Prediction of Periodontal Inflammation via Metabolic Profiling of Saliva

Periodontal disease is characterized by chronic inflammation in subgingival areas, where a vast array of inflammation-associated metabolites are likely produced from tissue breakdown, increased vascular permeability, and microbial metabolism and then eventually show a steady flow into saliva. Thus, prolonged periodontal inflammation is a key feature of disease activity. Although salivary metabolomics has drawn attention for its potential use in diagnosis of periodontal disease, few authors have used that to investigate periodontal inflammation detection. In this pilot study, the authors explored the use of salivary metabolites to reflect periodontal inflammation severity with a recently proposed parameter-periodontal inflamed surface area (PISA)-used to quantify the periodontal inflammatory burden of individual patients with high accuracy. Following PISA determination, whole saliva samples were collected from 19 subjects before and after removal of supragingival plaque and calculus (debridement) with an ultrasonic scaler to assess the influence of the procedure on salivary metabolic profiles. Metabolic profiling of saliva was performed with gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry, followed by multivariate regression analysis with orthogonal projections to latent structures (OPLS) to investigate the relationship between PISA and salivary metabolic profiles. Sixty-three metabolites were identified. OPLS analysis showed that postdebridement saliva provided a more refined model for prediction of PISA than did predebridement samples, which indicated that debridement may improve detection of metabolites eluted from subgingival areas in saliva, thus more accurately reflecting the pathophysiology of periodontitis. Based on the variable importance in the projection values obtained via OPLS, 8 metabolites were identified as potential indicators of periodontal inflammation, of which the combination of cadaverine, 5-oxoproline, and histidine yielded satisfactory accuracy (area under the curve = 0.881) for diagnosis of periodontitis. The authors' findings identified potential biomarkers that may be useful for reflecting the severity of periodontal inflammation as part of monitoring disease activity in periodontitis patients.

Erythritol alters microstructure and metabolomic profiles of biofilm composed of Streptococcus gordonii and Porphyromonas gingivalis

The effects of sugar alcohols such as erythritol, xylitol, and sorbitol on periodontopathic biofilm are poorly understood, though they have often been reported to be non-cariogenic sweeteners. In the present study, we evaluated the efficacy of sugar alcohols for inhibiting periodontopathic biofilm formation using a heterotypic biofilm model composed of an oral inhabitant Streptococcus gordonii and a periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis. Confocal microscopic observations showed that the most effective reagent to reduce P. gingivalis accumulation onto an S. gordonii substratum was erythritol, as compared with xylitol and sorbitol. In addition, erythritol moderately suppressed S. gordonii monotypic biofilm formation. To examine the inhibitory effects of erythritol, we analyzed the metabolomic profiles of erythritol-treated P. gingivalis and S. gordonii cells. Metabolome analyses using capillary electrophoresis time-of-flight mass spectrometry revealed that a number of nucleic intermediates and constituents of the extracellular matrix, such as nucleotide sugars, were decreased by erythritol in a dose-dependent manner. Next, comparative analyses of metabolites of erythritol- and sorbitol-treated cells were performed using both organisms to determine the erythritol-specific effects. In P. gingivalis, all detected dipeptides, including Glu-Glu, Ser-Glu, Tyr-Glu, Ala-Ala and Thr-Asp, were significantly decreased by erythritol, whereas they tended to be increased by sorbitol. Meanwhile, sorbitol promoted trehalose 6-phosphate accumulation in S. gordonii cells. These results suggest that erythritol has inhibitory effects on dual species biofilm development via several pathways, including suppression of growth resulting from DNA and RNA depletion, attenuated extracellular matrix production, and alterations of dipeptide acquisition and amino acid metabolism.

Homotypic biofilm structure of Porphyromonas gingivalis is affected by FimA type variations

INTRODUCTION

Porphyromonas gingivalis is a periodontal pathogen whose long fimbriae (FimA) are classified into six genotypes (types I-V and Ib) based on the diversity of the fimA genes. FimA variations were previously shown to be related to the onset and development of adult periodontitis in a general population, while FimA were recently found to be critical mediators of initial biofilm formation. However, it is unclear if FimA variations have effects on biofilm features. Here, we compare the characteristic structures of homotypic biofilms developed by P. gingivalis strains with different FimA types.

METHODS

Biofilms were formed on saliva-coated glass bottom wells in phosphate-buffered saline and their structures were analysed using confocal laser scanning microscopy. Furthermore, the biovolumes of the biofilms were quantified with a three-dimensional fluorophotometric method.

RESULTS

Biofilm structures formed by the six representative FimA-type strains apparently differed. Type I and Ib P. gingivalis formed biofilms with a dense basal monolayer and dispersed microcolonies, whereas those formed by types II, III and IV strains had markedly luxuriant biofilms filled with widely clumped and tall colonies, and their biovolumes were significantly greater than those of types I and Ib. These characteristic features were confirmed to be closely related to FimA type in assays that utilized fimA-substituted mutants from type I to II and those from type II to I.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that FimA variations have effects on the structures of biofilms formed by P. gingivalis, which may be an important factor in the pathogenesis of periodontitis.

GDNF and neurturin are target-derived factors essential for cranial parasympathetic neuron development

During development, parasympathetic ciliary ganglion neurons arise from the neural crest and establish synaptic contacts on smooth and striate muscle in the eye. The factors that promote the ciliary ganglion pioneer axons to grow toward their targets have yet to be determined. Here, we show that glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and neurturin (NRTN) constitute target-derived factors for developing ciliary ganglion neurons. Both GDNF and NRTN are secreted from eye muscle located in the target and trajectory pathway of ciliary ganglion pioneer axons during the period of target innervation. After this period, however, the synthesis of GDNF declines markedly, while that of NRTN is maintained throughout the cell death period. Furthermore, both in vitro and in vivo function-blocking of GDNF at early embryonic ages almost entirely suppresses ciliary axon outgrowth. These results demonstrate that target-derived GDNF is necessary for ciliary ganglion neurons to innervate ciliary muscle in the eye. Since the down-regulation of GDNF in the eye is accompanied by down-regulation of GFRα1 and Ret, but not of GFRα2, in innervating ciliary ganglion neurons, the results also suggest that target-derived GDNF regulates the expression of its high-affinity coreceptors.

Reversible and irreversible damage to cochlear afferent neurons by kainic acid excitotoxicity

Kainic acid (KA) selectively damages afferent synapses that innervate, in chickens, mainly tall hair cells. To better understand the nature of KA-induced excitotoxic damage to the cochlear afferent neurons, KA, at two different concentrations (0.3 or 5 mM), was injected directly into the inner ear of adult chickens. Pathologic changes in the afferent nerve ending and cell body were evaluated with light and transmission electron microscopy at various time points after KA application. The compound action potential (CAP) and cochlear microphonic (CM) potential were recorded to monitor the physiologic status of the afferent neurons and hair cells, respectively. Hair cell morphology and function were essentially normal after KA treatment. However, afferent synapses beneath tall hair cells were swollen within 30 minutes after KA at both low (KA-L) and high (KA-H) doses. In the KA-L group, the swelling disappeared within 1 day and the morphology of the postsynaptic region returned to near normal condition. In the KA-H group, by contrast, the vacant region beneath tall hair cells remained evident even 20 weeks after KA. The number of cochlear ganglion neurons in the KA-H group decreased progressively from 1 to 8-20 weeks, whereas hair cells in the basilar papilla remained morphologically intact out to 20 weeks after KA. There was no significant change in neuron number in the KA-L group. Temporal changes in the CAP amplitude paralleled the anatomic changes, although the CAP only partially recovered. These results suggest that KA induces partially reversible damage to cochlear afferent neurons with low KA concentration; above this level, KA triggers irreversible, progressive neurodegeneration.

Lysosomal augmentation during aminoglycoside uptake in cochlear hair cells

Aminoglycoside antibiotics, such as kanamycin, have ototoxic side effects, which often result in degeneration of cochlear and vestibular hair cells in the inner ear. Cytotoxic effects of aminoglycosides, however, do not appear immediately after cellular uptake of aminoglycosides. In order to understand the mechanisms responsible for the delayed emergence of aminoglycoside ototoxicity, changes in lysosomal activities in cochlear hair cells were evaluated during a repeated administration of kanamycin by two methods. Electron microscopic localization of acid phosphatase (AcPase) revealed that AcPase started to accumulate in vesicles 27 h after the start of kanamycin administration. In addition, the number and size of AcPase-filled vesicles increased with repeated kanamycin doses. Confocal microscopic localization of the LysoTracker probe, a vital lysosomal marker, showed an increase in the size of lysosomes in hair cells that were treated with kanamycin. The temporal changes in the augmentation of lysosomes paralleled those in intracellular kanamycin levels. These results suggest that the intralysosomal compartments can accumulate extensive amounts of aminoglycosides, which might lead to lysosomal swelling and subsequent rupture.

Multiple actions of neurturin correlate with spatiotemporal patterns of Ret expression in developing chick cranial ganglion neurons

The neurotrophic effects of neurturin (NRTN) on chick cranial ganglia were evaluated at various embryonic stages in vitro and related to its receptor expression. NRTN promoted the outgrowth and survival of ciliary ganglion neurons at early embryonic (E) stages (E6-E12), trigeminal ganglion neurons at midstages (E9-E16), and vestibular ganglion neurons at late stages (E12-E16). NRTN had no positive effects on cochlear ganglion neurons throughout development. In accordance with the time and order of onset in NRTN responsiveness, Ret protein was first detected in ciliary ganglia at E6, subsequently in trigeminal ganglia at E9, and in vestibular ganglia at E12. Ret was absent in E16 ciliary ganglia as well as in cochlear ganglia at all developmental stages that were tested. Exogenous application of retinoic acid induced NRTN responsiveness and Ret protein expression from E9 vestibular ganglion neurons, suggesting that retinoic acid can regulate Ret protein expression in peripheral sensory neurons in vitro. Ret was confined to the neuron cell body, whereas GFRalpha was localized predominantly in peripheral and central neurite processes. No noticeable change in GFRalpha expression was seen in any cranial ganglia throughout the developmental stages that were tested (E6-E16). These results demonstrate that NRTN exerts neurotrophic effects on different cranial ganglia at different developmental stages and that the onset and offset of NRTN responsiveness are regulated mainly by the spatiotemporal patterns of Ret, but not of GFRalpha receptors. The results also substantiate the recently emerging view that NRTN may be an essential target-derived neurotrophic factor for parasympathetic neurons during development.

Developing vestibular ganglion neurons switch trophic sensitivity from BDNF to GDNF after target innervation

Recent evidence showing a distinctive cell loss in vestibular and cochlear ganglia of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) versus neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) null mutant mice demonstrates that these neurotrophins play a critical role in inner ear development. In this study, biological functions of BDNF and NT-3 in the chick vestibular and cochlear ganglion development was assessed in vitro and compared to those of other neurotrophic factors. The embryonic day (E)8-12 vestibular ganglion neurons showed an extensive outgrowth in response to BDNF with less outgrowth to NT-3. In contrast, NT-3 had stronger neurotrophic effects on the E12 cochlear ganglion neurons compared to BDNF. These results support previous evidence that neurotrophins play important roles in the vestibular and cochlear ganglion neuron development. However, the responsiveness to the neurotrophins declined and became undetectable by E16. Unexpectedly, glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) promoted neurite outgrowth from vestibular ganglia at E12-16, later than the stages at which BDNF had neurotrophic effects. The time of switching sensitivity of the vestibular ganglion neurons from BDNF to GDNF correlated with the time of completion of synaptogenesis on their peripheral and central targets. Furthermore, a factor released from E12 inner ears exerted neurotrophic effects on late-stage vestibular ganglion neurons that were not responsive to the E4 otocyst-derived factor. These results raise the possibility that the vestibular ganglion neurons become responsive to GDNF upon target innervation and that the changes in sensitivity are regulated by changes in available factors released from their peripheral targets, the inner ear epithelia.

Excitotoxic effect of kainic acid on chicken cochlear afferent neurons

The excitotoxic effects of kainic acid, a glutamate analog, on the auditory neurons in the chicken cochlea were assessed by light and transmission electron microscopy. Kainic acid was directly applied onto the round window of adult chickens and their cochleas were harvested 3 h after application. Transverse microscopic sections of the basilar papilla revealed swelling of afferent dendrites without any morphological changes in efferent endings. The regions of the basilar papilla damaged by kainic acid were localized in the apical 80% and primarily on the neural side where tall hair cells are located. The basal, abneural short hair cell region was devoid of damage. These results imply that glutamate is a primary neurotransmitter in chicken auditory afferent neurons that synapse on tall hair cells.

Regenerated hair cells become functional during continuous administration of kanamycin

The compound action potential (CAP) was used to assess the functional status of regenerated hair cells in the chick cochlea during prolonged administration of kanamycin (KM). Immediately after 10 days of KM treatment, the CAP thresholds were elevated by 6-54 dB above those from age-matched control animals. The frequencies with the greatest threshold shifts (> 1 kHz) corresponded to the hair cell lesion in the basal 40% of the basilar papilla. After 20 days of KM, the CAP thresholds at 3 and 4 kHz were significantly lower than those after 10 days of KM treatment, but virtually the same as those after 10 days of KM plus 10 days of recovery. Similarly, the CAP amplitudes at frequencies higher than 1.5 kHz were significantly greater in animals that received KM for 20 days than in animals that received KM for 10 days. The threshold as well as amplitude improvement between 10 days and 20 days of KM treatment was associated with the morphological maturation of the regenerated hair cells in the basal 25% of the cochlea. In addition, the rapid functional recovery seen at high frequencies coincided with the base-to-apex gradient of morphological recovery in the basilar papilla. These results suggest that the process of hair cell maturation is not suppressed by the presence of aminoglycosides in the extracellular environment.

Lysosomal targeting and accumulation of aminoglycoside antibiotics in sensory hair cells

Our recent study demonstrated that aminoglycoside antibiotics are taken up into sensory hair cells of the inner ear by receptor-mediated endocytosis (E. Hashino, M. Shero, Endocytosis of aminoglycoside antibiotics in sensory hair cells, Brain Res. 704 (1995) 135-140). To elucidate the intracellular trafficking pathway of aminoglycosides following endocytotic uptake, we administered kanamycin to neonatal chicks for 1 or 5 days (400 mg/kg/day) and determined the location of kanamycin within the hair cells at various time points using immunogold electron microscopy. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of immunogold staining revealed that: (1) kanamycin was primarily localized in vesicles beneath the cuticular plate 27 h postinjection; (2) the number of vesicles per hair cell and the number of gold particles per vesicle increased over time; (3) individual vesicles tended to increase in size over time, presumably due to aggregation of smaller vesicles; and (4) in pathological hair cells, immunogold was dispersed throughout the entire subcellular region. Light microscopic observations of the basilar papilla stained with the same antibody confirmed the temporal changes in the kanamycin distribution. Moreover, results obtained from acid phosphatase cytochemistry indicated that vesicles accumulating kanamycin were mainly lysosomes. These results suggest that internalized aminoglycosides are transported via vesicular traffic into lysosomes where they accumulate over time and lead to disruption of lysosomes. The time of diffusion of kanamycin was closely related to the time of cell death, suggesting that lysosomal rupture could be a direct trigger for the hair cell degeneration.

Regenerated hair cells exhibit a transient resistance to aminoglycoside toxicity

Recent studies have demonstrated that sensory hair cells in the avian inner ear are reproduced by cell proliferation in response to the death of the original hair cell population. The regenerated hair cells appear to construct functional synaptic contacts, thereby transmitting acoustic signals to the peripheral nervous system. One of the most extraordinary, but overlooked characteristics of these regenerated hair cells, is their ability to survive in a highly ototoxic environment. Here, we report that hair cells regenerated after kanamycin induced hair cell loss can survive for a substantially longer time period than their predecessors during prolonged exposure to aminoglycoside antibiotics. The prolonged survival, however, belongs solely to the immature status of regenerated hair cells. Once the regenerated hair cells reach morphological maturation, they become vulnerable to aminoglycoside toxicity. Immunohistochemical evaluation of kanamycin suggested that kanamycin may be taken up into hair cells via a receptor-mediated endocytosis at their apical surfaces. By contrast, kanamycin was rarely incorporated into the cytoplasm of the regenerated hair cells. These results suggest that the process of a receptor-mediated transmembrane transport at the apical surface of hair cells is developmentally regulated, and that the lack of some of the assembly involved in the transmembrane transport could be responsible for the inhibition of aminoglycoside uptake, leading immature hair cells to be aminoglycoside resistant.

Incomplete recovery of chicken distortion product otoacoustic emissions following acoustic overstimulation

Distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) were measured in chickens before and after exposure to a 525-Hz pure tone (120 dB SPL, 48 h). The exposure caused extensive hair cell loss and destroyed the tectorial membrane along the abneural edge of the basilar papilla in the low-to-mid-frequency region of the cochlea. Although the lesion was restricted, DPOAEs were greatly depressed at all frequencies immediately after the exposure. The high-frequency DPOAEs gradually recovered to preexposure values after the exposure; however, there was little or no improvement in DPOAEs at test frequencies equal to or slightly above the exposure frequency even after 16 weeks of recovery. By 28 days of recovery, the previously damaged region of the basilar papilla had been repopulated by hair cells and the lower honeycomb layer of the tectorial membrane had regenerated, but not the upper fibrous layer. The upper fibrous layer of the tectorial membrane was still missing after 16 weeks of recovery and the region of damage corresponded closely to the frequency regions where the DPOAEs were depressed.

Endocytosis of aminoglycoside antibiotics in sensory hair cells

Immuno-gold electron microscopy was used to assess the uptake pathways of aminoglycoside antibiotic kanamycin (KM) in sensory hair cells. Accumulation of gold particles was evident on the plasma membrane as well as in large smooth vesicles beneath the apical surfaces of hair cells 12 h after a systemic administration of KM. Immuno-gold was exclusively localized in the vesicles 27 h post-injection. Cationic ferritin, a membrane-bound insoluble marker, was colocalized with KM in the vesicle structures after their simultaneous in vitro application. These results strongly suggest that KM is taken up into sensory hair cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis at their apical surfaces. In addition, the profound time lag between KM uptake and hair cell death suggests involvement of targeting mechanisms in cytotoxic signalling pathways of the drugs.

Base-to-apex gradient of cell proliferation in the chick cochlea following kanamycin-induced hair cell loss

In order to elucidate the mechanisms that drive cell proliferation in the avian cochlea, we investigated the spatio-temporal relationship between hair cell degeneration and cell proliferation after aminoglycoside ototoxicity. Neonatal chicks were given a daily intramuscular injection of kanamycin (KM) at 400 mg/kg per day for 10 consecutive days. At various times during or after KM administration, proliferating cells were labeled over a period of 2 days with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) and visualized with peroxidase immunohistochemistry. Changes in the location of the hair cell lesion during the KM treatment were monitored by phalloidin immunofluorescence or scanning electron microscopy. Hair cell loss began at the base of the cochlea 6 days after the start of KM injections, whereas cell proliferation was first observed in the basal region between days 6 and 8 of the KM treatment. This indicates that the latency between cell loss and cell proliferation is less than 48 h. The region of cell proliferation shifted from the base toward the apex of the cochlea over a period of 6-8 days, but cell proliferation in a specific region of the cochlea only occurred for 2-4 days. The latency as well as the total duration of cell proliferation after KM ototoxicity was virtually equivalent to that observed after acoustic trauma (Hashino and Salvi, 1993), suggesting that similar cellular events are involved in triggering cell proliferation after mechanical destruction and metabolic destruction of avian hair cells. The spatio-temporal gradient of cell proliferation followed the pattern of hair cell loss, suggesting that some aspect of hair cell degeneration provides trigger signals for cell proliferation.

Discharge patterns of chicken cochlear ganglion neurons following kanamycin-induced hair cell loss and regeneration

Hair cells in the basal, high frequency region (> 1100 Hz) of the chicken cochlea were destroyed with kanamycin (400 mg/kg/d x 10 d) and allowed to regenerate. Afterwards, single unit recordings were made from cochlear ganglion neurons at various times post-treatment. During the first few weeks post-treatment, only neurons with low characteristic frequencies (< 1100 Hz) responded to sound. Despite the fact that the low frequency region of the cochlea was not destroyed, neurons with low characteristic frequencies had elevated thresholds, abnormally broad U-shaped or W-shaped tuning curves and low spontaneous discharge rates. At 2 days post-treatment, the spontaneous discharge rates of some acoustically unresponsive units fluctuated in a rhythmical manner. As recovery time increased, thresholds decreased, tuning curves narrowed and developed a symmetrical V-shape, spontaneous rate increased and neurons with higher characteristic frequencies began to respond to sound. In addition, the proportion of interspike interval histograms with regularly spaced peaks increased. These improvements progressed along a low-to-high characteristic frequency gradient. By 10-20 weeks post-treatment, the thresholds and tuning curves of neurons with characteristic frequencies below 2000 Hz were within normal limits; however, the spontaneous discharge rates of the neurons were still significantly lower than those from normal animals.

Recovery of CAP threshold and amplitude in chickens following kanamycin ototoxicity

Chickens were given a dose of kanamycin (400 mg/kg/d x 10 d) which destroyed hair cells over the basal 37-58% of the basilar papilla. Afterwards, the threshold and amplitude of the compound action potential were measured at recovery times ranging from 2 days to 10-20 weeks post-kanamycin treatment. At 2 days post-treatment, the thresholds at 1000, 2000 and 4000 Hz were elevated 40-60 dB while the thresholds at 250 and 500 Hz were elevated only 25 dB. By 10-20 weeks post-treatment, the threshold at 250 and 500 Hz had completely recovered whereas a residual threshold shift of 5 dB to 25 dB was present between 1000 to 4000 Hz. The maximum amplitude of the compound action potential was also reduced by more than 60% at all frequencies at 2 days post-treatment; however by 10-20 weeks post-treatment, the amplitude of the compound action potential had completely recovered at 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz. By contrast, the amplitude of the compound action potential at 4000 Hz was still reduced by more than 50% of its normal value 10-20 weeks post-treatment. The results of the present study indicate that the time course of recovery of the compound action potential is extremely slow and may lag behind the regeneration of hair cells by many weeks. The permanent deficits observed at the high frequencies could conceivably be due to functional deficits in regenerated hair cells, their afferent synapses or the loss of cochlear ganglion cells.

Changing spatial patterns of DNA replication in the noise-damaged chick cochlea

The purpose of the present study was to examine the spatio-temporal pattern of cell proliferation in the chick cochlea in response to the sensory hair cell loss induced by a 1.5 kHz pure tone at 120 dB SPL (1 dB = 20 muPa) for 48 h. DNA replication was evaluated with the bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) pulse-fix technique. One group of birds was given multiple injections of BrdU (50 mg/kg) over a period of 8 h at various starting times during or after the exposure. Afterwards, their cochleas were removed and processed as whole mounts for BrdU immunohistochemistry. The cochleas of a second group of acoustically traumatized chicks were evaluated by scanning electron microscopy in order to determine the spatio-temporal pattern of hair cell loss. Hair cell loss was first observed 12 h after the start of the exposure and DNA replication started near the inferior edge of the hair cell lesion 24–32 h after the start of the exposure, i.e. 12–20 h after the first sign of hair cell loss. The site of hair cell loss and DNA replication shifted toward the superior edge of the basilar papilla as the exposure continued. The rate of DNA replication accelerated and reached its peak near the end of the 48 h exposure. The estimated latency of cell proliferation after hair cell loss was faster and the duration of DNA replication shorter than that observed in other sensory systems. The spatio-temporal pattern of DNA replication follows the spatio-temporal gradient of hair cell loss, suggesting that cell proliferation is triggered by hair cell loss itself rather than by intrinsic positional cues or gradients.

Hair cell regeneration in the adult budgerigar after kanamycin ototoxicity

Adult budgerigars were given kanamycin at a dose of 200 mg/kg/day for 10 successive days. At 1, 7, 14 and 28 days after the drug treatment, the cochleae of the birds were processed for scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Complete degeneration of sensory hair cells was observed in the basal 55-75% of the basilar papilla immediately after the treatment. Regenerating hair cells, characterized by clusters of microvilli and small apical surfaces, were present in the basal end of the papilla as early as one day post-treatment. During the 28 day recovery period, the number of hair cells progressively increased beginning at the base and spreading toward the apex. Although the appearance of the basilar papilla had improved considerably by 28 days post-treatment, the sensory epithelium still contained a number of pathologies, most noticeably, incomplete restoration of hair cell number in the most apical part of the damaged region and the disorganization of hair cell packing. These remaining pathologies may be responsible for the permanent threshold shifts observed in budgerigars exposed to the same dose of kanamycin treatment (Hashino and Sokabe, 1989).

Hair cell damage and recovery following chronic application of kanamycin in the chick cochlea

Three-day old chicks were given kanamycin at a dose of 200 mg/kg/day for 10 days and their cochleae were processed for scanning electron microscopy at 1, 3, 7 and 14 days following the last injection. Both hair cells and supporting cells were damaged by kanamycin in the basal 35% of the basilar papilla. By 14 days post-treatment, however, most of the damaged region had been replaced with regenerating hair cells and supporting cells. The base-to-apex gradient of morphological development along the cochlea was observed in the process of regeneration. Kinocilium and microvilli were observed on the apical surfaces of the regenerating hair cells.