful. We hypothesized that this may reflect insufficient targeting, such that extant protocols do not sufficiently and specifically target the neurocognitive systems associated with phenotypic ADHD behaviors/impairments.

METHOD

Children with ADHD ages 8-12 (M = 10.41, SD = 1.46; 12 girls; 74% Caucasian/Non-Hispanic) were randomized with allocation concealment to either central executive training (CET; n = 25) or newly developed inhibitory control training (ICT; n = 29). Detailed data analytic plans were preregistered.

RESULTS

Both treatments were feasible/acceptable based on training duration, child-reported ease of use, and parent-reported high satisfaction. CET was superior to ICT for improving its primary intervention targets: phonological and visuospatial working memory (d = 0.70-0.84). CET was also superior to ICT for improving go/no-go (d = 0.84) but not stop-signal inhibition. Mechanisms of change analyses indicated that CET-related working memory improvements produced significant reductions in the primary clinical endpoints (objectively assessed hyperactivity) during working memory and inhibition testing (indirect effects: β ≥ -.11; 95% CIs exclude 0.0). CET was also superior to ICT on 3 of 4 secondary clinical endpoints (blinded teacher-rated ADHD symptoms; d = 0.46-0.70 vs. 0.16-0.42) and 2 of 4 feasibility/acceptability clinical endpoints (parent-reported ADHD symptoms; d = 0.96-1.42 vs. 0.45-0.65). CET-related gains were maintained at 2-4 month follow-up; ICT-related gains were maintained for attention problems but not hyperactivity/impulsivity per parent report.

CONCLUSIONS

Results support the use of CET for treating executive function deficits and targeting ADHD behavioral symptoms in children with ADHD. Findings for ICT were mixed at best and indicate the need for continued development/study. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Correction to: Predicting Arabic word reading: A cross-classified generalized random-effects analysis showing the critical role of morphology

The original version of this article unfortunately contained the following errors.

How the Science of Reading Informs 21st-Century Education

The science of reading should be informed by an evolving evidence base built upon the scientific method. Decades of basic research and randomized controlled trials of interventions and instructional routines have formed a substantial evidence base to guide best practices in reading instruction, reading intervention, and the early identification of at-risk readers. The recent resurfacing of questions about what constitutes the science of reading is leading to misinformation in the public space that may be viewed by educational stakeholders as merely differences of opinion among scientists. Our goals in this paper are to revisit the science of reading through an epistemological lens to clarify what constitutes evidence in the science of reading and to offer a critical evaluation of the evidence provided by the science of reading. To this end, we summarize those things that we believe have compelling evidence, promising evidence, or a lack of compelling evidence. We conclude with a discussion of areas of focus that we believe will advance the science of reading to meet the needs of all children in the 21st century.

Predicting Arabic word reading: A cross-classified generalized random-effects analysis showing the critical role of morphology

The distinctive features of the Arabic language and orthography offer opportunities to investigate multiple word characteristics at the item level. The aim of this paper was to model differences in word reading at the item level among 3rd grade native Arabic-speaking children (n = 303) using cross-classified generalized random-effects (CCGRE) analysis. The participants read 80 vowelized words that varied in multiple elements that may contribute to their decodability: number of letters, number of syllables, number of morphemes, ligaturing (connectivity), semantics (concrete vs. abstract), orthographic frequency, root type frequency, and part of speech. Morphological awareness (MA) was included as a person-level predictor. Results of individual models showed that MA, number of letters, number of syllables, number of morphemes, number of ligatures, orthographic frequency, and part of speech were significantly related to the probability of a correct response. However, when all predictors were entered simultaneously, only MA and number of morphemes remained significant. These results underscore the important role of morphology in the lexical structure of Arabic words and in Arabic word reading. Discussion focuses on the role of morphology in Arabic reading and the implications for intervention to improve word recognition in children learning to read Arabic.

Using n-Level Structural Equation Models for Causal Modeling in Fully Nested, Partially Nested, and Cross-Classified Randomized Controlled Trials

Complex data structures are ubiquitous in psychological research, especially in educational settings. In the context of randomized controlled trials, students are nested in classrooms but may be cross-classified by other units, such as small groups. Furthermore, in many cases only some students may be nested within a unit while other students may not. Such instances of partial nesting requires a more flexible framework for estimating treatment effects so that the model coefficients are correctly estimated. Although several recommendations have been offered to the field on handling partially nested data, few are comprehensive in their treatment of manifest and latent variables in the context of partial nesting, full nesting, and cross-classification. The present study introduces n-level structural equation modeling (SEM) as a flexible measurement and analytic framework for the estimation of treatment effects for complex data structures that frequently present in randomized controlled trials. In this tutorial, we explore how the notation of n-level SEM allows for parsimonious model specification whether data are observed or latent and in the presence of partial nested or cross-classified designs. By using the xxm package in R, the advantage of using n-level SEM framework is demonstrated through five examples for single outcome manifest variables, as in the traditional multilevel model, as well as latent applications as in multilevel SEM.

The Effects of ADHD Treatment and Reading Intervention on the Fluency and Comprehension of Children with ADHD and Word Reading Difficulties: A Randomized Clinical Trial

Many students with reading difficulties and disabilities (RD) also have Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). This randomized clinical trial compared the effects of ADHD treatment alone (medication, parent training), intensive reading intervention alone, and their combination on the reading fluency and comprehension of students with both disorders. Students with ADHD and RD were randomly assigned to receive (a) Reading Intervention only (n=74), (b) ADHD Treatment only (n=78), or (c) simultaneous Combined ADHD and RD Treatment (n=70). For phonemic decoding fluency, the Reading Intervention group and the Combined Treatment group both had significantly better outcomes than the ADHD Treatment group, but did not differ from one another. For passage comprehension, the ADHD Treatment group had significantly better outcomes than the Reading Intervention group, while the other groups did not differ from one another. ADHD treatment may support passage comprehension in this population, while fluent decoding is best supported through intensive reading intervention.

Psychometric analysis of the repetitive behavior scale-revised using confirmatory factor analysis in children with autism

Research examining restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior or interests (RRB) in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has increased our understanding of its contribution to diagnosis and its role in development. Advances in our knowledge of RRB are hindered by the inconsistencies in how RRB is measured. The present study examined the factor structure of the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) in a sample of 350 children with ASD ages 2-9. Confirmatory factor analysis designed for items with categorical response types was implemented to examine six proposed structural models. The five-factor model demonstrated the most parsimonious fit based on common overall fit indices that was further supported by examination of local model fit indicators, though, the four- and six-factor models evidenced adequate-to-good fit as well. Examination of RRB factor score approaches indicated only minor differences between summed item subscale scores and extracted factor scores with regard to associations with diagnostic measures. All RRB subtypes demonstrated significant associations with cognitive functioning and adaptive behavior. Implications for future research validating the RBS-R as a more extensive clinical measure of RRB in ASD are discussed. Autism Res 2019, 12: 1399-1410. © 2019 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY: Repetitive behaviors are one of the two main symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). To better understand the role of repetitive behaviors, we must establish effective ways of measuring them. This study assessed the measurement qualities of the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) in a sample of 350 children with ASD ages 2-9. We found that the RBS-R measures multiple types of repetitive behaviors and that these behaviors are related to thinking ability and independence.

Differential Co-Development of Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading Comprehension for Students with and without Learning Disabilities

In this large-scale study of students from Title 1 schools (N = 14,773), we used multiple-group latent change score (LCS) modeling to investigate the developmental relations between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension in students with a school-identified learning disability (LD, n = 627) and typically developing students (n = 14,146). Students were tested for their vocabulary breadth and passage comprehension skills in Kindergarten through fourth grade. For typically developing students, there were bidirectional influences between their vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension skills. There were no cross-lagged influences across constructs for students with an LD. We find evidence for a developmental delay, such that students with an LD had similar levels and gains in their vocabulary knowledge relative to typically developing students, but these students started much lower in their reading comprehension skills and did not catch up to their typically developing peers. We discuss the implications for children with learning disabilities and the development of their reading comprehension skills.

Relationship Between Children's Lexical Diversity in Written Narratives and Performance on a Standardized Reading Vocabulary Measure

The purpose of this study was to examine construct validity of methods of calculating lexical diversity in written narrative samples relative to children's performance on a reading vocabulary measure. For 234 children in 1st-5th grade, written narratives were examined and compared between grades for number of different words (NDW), total words (TNW), NDW in a truncated 50 word sample, and type token ratio (TTR). The relationship between lexical diversity in written narratives and a standardized reading vocabulary measure (GMRT-4) was analyzed by comparing correlations. Grade differences were observed in measures of lexical diversity and productivity. Lexical diversity showed a significant moderate correlation with the GMRT-4. NDW had a stronger relationship to GMRT-4 scores than TTR for participants in first and second grade. Considering length (TNW, NDW constrained to 50 words, or TTR) did not result in a stronger relationship with reading vocabulary. Following additional study establishing probe equivalence, NDW in written narratives may be an efficient, educationally relevant, marker of language maturity and a good predictor of performance on a standardized reading vocabulary measure.

Item Bias: Predictors of Accuracy on Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Fourth Edition Items for Spanish-English-Speaking Children

Purpose This study examines the response patterns of 278 Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs) on a standardized test of receptive English vocabulary. Method Investigators analyzed responses to 131 items on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Fourth Edition ( Dunn & Dunn, 2007 ) focusing on differential accuracy on items influenced by (a) cross-linguistic overlap in phonology, (b) part of speech, and (c) word frequency. Results The differential response patterns showed cross-linguistic overlap, part of speech, and word frequency were significant predictors of the likelihood of obtaining a correct response above and beyond the expected difficulty level of the item. Conclusions All 3 factors predicted DLLs' response patterns beyond expected difficulty. Items with the highest likelihood of error included words with few or no shared features between Spanish and English translation equivalents, verbs or modifiers, and words with low frequency of occurrence. Implications Researchers should consider a cross-linguistic overlap in addition to part of speech and word frequency when designing vocabulary assessments for DLLs or utilizing such tests in research and clinical practice. Recognizing potential bias, clinicians should triangulate the appraisal of DLLs' language skills across multiple sources or measures and use caution when interpreting vocabulary assessments.

Can working memory training work for ADHD? Development of central executive training and comparison with behavioral parent training

OBJECTIVE

Working memory deficits have been linked experimentally and developmentally with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)-related symptoms/impairments. Unfortunately, substantial evidence indicates that extant working memory training programs fail to improve these symptoms/impairments. We hypothesized that this discrepancy may reflect insufficient targeting, such that extant protocols do not adequately engage the specific working memory components linked with the disorder's behavioral/functional impairments.

METHOD

The current study describes the development, empirical basis, and initial testing of central executive training (CET) relative to gold-standard behavioral parent training (BPT). Children with ADHD ages 8-13 (M = 10.43, SD = 1.59; 21 girls; 76% Caucasian/non-Hispanic) were treated using BPT (n = 27) or CET (n = 27). Detailed data analytic plans for the pre/post design were preregistered. Primary outcomes included phonological and visuospatial working memory, and secondary outcomes included actigraphy during working memory testing and two distal far-transfer tasks. Multiple feasibility/acceptability measures were included.

RESULTS

The BPT and CET samples did not differ on any pretreatment characteristics. CET was rated as highly acceptable by children and was equivalent to BPT in terms of feasibility/acceptability as evidenced by parent-reported high satisfaction, low barriers to participation, and large ADHD symptom reductions. CET was superior to BPT for improving working memory (Group × Time d = 1.06) as hypothesized. CET was also superior to BPT for reducing actigraph-measured hyperactivity during visuospatial working memory testing and both distal far-transfer tasks (Group × Time d = 0.74).

CONCLUSIONS

Results provide strong support for continued testing of CET and, if replicated, would support recent hypotheses that next-generation ADHD cognitive training protocols may overcome current limitations via improved targeting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Changing Developmental Trajectories of Toddlers With Autism Spectrum Disorder: Strategies for Bridging Research to Community Practice

PURPOSE

The need for community-viable, evidence-based intervention strategies for toddlers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a national priority. The purpose of this research forum article is to identify gaps in intervention research and needs in community practice for toddlers with ASD, incorporate published findings from a randomized controlled trial (RCT) of the Early Social Interaction (ESI) model (Wetherby et al., 2014) to illustrate community-based intervention, report new findings on child active engagement from the ESI RCT, and offer solutions to bridge the research-to-community practice gap.

METHOD

Research findings were reviewed to identify gaps in the evidence base for toddlers with ASD. Published and new findings from the multisite ESI RCT compared the effects of two different ESI conditions for 82 toddlers with ASD to teach parents how to support active engagement in natural environments.

RESULTS

The RCT of the ESI model was the only parent-implemented intervention that reported differential treatment effects on standardized measures of child outcomes, including social communication, developmental level, and adaptive behavior. A new measure of active engagement in the natural environment was found to be sensitive to change in 3 months for young toddlers with ASD and to predict outcomes on the standardized measures of child outcomes. Strategies for utilizing the Autism Navigator collection of web-based courses and tools using extensive video footage for families and professional development are offered for scaling up in community settings to change developmental trajectories of toddlers with ASD.

CONCLUSIONS

Current health care and education systems are challenged to provide intervention of adequate intensity for toddlers with ASD. The use of innovative technology can increase acceleration of access to evidence-based early intervention for toddlers with ASD that addresses health disparities, enables immediate response as soon as ASD is suspected, and rapidly bridges the research-to-practice gap.

Inhibition, Updating Working Memory, and Shifting Predict Reading Disability Symptoms in a Hybrid Model: Project KIDS

Recent achievement research suggests that executive function (EF), a set of regulatory processes that control both thought and action necessary for goal-directed behavior, is related to typical and atypical reading performance. This project examines the relation of EF, as measured by its components, Inhibition, Updating Working Memory, and Shifting, with a hybrid model of reading disability (RD). Our sample included 420 children who participated in a broader intervention project when they were in KG-third grade (age M = 6.63 years, SD = 1.04 years, range = 4.79-10.40 years). At the time their EF was assessed, using a parent-report Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), they had a mean age of 13.21 years (SD = 1.54 years; range = 10.47-16.63 years). The hybrid model of RD was operationalized as a composite consisting of four symptoms, and set so that any child could have any one, any two, any three, any four, or none of the symptoms included in the hybrid model. The four symptoms include low word reading achievement, unexpected low word reading achievement, poorer reading comprehension compared to listening comprehension, and dual-discrepancy response-to-intervention, requiring both low achievement and low growth in word reading. The results of our multilevel ordinal logistic regression analyses showed a significant relation between all three components of EF (Inhibition, Updating Working Memory, and Shifting) and the hybrid model of RD, and that the strength of EF's predictive power for RD classification was the highest when RD was modeled as having at least one or more symptoms. Importantly, the chances of being classified as having RD increased as EF performance worsened and decreased as EF performance improved. The question of whether any one EF component would emerge as a superior predictor was also examined and results showed that Inhibition, Updating Working Memory, and Shifting were equally valuable as predictors of the hybrid model of RD. In total, all EF components were significant and equally effective predictors of RD when RD was operationalized using the hybrid model.

Home Environmental and Behavioral Risk Indices for Reading Achievement

The goal of this study was to identify home environmental and temperament/behavior variables that best predict standardized reading comprehension scores among school-aged children. Data from 269 children aged 9-16 (M = 12.08; SD = 1.62) were used in discriminant function analyses to create the Home and Behavior indices. Family income was controlled in each index. The final Home and Behavior models each classified around 75% of cases correctly (reading comprehension at grade level vs. not). Each index was then used to predict other outcomes related to reading. Results showed that Home and/or Behavior accounted for 4-7% of the variance in reading fluency and spelling and 20-35% of the variance in parent-rated problems in math, social anxiety, and other dimensions. These metrics show promise as environmental and temperament/behavior risk scores that could be used to predict and potentially screen for further assessment of reading related problems.

Grade Level Expectations in Lexical Measures and Accuracy of Written Narrative Samples

This project aimed to describe selected micro structural aspects of written narratives of school age children and examine the relationship between narrative measures and performance on standardized assessments. Investigators utilized written personal narratives of 907 children in 1st-8th grade. Children's responses were described in terms of lexical diversity, productivity, and accuracy (grammatical, spelling, and conventions) by grade. The relationship between written narrative measures and performance on statewide assessments was analyzed through correlational and regression analyses. Findings demonstrated an upward trend in lexical measures across grades and a decrease in the proportion of errors. Children's performance on written language sample measures were significantly correlated to performance on standardized language and literacy assessments. The proportion of errors in written samples appeared to explain more unique variance than lexical measures. Findings substantiate that lexical measures and accuracy of written narrative measures are educationally relevant tools in first through eighth grade for predicting performance on standardized statewide language and literacy assessments. Results provide additional resources for educators on expected distribution of performance of school age children on written narrative measures. Findings further affirm the construct validity of using written narrative sample measures as a developmental index of language acquisition.

Writing Evaluation: Rater and Task Effects on the Reliability of Writing Scores for Children in Grades 3 and 4

We examined how raters and tasks influence measurement error in writing evaluation and how many raters and tasks are needed to reach a desirable level of .90 and .80 reliabilities for children in Grades 3 and 4. A total of 211 children (102 boys) were administered three tasks in narrative and expository genres, respectively, and their written compositions were evaluated in widely used evaluation methods for developing writers: holistic scoring, productivity, and curriculum-based writing scores. Results showed that 54% and 52% of variance in narrative and expository compositions were attributable to true individual differences in writing. Students' scores varied largely by tasks (30.44% and 28.61% of variance), but not by raters. To reach the reliability of .90, multiple tasks and raters were needed, and for the reliability of .80, a single rater and multiple tasks were needed. These findings offer important implications about reliably evaluating children's writing skills, given that writing is typically evaluated by a single task and a single rater in classrooms and even in state accountability systems.

Comparing treatments for children with ADHD and word reading difficulties: A randomized clinical trial

OBJECTIVE

This trial compared attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) treatment alone, intensive reading intervention alone, and their combination for children with ADHD and word reading difficulties and disabilities (RD).

METHOD

Children (n = 216; predominantly African American males) in Grades 2-5 with ADHD and word reading/decoding deficits were randomized to ADHD treatment (medication + parent training), reading treatment (reading instruction), or combined ADHD + reading treatment. Outcomes were parent and teacher ADHD ratings and measures of word reading/decoding. Analyses utilized a mixed models covariate-adjusted gain score approach with posttest regressed onto pretest.

RESULTS

Inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity outcomes were significantly better in the ADHD (parent Hedges's g = .87/.75; teacher g = .67/.50) and combined (parent g = 1.06/.95; teacher g = .36/41) treatment groups than reading treatment alone; the ADHD and Combined groups did not differ significantly (parent g = .19/.20; teacher g = .31/.09). Word reading and decoding outcomes were significantly better in the reading (word reading g = .23; decoding g = .39) and combined (word reading g = .32; decoding g = .39) treatment groups than ADHD treatment alone; reading and combined groups did not differ (word reading g = .09; decoding g = .00). Significant group differences were maintained at the 3- to 5-month follow-up on all outcomes except word reading.

CONCLUSIONS

Children with ADHD and RD benefit from specific treatment of each disorder. ADHD treatment is associated with more improvement in ADHD symptoms than RD treatment, and reading instruction is associated with better word reading and decoding outcomes than ADHD treatment. The additive value of combining treatments was not significant within disorder, but the combination allows treating both disorders simultaneously. (PsycINFO Database Record

Expanding the developmental models of writing: A direct and indirect effects model of developmental writing (DIEW)

We investigated direct and indirect effects of component skills on writing (DIEW) using data from 193 children in Grade 1. In this model, working memory was hypothesized to be a foundational cognitive ability for language and cognitive skills as well as transcription skills, which, in turn, contribute to writing. Foundational oral language skills (vocabulary and grammatical knowledge) and higher-order cognitive skills (inference and theory of mind) were hypothesized to be component skills of text generation (i.e., discourse-level oral language). Results from structural equation modeling largely supported a complete mediation model among four variations of the DIEW model. Discourse-level oral language, spelling, and handwriting fluency completely mediated the relations of higher-order cognitive skills, foundational oral language, and working memory to writing. Moreover, language and cognitive skills had both direct and indirect relations to discourse-level oral language. Total effects, including direct and indirect effects, were substantial for discourse-level oral language (.46), working memory (.43), and spelling (.37), followed by vocabulary (.19), handwriting (.17), theory of mind (.12), inference (.10), and grammatical knowledge (.10). The model explained approximately 67% of variance in writing quality. These results indicate that multiple language and cognitive skills make direct and indirect contributions, and it is important to consider both direct and indirect pathways of influences when considering skills that are important to writing.

Exploring the Co-Development of Reading Fluency and Reading Comprehension: A Twin Study

This study explores the co-development of two related but separate reading skills, reading fluency and reading comprehension, across Grades 1-4. A bivariate biometric dual change score model was applied to longitudinal data collected from 1,784 twin pairs between the ages of 6 and 10 years. Grade 1 skills were influenced by highly overlapping genetic and environmental factors. Growth in both skills was influenced by highly overlapping shared environmental factors. Cross-lagged parameters indicated bidirectional effects, with stronger effects from fluency to comprehension change than from comprehension to fluency change.

Evaluation of Classroom Active Engagement in Elementary Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder

This study evaluated the classroom measure of active engagement (CMAE), an observational tool designed to measure active engagement in students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Participants included 196 students with ASD and their educators (n = 126) who were video-recorded at the beginning of the school year. Findings documented limited active engagement overall, with students spending less than half of the observation well-regulated, productive, or independent and infrequently directing eye gaze and communicating. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the structure of the CMAE was represented by a 5-factor model. These findings underscore the need for improved active engagement in students with ASD and show promise for a tool to measure behaviors associated with positive educational outcomes in students with ASD.

Genetic and environmental influences on early literacy skills across school grade contexts

Recent research suggests that the etiology of reading achievement can differ across environmental contexts. In the US, schools are commonly assigned grades (e.g. 'A', 'B') often interpreted to indicate school quality. This study explored differences in the etiology of early literacy skills for students based on these school grades. Participants included twins drawn from the Florida Twin Project on Reading (n = 1313 pairs) aged 4 to 10 years during the 2006-07 school year. Early literacy skills were assessed with DIBELS subtests: Oral Reading Fluency (ORF), Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF), Initial Sound Fluency (ISF), Letter Naming Fluency (LNF), and Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF). School grade data were retrieved from the Florida Department of Education. Multi-group analyses were conducted separately for subsamples defined by 'A' or 'non-A' schools, controlling for school-level socioeconomic status. Results indicated significant etiological differences on pre-reading skills (ISF, LNF, and PSF), but not word-level reading skills (ORF and NWF). There was a consistent trend of greater environmental influences on pre-reading skills in non-A schools, arguably representing 'poorer' environmental contexts than the A schools. Importantly, this is the case outside of resources linked with school-level SES, indicating that something about the direct environment on pre-reading skills in the non-A school context is more variable than for A schools.

Examining the Relationships of Component Reading Skills to Reading Comprehension in Struggling Adult Readers: A Meta-Analysis

The current study employed a meta-analytic approach to investigate the relative importance of component reading skills to reading comprehension in struggling adult readers. A total of 10 component skills were consistently identified across 16 independent studies and 2,707 participants. Random effects models generated 76 predictor-reading comprehension effect sizes among the 10 constructs. The results indicated that six of the component skills exhibited strong relationships with reading comprehension (average rs ≥ .50): morphological awareness, language comprehension, fluency, oral vocabulary knowledge, real word decoding, and working memory. Three of the component skills yielded moderate relationships with reading comprehension (average rs ≥ .30 and < .50): pseudoword decoding, orthographic knowledge, and phonological awareness. Rapid automatized naming (RAN) was the only component skill that was weakly related to reading comprehension (r = .15). Morphological awareness was a significantly stronger correlate of reading comprehension than phonological awareness and RAN. This study provides the first attempt at a systematic synthesis of the recent research investigating the reading skills of adults with low literacy skills, a historically understudied population. Directions for future research, the relation of our results to the children's literature, and the implications for researchers and adult basic education programs are discussed.

A Quantile Regression Approach to Understanding the Relations Among Morphological Awareness, Vocabulary, and Reading Comprehension in Adult Basic Education Students

The purpose of this study was to investigate the joint and unique contributions of morphological awareness and vocabulary knowledge at five reading comprehension levels in adult basic education (ABE) students. We introduce the statistical technique of multiple quantile regression, which enabled us to assess the predictive utility of morphological awareness and vocabulary knowledge at multiple points (quantiles) along the continuous distribution of reading comprehension. To demonstrate the efficacy of our multiple quantile regression analysis, we compared and contrasted our results with a traditional multiple regression analytic approach. Our results indicated that morphological awareness and vocabulary knowledge accounted for a large portion of the variance (82%-95%) in reading comprehension skills across all quantiles. Morphological awareness exhibited the greatest unique predictive ability at lower levels of reading comprehension whereas vocabulary knowledge exhibited the greatest unique predictive ability at higher levels of reading comprehension. These results indicate the utility of using multiple quantile regression to assess trajectories of component skills across multiple levels of reading comprehension. The implications of our findings for ABE programs are discussed.

Examining Associations Among ADHD, Homework Behavior, and Reading Comprehension: A Twin Study

Previous literature has indicated an important association between reading comprehension and both attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and homework habits. This investigation sought to extend previous knowledge by providing information about how ADHD and homework behavior (i.e., completing homework regularly) may jointly influence reading comprehension. Using a genetically sensitive design, this study examined the genetic and environmental influences on and between ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension. Participants for this study included 691 twin pairs (351 monozygotic, 340 same-sex dizygotic) from the Florida Twin Project on Behavior and Environment (FTP-BE) and 2647 twin pairs (865 monozygotic, 1782 dizygotic) from the larger Florida Twin Project on Reading (FTP-R) in Grades 3 through 7. Three separate models, each representing a different definition of ADHD (full ADHD, inattention only, and hyperactivity/impulsivity only), showed similar patterns of results; therefore, results of the full ADHD model are discussed. Overlapping genetic influences were found between ADHD, homework behavior, and reading comprehension, but no shared environmental influences among all three. However, shared environmental influences overlapped between homework behavior and reading comprehension. Although the sources of this environmental overlap are unknown, these results have implications for improving homework practices and their subsequent influence on literacy skills through homework environments.

Modeling the Relations Among Morphological Awareness Dimensions, Vocabulary Knowledge, and Reading Comprehension in Adult Basic Education Students

This study extended the findings of Tighe and Schatschneider (2015) by investigating the predictive utility of separate dimensions of morphological awareness as well as vocabulary knowledge to reading comprehension in adult basic education (ABE) students. We competed two- and three-factor structural equation models of reading comprehension. A three-factor model of real word morphological awareness, pseudoword morphological awareness, and vocabulary knowledge emerged as the best fit and accounted for 79% of the reading comprehension variance. The results indicated that the constructs contributed jointly to reading comprehension; however, vocabulary knowledge was the only potentially unique predictor (p = 0.052), accounting for an additional 5.6% of the variance. This study demonstrates the feasibility of applying a latent variable modeling approach to examine individual differences in the reading comprehension skills of ABE students. Further, this study replicates the findings of Tighe and Schatschneider (2015) on the importance of differentiating among dimensions of morphological awareness in this population.

Modeling the Relations Among Morphological Awareness Dimensions, Vocabulary Knowledge, and Reading Comprehension in Adult Basic Education Students

This study extended the findings of Tighe and Schatschneider (2015) by investigating the predictive utility of separate dimensions of morphological awareness as well as vocabulary knowledge to reading comprehension in adult basic education (ABE) students. We competed two- and three-factor structural equation models of reading comprehension. A three-factor model of real word morphological awareness, pseudoword morphological awareness, and vocabulary knowledge emerged as the best fit and accounted for 79% of the reading comprehension variance. The results indicated that the constructs contributed jointly to reading comprehension; however, vocabulary knowledge was the only potentially unique predictor (p = 0.052), accounting for an additional 5.6% of the variance. This study demonstrates the feasibility of applying a latent variable modeling approach to examine individual differences in the reading comprehension skills of ABE students. Further, this study replicates the findings of Tighe and Schatschneider (2015) on the importance of differentiating among dimensions of morphological awareness in this population.

Using Simulations to Investigate the Longitudinal Stability of Alternative Schemes for Classifying and Identifying Children with Reading Disabilities

The present study employed data simulation techniques to investigate the one-year stability of alternative classification schemes for identifying children with reading disabilities. Classification schemes investigated include low performance, unexpected low performance, dual-discrepancy, and a rudimentary form of constellation model of reading disabilities that included multiple criteria. Data from Spencer et al. (2014) were used to construct a growth model of reading development. The parameters estimated from this model were then used to construct three simulated datasets wherein the growth parameters were manipulated in one of three ways: A stable-growth pattern, a mastery learning pattern and a fan-spread pattern. Results indicated that overall the constellation model provided the most stable classifications across all conditions of the simulation, and that classification schemes were most stable in the fan-spread condition, and were the least stable under the mastery learning growth pattern. These results also demonstrate the utility of data simulations in reading research.

Professional development to differentiate kindergarten Tier 1 instruction: Can already effective teachers improve student outcomes by differentiating Tier 1 instruction?

Two primary purposes guided this quasi-experimental within-teacher study: (1) to examine changes from baseline through two years of professional development (Individualizing Student Instruction) in kindergarten teachers' differentiation of Tier 1 literacy instruction; (2) to examine changes in reading and vocabulary of three cohorts of the teachers' students (n = 416). Teachers' instruction was observed and students were assessed on standardized measures of vocabulary and word reading. Results suggested that teachers significantly increased their differentiation and students showed significantly greater word reading outcomes relative to baseline. No change was observed for vocabulary. Results have implications for supporting teacher effectiveness through technology-supported professional development.

Examining the Underlying Dimensions of Morphological Awareness and Vocabulary Knowledge

We report results from two studies on the underlying dimensions of morphological awareness and vocabulary knowledge in elementary-aged children. In Study 1, 99 fourth-grade students were given multiple measures of morphological awareness and vocabulary. A single factor accounted for individual differences in all morphology and vocabulary assessments. Study 2 extended these results by giving 90 eighth-grade students expanded measures of vocabulary and morphology that assessed (a) definitional knowledge, (b) usage, (c) relational knowledge, and (d) knowledge of morphological variants, with each potential aspect of knowledge assessed using an identical set of 23 words to control for differential knowledge of specific vocabulary items. Results indicated that a single-factor model that encompassed morphological and vocabulary knowledge provided the best fit to the data. Finally, explanatory item response modeling was used to investigate sources of variance in the vocabulary and morphological awareness tasks we administered. Implications for assessment and instruction are discussed.

Prediction and stability of reading problems in middle childhood

The longitudinal prediction of reading problems from fourth grade to sixth grade was investigated with a sample of 173 students. Reading problems at the end of sixth grade were defined by significantly below average performance (≤ 15th percentile) on reading factors defining word reading, fluency, and reading comprehension. Sixth grade poor reader status was predicted by fall of fourth grade passage reading fluency, spelling fluency, and the number of reading problems identified by teachers. Reading fluency and spelling fluency were significant predictors in logistic regression equation that combined to yield a screening battery with an area under the curve of .91. These results suggest that brief assessments of reading and spelling fluency in fourth grade may be able to identify students in middle childhood who have a reading problem or who are at risk for experiencing reading problems in sixth grade.