Dirofilaria immitis Identified in Galapagos Sea Lions (Zalophus wollebaeki): A Wildlife Health and Conservation Concern

The Galapagos sea lion (Zalophus wollebaeki), an endemic and endangered pinniped, faces an increasing threat due to infectious diseases related to domestic animals. Dirofilaria immitis, the parasite responsible for canine heartworm disease, is one such threat, as canine infections on the archipelago have been documented. We used a canine heartworm antigen test kit to analyze the blood from 25 juvenile Galapagos sea lions for D. immitis. Two (8%) sea lions tested positive for D. immitis antigen. Using morphologic and genetic assessments, we evaluated 20 filarial-like worms collected from within the heart of an adult male Galapagos sea lion during a previous routine postmortem examination. The intracardiac worms were morphologically consistent with adult D. immitis, and sequence analysis of targeted PCR amplicons confirmed their identity. This is the first report of D. immitis infection in Galapagos sea lions, which could become a major health problem for these pinnipeds. Further studies are necessary to confirm the level of threat from this parasite; however, widespread adoption of routine heartworm testing, prevention, and treatment in the canine population, and the control of mosquitos, could potentially reduce the disease impact on this endangered pinniped species.

Assessment of systemic AAV-microdystrophin gene therapy in the GRMD model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a progressive muscle wasting disease caused by the absence of dystrophin, a membrane-stabilizing protein encoded by the DMD gene. Although mouse models of DMD provide insight into the potential of a corrective therapy, data from genetically homologous large animals, such as the dystrophin-deficient golden retriever muscular dystrophy (GRMD) model, may more readily translate to humans. To evaluate the clinical translatability of an adeno-associated virus serotype 9 vector (AAV9)-microdystrophin (μDys5) construct, we performed a blinded, placebo-controlled study in which 12 GRMD dogs were divided among four dose groups [control, 1 × 1013 vector genomes per kilogram (vg/kg), 1 × 1014 vg/kg, and 2 × 1014 vg/kg; n = 3 each], treated intravenously at 3 months of age with a canine codon-optimized microdystrophin construct, rAAV9-CK8e-c-μDys5, and followed for 90 days after dosing. All dogs received prednisone (1 milligram/kilogram) for a total of 5 weeks from day -7 through day 28. We observed dose-dependent increases in tissue vector genome copy numbers; μDys5 protein in multiple appendicular muscles, the diaphragm, and heart; limb and respiratory muscle functional improvement; and reduction of histopathologic lesions. As expected, given that a truncated dystrophin protein was generated, phenotypic test results and histopathologic lesions did not fully normalize. All administrations were well tolerated, and adverse events were not seen. These data suggest that systemically administered AAV-microdystrophin may be dosed safely and could provide therapeutic benefit for patients with DMD.

Endoscopy Training in Small Animal Internal Medicine: A Survey of Residency Training Programs in North America

Competency in multiple endoscopic techniques is a major goal of small animal internal medicine (SAIM) residency programs. Training relies predominantly on mentored supervision of procedures performed on patients. Supplementation of this apprenticeship model with classroom sessions and hands-on laboratories can be advantageous to trainees and patients. Few veterinary resources describe supplemental training options, and no single source exists for mentors to consult for program development. The purpose of this study was to describe the supplemental training opportunities currently available to SAIM residents at academic hospitals in the US and Canada and to compare their timing during the residency, resident and faculty time commitment, and perceived helpfulness. Data were collected by an electronic survey distributed to one faculty member per institution. The response rate was 80% (24/30). Most programs (22/24; 92%) offered some form of supplemental training, including classroom sessions (9/24) and hands-on laboratories using physical models (7/24), virtual reality simulators (2/24), and cadaver (2/24) and anesthetized (2/24) dogs. Fifteen programs provided residents with the opportunity to attend external endoscopy workshops. Only three programs required any training prior to residents performing procedures on patients. There was considerable variability in training between programs, precluding statistical comparisons. The survey identified topics for classroom sessions and several inexpensive physical models, rated very or extremely helpful, that would be suitable for programs with limited budgets. A human-based virtual reality simulator was also rated highly by two programs. Comprehensive, external workshops evoked numerous positive comments with perceived value ranging from somewhat to extremely helpful.

Factors associated with clinical interpretation of tracheal wash fluid from dogs with respiratory disease: 281 cases (2012-2017)

Background

Clinicians face several dilemmas regarding tracheal washes (TWs) for the diagnosis of respiratory disease, including method and prediction of bacterial growth from cytology results.

Objective

To compare cytology and culture of endotracheal and transtracheal washes and identify factors associated with discordancy and bacterial growth.

Animals

Two hundred forty‐five dogs with respiratory disease.

Methods

Retrospective study. Tracheal wash submissions were included if cellularity was sufficient for cytologic interpretation and aerobic cultures were performed. Collection technique, cytology, bacterial growth, and antibiotic history were analyzed.

Results

Fewer transtracheal specimens (9/144, 6.3%) were excluded for hypocellularity than endotracheal (28/174, 16.1%); otherwise, results were similar and were combined. Of 281 specimens with cellularity sufficient for interpretation, 97 (34.5%) had bacteria on cytology and 191 (68.0%) had bacterial growth. Cytology positive/culture negative discordancy was uncommon (8/97, 8%). Cytology negative/culture positive discordancy was frequent (102/184, 55.4%), but occurred less often (28/184, 14.2%) when only 1+ growth or greater was considered positive. Oropharyngeal contamination was associated with bacterial growth, but not discordancy. No association was found between antibiotic administration and bacterial growth.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Endotracheal wash fluid, in particular, should be screened for gross mucus or turbidity to maximize the likelihood of an adequate specimen. Otherwise, endotracheal and transtracheal specimens were similar. Presence of bacteria on cytology was a good predictor of any growth, while their absence was a good predictor of the absence of growth of 1+ or more. Recent antibiotic usage should not discourage TW culture if there is compelling reason to avoid delay.

Expiratory dysfunction in young dogs with golden retriever muscular dystrophy

Respiratory disease is a leading cause of morbidity in people with Duchenne muscular dystrophy and also occurs in the golden retriever muscular dystrophy (GRMD) model. We have previously shown that adult GRMD dogs have elevated expiratory flow as measured non-invasively during tidal breathing. This abnormality likely results from increased chest and diaphragmatic recoil associated with fibrosis and remodeling. Treatments must reverse pathologic effects on the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles to maximally reduce disease morbidity and mortality. Here, we extended our work in adults to younger GRMD dogs to define parameters that would be helpful in preclinical trials. Tidal breathing spirometry and respiratory inductance plethysmography were performed in GRMD dogs at approximately 3 and 6 months of age, corresponding to approximately 5-10 years in DMD, when clinical trials are often conducted. Expiratory flows were markedly elevated in GRMD versus normal dogs at 6 months. Values increased in GRMD dogs between 3 and 6 months, providing a 3-month window to assess treatment efficacy. These changes in breathing mechanics have not been previously identified at such an early age. Expiratory flow measured during tidal breathing of unsedated young GRMD dogs could be a valuable marker of respiratory mechanics during preclinical trials.

Evaluation of a Human Virtual-Reality Endoscopy Trainer for Teaching Early Endoscopy Skills to Veterinarians

Competency in flexible endoscopy is a major goal of small animal internal medicine residency training programs. Hands-on laboratories to teach entry-level skills have traditionally used anesthetized laboratory dogs (live dog laboratory [LDL]). Virtual-reality endoscopy trainers (VRET) are used for this purpose in human medicine with the clear benefits of avoiding live animal use, decreasing trainee stress, and allowing repeated, independent training sessions. However, there are currently no commercially available veterinary endoscopy simulators. The purpose of the study was to determine whether a human VRET can be a reasonable alternative to a LDL for teaching early veterinary endoscopy skills. Twelve veterinarians with limited or no endoscopy experience underwent training with a VRET (n = 6) or a LDL (n = 6), performed two recorded esophagogastroduodenoscopies (EGD) on anesthetized dogs for evaluation purposes (outcomes laboratory), and then underwent training with the alternative method. Participants completed questionnaires before any training and following each training session. No significant differences were found between training methods based on: measured parameters from the outcomes laboratory, including duration of time to perform EGD; evaluators' assessment of skills; and, assessment of skills through blinded review of the esophageal portion of EGD recordings. The VRET was less stressful for participants than the LDL (p = .02). All participants found that the VRET was a useful and acceptable alternative to the LDL for training of early endoscopy skills. Based on this limited study, VRET can serve as a reasonable alternative to LDL for teaching endoscopy skills to veterinarians.

Severity of Nasal Inflammatory Disease Questionnaire for Canine Idiopathic Rhinitis Control: Instrument Development and Initial Validity Evidence

BACKGROUND

Effective treatments are needed for idiopathic chronic rhinitis in dogs, but assessment of efficacy requires a practical, quantifiable method for assessing severity of disease.

OBJECTIVES

To develop and perform initial validity and reliability testing of an owner-completed questionnaire for assessing clinical signs and dog and owner quality of life (QOL) in canine chronic rhinitis.

ANIMALS

Twenty-two dogs with histopathologically confirmed chronic rhinitis and 72 healthy dogs.

METHODS

In this prospective study, an online questionnaire was created based on literature review and feedback from veterinarians, veterinary internists with respiratory expertise, and owners of dogs with rhinitis. Owners of affected dogs completed the questionnaire twice, 1 week apart, to test reliability. Healthy dogs were assessed once. Data were analyzed using the Rasch Rating Scale Model, and results were interpreted using Messick's framework for evaluating construct validity evidence.

RESULTS

Initial item generation resulted in 5 domains: nasal signs, paranasal signs, global rhinitis severity, and dog's and owner's QOL. A 25-item questionnaire was developed using 5-point Likert-type scales. No respondent found the questionnaire difficult to complete. Strong psychometric evidence was available to support the substantive, generalizability, content, and structural aspects of construct validity. Statistical differences were found between responses for affected and control dogs for all but 2 items. These items were eliminated, resulting in the 23-item Severity of Nasal Inflammatory Disease (SNIFLD) questionnaire.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

The SNIFLD questionnaire provides a mechanism for repeated assessments of disease severity in dogs with chronic rhinitis.

Respiratory dysfunction in unsedated dogs with golden retriever muscular dystrophy

Golden retriever muscular dystrophy (GRMD) is a well-established model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. The value of this model would be greatly enhanced with practical tools to monitor progression of respiratory dysfunction during treatment trials. Arterial blood gas analysis, tidal breathing spirometry, and respiratory inductance plethysmography (RIP) were performed to determine if quantifiable abnormalities could be identified in unsedated, untrained, GRMD dogs. Results from 11 dogs with a mild phenotype of GRMD and 11 age-matched carriers were compared. Arterial blood gas analysis was successfully performed in all dogs, spirometry in 21 of 22 (95%) dogs, and RIP in 18 of 20 (90%) dogs. Partial pressure of carbon dioxide and bicarbonate concentration were higher in GRMD dogs. Tidal breathing peak expiratory flows were markedly higher in GRMD dogs. Abnormal abdominal motion was present in 7 of 10 (70%) GRMD dogs. Each technique provided objective, quantifiable measures that will be useful for monitoring respiratory function in GRMD dogs during clinical trials while avoiding the influence of sedation on results. Increased expiratory flows and the pattern of abdominal breathing are novel findings, not reported in people with Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and might be a consequence of hyperinflation.

Cervical lung lobe herniation in dogs identified by fluoroscopy

This study aimed to determine the frequency of cervical lung lobe herniation (CLLH) in dogs evaluated fluoroscopically and to identify associated characteristics. Reports of diagnostic procedures and patient summaries from 2008 to 2010 were reviewed retrospectively. Signalment, body weight, duration of cough, presence of heart murmur and airway collapse, and radiographic findings were compared between dogs with and without CLLH. Of the 121 dogs that were examined, CLLH occurred in 85 (70%). The extra-thoracic trachea kinked during herniation in 33 (39%) dogs with CLLH. Collapse of the intra-thoracic trachea (assessed fluoroscopically or bronchoscopically) and collapse of major bronchi (assessed fluoroscopically) were strongly associated with CLLH. Although redundant dorsal tracheal membrane on radiographs was associated with CLLH, extra-thoracic tracheal collapse, assessed fluoroscopically or bronchoscopically, was not. No other associations were found. Cervical lung lobe herniation was present in most dogs evaluated during cough and was associated with intra-thoracic large airway collapse, but not duration of cough.

Effect of a Combined Aspiration and Core Biopsy Technique on Quality of Core Bone Marrow Specimens

For cases requiring both a bone marrow aspirate and core biopsy, using the same needle and site (i.e., a combined technique) can decrease time, expense, and discomfort compared with the independent (direct) collection of each specimen. The benefits of the combined approach should not be achieved at the expense of specimen quality. In this study, core bone marrow samples obtained from the proximal humerus of 26 dogs by a combined technique immediately posteuthanasia were compared with core samples obtained directly from the opposite humerus. Both core samples from each dog were compared for relative overall quality. Biopsies were unsuccessful in four dogs using the combined technique and in one dog by the direct technique. Marrow length was shorter and hemorrhage artifact was more common using the combined technique. There were no differences in cellularity, megakaryocyte count, the myeloid/erythroid ratio (M/E ratio), iron stores, or diagnostic quality. Direct core biopsy remains the ideal technique; however, the degree of compromise was small in the samples obtained from the combined technique. For clinical patients, the advantages of the combined technique must continue to be weighed against potential loss of diagnostic sensitivity.

A myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate-related peptide suppresses cytokine mRNA and protein expression in LPS-activated canine neutrophils

Myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate (MARCKS) is a ubiquitously expressed protein kinase C substrate that has emerged as a potential therapeutic target for the amelioration of mucin secretion and inflammation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. MARCKS also plays a key role in regulating the adhesion, migration, and degranulation of neutrophils. Moreover, given its biological role in epithelial and immune cells, we hypothesized that MARCKS may play an integral role in cytokine secretion by neutrophils. Because the amino terminus of MARCKS is highly conserved across vertebrate species, we successfully applied the well-characterized human MARCKS inhibitory peptide, myristoylated N-terminal sequence (MANS), to attenuate the function of MARCKS in isolated canine neutrophils. Pretreatment of canine neutrophils with MANS peptide significantly reduced both mRNA and protein expression in a broad range of LPS-induced cytokines, including IL-8, a chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand-1 orthologue, and TNF-α, in comparison with untreated cells or those treated with a control peptide. This reduction in cytokine expression was observed even when neutrophils were treated with MANS 2 hours after LPS exposure. The observed reduction in cytokine secretion was not attributable to protein retention or cell death, but was associated with reduced cytokine transcript synthesis. These observations identify MARCKS protein as a promising therapeutic target in the treatment of inflammatory diseases or syndromes attributed to neutrophil influx and inflammatory cytokine production, such as sepsis, acute lung injury, and acute respiratory distress syndrome.

Failure of nebulized irritant, acidic, or hypotonic solutions or external mechanical stimulation of the trachea to consistently induce coughing in healthy, awake dogs

A useful approach for evaluating antitussive drugs in humans is to determine the sensitivity of the cough reflex to a standard challenge. The purpose of this study was to determine if methods used to induce coughing in humans would be effective when used on awake, untrained, healthy dogs for future application in therapeutic trials involving dogs with spontaneous disease. Methods tested were: mechanically stimulating the trachea by digital compression as well as by vibration from an electric shaver, neck massager, and palm sander (11 dogs), and administering nebulized irritant (3000 μM capsaicin), acidic (1 M citric acid), and hypotonic (deionized water) solutions using face masks (4 dogs). The threshold for success was defined as induction of at least 2 moderate or strong coughs in at least 75% of the dogs. None of the methods tested was successful. Digital compression induced soft (n = 2) or moderate (n = 1) coughing in 3 of 11 dogs tested. Nebulization of citric acid induced 1 soft cough in 1 of 4 dogs. It was concluded that coughing cannot be successfully induced in awake, healthy dogs using methods that are successful in humans. Other strategies must be developed so that cough sensitivity can be objectively and non-invasively measured in dogs for clinical research purposes.

Inflammatory polyps of the nasal turbinates of cats: an argument for designation as feline mesenchymal nasal hamartoma

Inflammatory polyps of the nasal turbinates (IPNT) in cats are benign growths that are histologically distinct from feline nasopharyngeal polyps. Most cats with IPNT are presented at less than 1 year of age with sneezing, noisy breathing and epistaxis, but without mucoid or mucopurulent nasal discharge. Histologically, IPNT are characterised by the presence of woven bone as part of the proliferating stroma and erythrocyte-filled spaces. These unique histological features are analogous to nasal hamartomas (NH) of children, specifically chondromesenchymal hamartoma (NCMH) and sinonasal fibro-osseous hamartoma (SFOH), which also result in signs of nasal obstruction, sneezing and epistaxis. In our study, clinical and histopathological features in five cats with IPNT were compared with published descriptions of NH in children. We conclude that the terminology 'feline mesenchymal nasal hamartoma' provides a more accurate description of the disease currently termed IPNT, and has the added advantage of being consistent with its human counterpart.

Naturally occurring mutations in the canine CFTR gene

Naturally occurring cystic fibrosis (CF)-causing mutations in the CFTR gene have not been identified in any nonhuman animal species. Since domestic dogs are known to develop medical conditions associated with atypical CF in humans (e.g., bronchiectasis and pancreatitis), we hypothesized that dogs with these disorders likely have a higher expression rate of CFTR mutations than the at-large population. Temporal temperature-gradient gel electrophoresis (TTGE) was used to screen canine CFTR in 400 animals: 203 dogs diagnosed with pancreatitis, 23 dogs diagnosed with bronchiectasis, and 174 dogs admitted to clinics for any illness (at-large dogs). Twenty-eight dogs were identified with one of four CFTR missense mutations. P1281T and P1464H mutations occur in relatively unconserved residues. R1456W is analogous to the human R1453W mutation, which has approximately 20% of normal CFTR function and is associated with pancreatitis and panbronchiolitis. R812W disrupts a highly conserved protein kinase A recognition site within the regulatory domain. We conclude that naturally occurring CFTR mutations are relatively common in domestic dogs and can be detected with TTGE. No substantive differences in mutation frequency were observed between the at-large, pancreatitis, and bronchiectasis dogs.

Aspiration of barium-impregnated polyethylene spheres by a dog

This case report describes an 11-year-old Belgian Malinois dog with acute onset of cough caused by aspiration of barium-impregnated polyethylene spheres (BIPS) and pneumonia following an episode of suspected gastric dilation. Although bronchoscopic retrieval of the BIPS was largely unsuccessful, the dog recovered uneventfully, with most of the BIPS being coughed out and swallowed over a 1-month period. Aspiration of BIPS should be considered a potential complication of their administration. Furthermore, endoscopic removal of aspirated BIPS is challenging and may not be indicated because of their inert nature and possible self-clearance.

Demographic and historical findings, including exposure to environmental tobacco smoke, in dogs with chronic cough

BACKGROUND

Controlled studies investigating risk factors for the common presenting problem of chronic cough in dogs are lacking.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

To identify demographic and historical factors associated with chronic cough in dogs, and associations between the characteristics of cough and diagnosis.

ANIMALS

Dogs were patients of an academic internal medicine referral service. Coughing dogs had a duration of cough>or=2 months (n=115). Control dogs had presenting problems other than cough (n=104).

METHODS

Owners completed written questionnaires. Demographic information and diagnoses were obtained from medical records. Demographic and historical data were compared between coughing and control dogs. Demographic data and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) also were compared with hospital accessions and adult smoking rates, respectively. Characteristics of cough were compared among diagnoses.

RESULTS

Most coughing dogs had a diagnosis of large airway disease (n=88; 77%). Tracheobronchomalacia (TBM) was diagnosed in 59 dogs (51%), including 79% of toy breed dogs. Demographic risk factors included older age, smaller body weight, and being toy breed (P<.001). No association was found between coughing and month (P=.239) or season (P=.414) of presentation. Exposure to ETS was not confirmed to be a risk factor (P=.243). No historical description of cough was unique to a particular diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Associations with age, size, and toy breeds were strong. TBM is frequent in dogs with chronic cough, but descriptions of cough should be used cautiously in prioritizing differential diagnoses. The association between exposure to ETS and chronic cough deserves additional study.

Clinical features of epistaxis in dogs: a retrospective study of 35 cases (1999-2002)

Epistaxis was retrospectively evaluated in 35 dogs. Systemic disease was diagnosed in seven dogs and intranasal disease in 29. Nineteen dogs with intranasal disease had neoplasia. Dogs with neoplasia were older (mean 10.0 years) than dogs with nonneoplastic intranasal disease (mean 5.6 years). Signs persisting for >1 month occurred more often in dogs with intranasal than systemic disease. Unilateral epistaxis did not distinguish intranasal from systemic disease. Only dogs with intranasal disease had facial deformity, decreased airflow, or regional sub-mandibular lymphadenopathy. Dogs with systemic disease had a lower packed cell volume (mean 31.8%) than dogs with intranasal disease (mean 42.7%).

Quantification of mucin gene expression in tracheobronchial epithelium of healthy dogs and dogs with chronic bronchitis

OBJECTIVE

To develop a real-time PCR assay for the quantification of mucin gene expression in tracheobronchial brushing specimens from dogs and compare mucin gene expression in specimens from dogs with naturally occurring chronic bronchitis with that in specimens from healthy dogs.

ANIMALS

7 healthy dogs and 5 dogs with chronic bronchitis.

PROCEDURES

Primers that were designed to span the predicted intron-exon boundaries of a canine MUC5AC-like gene were used to develop a real-time PCR assay for quantification of expression of that gene. Total mRNA was isolated from tracheobronchial brushing specimens obtained from dogs with and without bronchitis during anesthesia; MUC5AC-like gene expression in those samples was quantified by use of the real-time PCR assay.

RESULTS

The PCR assay was sensitive and specific for the target sequence, the predicted amino acid sequence of which had greatest homology with human, porcine, and rat MUC5AC. The assay was able to quantify the target over a wide dynamic range. Dogs with chronic bronchitis had a 3.0-fold increase in the quantity of MUC5AC-like mRNA, compared with healthy dogs.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The ability to measure mucin gene expression from tracheobronchial brushing specimens collected from client-owned dogs during routine bronchoscopy should prove to be a useful tool for the study of bronchitis in dogs and expand the usefulness of airway inflammation in dogs as a model for bronchitis in humans.

Cellular composition of bronchial brushings obtained from healthy dogs and dogs with chronic cough and cytologic composition of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid obtained from dogs with chronic cough

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether bronchial brushings from dogs with chronic cough have increased numbers of goblet cells and WBCs, compared with numbers for healthy dogs, or have differing WBC populations, compared with populations in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid obtained from dogs with chronic cough.

ANIMALS

9 healthy dogs and 10 dogs with chronic cough.

PROCEDURE

Specimens were collected by use of bronchoscopy. Cellular composition was determined for brushings, and results from dogs with chronic cough were compared with those from healthy dogs. Cellular composition of brushings was compared with composition of BAL obtained from dogs with chronic cough.

RESULTS

Brushings from healthy dogs contained a median of 2.9 x 10(6) epithelial cells, comprising 100% epithelial cells (96% ciliated, 3% goblet, and 1% other) and no WBCs. Brushings from dogs with chronic cough had 4.5 x 10(6) epithelial cells, comprising 93% epithelial cells (86% ciliated, 2% goblet, and 12% other). Dogs with chronic cough had significantly greater percentages of WBCs (7%) and neutrophils (6%), compared with values for healthy dogs. Five dogs with chronic cough had no neutrophilic inflammation evident in BAL, but 4 of these had evidence of neutrophilic inflammation in brushings.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Neutrophils, but not goblet cells, were increased in brushings from dogs with chronic cough. Analysis of bronchial brushings provides information about airway inflammation that differs from that found by examination of BAL in some dogs with chronic cough and is a more sensitive indicator of airway inflammation than cytologic examination of BAL in these dogs.

Pulmonary lesions in cats with diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a common endocrinopathy of cats and humans. Although few studies have examined the effects of DM on the pulmonary system, changes in pulmonary function and immunology in humans with type I and II diabetes, and pulmonary lesions in a murine diabetic model have been documented. Our objective was to determine whether pulmonary lesions occurred in cats with DM. Medical records and necropsy evaluations of 42 cats with DM were compared with those of 45 age-matched, nondiabetic cats for the presence of clinical evidence of respiratory disease and pulmonary histopathological findings at the time of necropsy. No statistical difference was noted in the presence of clinical evidence of respiratory disease between cats with diabetes and control cats. Nevertheless, there was a significant association between the presence of abnormal pulmonary histopathology and DM (P = .018, odds ratio = 3 inclusive of all cats; P = .005, odds ratio = 5 when non-DM cats with overt clinical evidence of respiratory disease were excluded). Pulmonary abnormalities detected by histopathological examination in cats with diabetes included congestion and edema, histiocytosis, pneumonia, smooth muscle hypertrophy, fibrosis, mineralization, neoplasia, and type II pneumocyte hyperplasia. The observed association between DM and pulmonary lesions in cats, independent of clinical evidence of respiratory disease, emphasizes the need for careful assessment of the respiratory tract in sick cats with diabetes.

Identification and characterization of an idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis-like condition in cats

Interstitial lung diseases are a heterogeneous group of disorders with a variety of causes. In veterinary medicine, such lung diseases with a prominent fibrotic component of unknown etiology are often called idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). In human medicine, this term is reserved for a distinct disease entity with specific histologic findings labeled as usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP). We identified 23 cats displaying histologic criteria of UIP The purpose of this retrospective study is to describe the presentation and response to therapy of these cats to better define this disease entity. All but 2 cats were middle aged to older (median 8.7 years), with no apparent sex or breed predisposition. Complaints included respiratory distress (n = 18) and cough (13). Duration of signs was less than 6 months in 17 cats. Physical-examination abnormalities included tachypnea, inspiratory or mixed inspiratory and expiratory effort, and adventitial lung sounds. No consistent hematologic or biochemical abnormalities, parasites, or positive serologic results for feline retroviruses, heartworms, or toxoplasmosis were present. Radiographic changes included dense patchy or diffuse interstitial, bronchiolar, and alveolar infiltrates. Analysis of bronchial lavage fluid revealed mild neutrophilic inflammation (n = 6) with no consistent pathogen growth. Clinical condition of 5 cats worsened after lavage. Coincident pulmonary neoplasia was identified in 6 cats. Response to therapy (corticosteroids, antibiotics, bronchodilators, and diuretics) was poor, and most cats died within days to months. Cats with histologic changes compatible with UIP had signs that mimicked many of the clinical findings of human IPF, and treatment response was similarly unrewarding.

Demographic, clinical, and radiographic features of bronchiectasis in dogs: 316 cases (1988-2000)

OBJECTIVE

To determine demographic, clinical, and radiographic features of bronchiectasis in dogs.

DESIGN

Retrospective study.

ANIMALS

289 dogs identified through the Veterinary Medical Database (VMDB) and 27 dogs examined at the North Carolina State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital.

PROCEDURE

Demographic characteristics of dogs identified through the VMDB were compared with characteristics of the entire population of dogs entered in the VMDB. Medical records of dogs examined at the teaching hospital were reviewed; the diagnosis was confirmed through review of thoracic radiographs.

RESULTS

Analysis of data from the VMDB indicated that American Cocker Spaniels, West Highland White Terriers, Miniature Poodles, Siberian Huskies, English Springer Spaniels, and dogs > 10 years old had an increased risk of bronchiectasis. Among dogs examined at the teaching hospital, coughing was the most common clinical sign. There was evidence for excessive airway mucus but not hemorrhage. A variety of bacterial organisms were isolated from tracheal wash and bronchoalveolar lavage samples. On thoracic radiographs, cylindrical bronchiectasis, generalized disease, and right cranial lung lobe involvement were most common. Seven of 14 dogs for which follow-up radiographs were available did not have any progression of radiographic lesions. Median duration of clinical signs prior to diagnosis of bronchiectasis was 9 months (range, 1 day to 10 years). Median survival time was 16 months (range, 2 days to 72 months).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Results suggest that despite substantial clinical abnormalities, dogs with bronchiectasis may survive for years. Certain purebred dogs and older dogs may have an increased risk of developing bronchiectasis.

The Clinician Investigator program in companion animal internal medicine at north Carolina State University

A retrospective study was conducted to describe the development and evolution of the combined internal medicine/PhD program, the Clinician Investigator (CI) Program, at North Carolina State University. Separate survey instruments were developed for individuals who had committed to completing both the residency and PhD components and for graduate advisors of individuals who were granted the PhD degree. Results are summarized here. Most CIs reported believing that each component of the program (clinical training and research training) provided mutual benefits and that their teaching skills were enhanced, particularly as a result of instructing students in the Veterinary Teaching Hospital. Opinions among both the CIs and the graduate advisors were divided about the benefits of a combined program compared with a sequential program; however, all but one of 11 CIs who completed the survey would enroll in the combined program again. The graduate advisors were overwhelming positive about the CIs they had advised and indicated that they would welcome a CI as a PhD student in their laboratory again. Suggested areas for improvement included guaranteed salary/stipend support for the average time to completion (six years) instead of for five years, as well as more emphasis on and guidance in identifying a graduate advisor earlier in the CI program so as to smooth the transition between the clinical and research training components of the program. It is hoped that other training programs will benefit from the summary of our experience with this program.

Molecular identification of Ehrlichia ewingii infection in dogs: 15 cases (1997-2001)

OBJECTIVE

To determine historical, physical examination, hematologic, and serologic findings in dogs with Ehrlichia ewingii infection.

DESIGN

Retrospective study.

ANIMALS

15 dogs.

PROCEDURE

In all dogs, infection with E ewingii was confirmed with a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. Follow-up information and clarification of information recorded in the medical records was obtained by telephone interviews and facsimile correspondence with referring veterinarians and owners.

RESULTS

Fever and lameness were the most common findings with each occurring in 8 dogs. Five dogs had neurologic abnormalities including ataxia, paresis, proprioceptive deficits, anisocoria, intention tremor, and head tilt. Neutrophilic polyarthritis was identified in 4 dogs. No clinical signs were reported in 3 dogs. The predominant hematologic abnormality was thrombocytopenia, which was identified in all 12 dogs for which a platelet count was available. Reactive lymphocytes were seen in 5 of 13 dogs. Concurrent infection with another rickettsial organism was identified in 4 dogs. Of the 13 dogs tested, 7 were seroreactive to E canis antigens. Morulae consistent with E ewingii infection were identified in neutrophils in 8 dogs. Treatment with doxycycline, with or without prednisone, resulted in a rapid, favorable clinical response in the 9 dogs for which follow-up information was available.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Results suggest that PCR testing for E ewingii infection should be considered in dogs with fever, neutrophilic polyarthritis, unexplained ataxia or paresis, thrombocytopenia, or unexplained reactive lymphocytes, and in dogs with clinical signs suggestive of ehrlichiosis that are seronegative for E canis. Following treatment with doxycycline, the prognosis for recovery is good.

Endoscopic evaluation of the esophagus and stomach in three loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) and a Malaysian giant turtle (Orlitia borneensis)

Three loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) and a Malaysian giant turtle (Orlitia borneensis) were presented with suspected or confirmed esophageal foreign bodies. Esophagoscopy was performed on all turtles, and gastroscopy was performed on three turtles. In all cases, endoscopy was easy to perform, and allowed visualization of most upper gastrointestinal features. The papillated esophagus was easy to navigate, but mucosal papillae in the loggerhead sea turtles prevented examination of the underlying mucosa. The stomach was easily entered and examined in both species, but the working endoscope length (100 cm) prevented inspection of the pyloric antrum and the duodenum in all turtles. The turtles in this report may serve as references for future endoscopic examinations of these species.

Use of animation-enhanced video clips for teaching abnormal breathing patterns

The ability to characterize disease of the respiratory tract accurately based on breathing pattern is helpful for the development of differential diagnoses and an efficient diagnostic plan and critical for the stabilization of patients in respiratory distress. Veterinary students do not have sufficient clinical experience to observe personally all types of respiratory diseases and their resultant abnormal breathing patterns. We developed a teaching tool, the animated breathing pattern videotape (ABV), to fill this gap. The ABV is a collection of video clips of small animal patients with normal and abnormal breathing patterns on a conventional videotape of approximately 20 minutes duration. Each video clip is shown for 20 to 40 seconds, followed by the same clip with superimposed animation of rib and diaphragm motion, followed by the initial clip again, without overlying animation. The ABV has since been used in teaching third-year veterinary students, interns, residents, practicing veterinarians, and veterinary technicians. Student evaluations and responses to questionnaires by interns, residents, practicing veterinarians, veterinary technicians, and peer reviewers have been uniformly positive.

Molecular Evidence SupportingEhrlichia canis-Like Infection in Cats

Currently, the pathogenic role of Ehrlichia canis in cats has been proposed predominantly on the basis of the serologic evidence of natural infection and the infrequent detection of morulae‐like structures within the cytoplasm of leukocytes in cats. The purpose of this report was to provide molecular evidence supporting E cams‐like infection in 3 cats that had clinical manifestations consistent with canine ehrlichiosis but lacked antibodies to E canis antigens. Serum from all 3 cats contained antinuclear antibodies (ANAs). The predominant disease manifestation was polyarthritis in 1 cat and bone marrow hypoplasia or dysplasia, accompanied by pancytopenia or anemia and thrombocytopenia, in 1 cat each. The alignment of E canis partial 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA; 382 nucleotide positions), amplified from EDTA blood samples from each cat, was identical to each other and was identical to a canine isolate of E canis (GenBank accession number AF373613). In 1 cat, concurrent treatment with corticosteroids may have interfered with the therapeutic effectiveness of doxycycline for the elimination of E canis‐like infection. To further define the spectrum of ehrlichiosis in cats, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing may be necessary until serologic testing is thoroughly validated in experimentally or naturally infected cats. In addition, until E canis has been isolated from cats and several tissue culture isolates are available from disparate geographic regions for detailed comparative genetic study, the molecular evidence presented in this study supporting E canis‐like infection in cats must be interpreted with caution.

Molecular evidence supporting Ehrlichia canis-like infection in cats

Currently, the pathogenic role of Ehrlichia canis in cats has been proposed predominantly on the basis of the serologic evidence of natural infection and the infrequent detection of morulae-like structures within the cytoplasm of leukocytes in cats. The purpose of this report was to provide molecular evidence supporting E. canis-like infection in 3 cats that had clinical manifestations consistent with canine ehrlichiosis but lacked antibodies to E. canis antigens. Serum from all 3 cats contained antinuclear antibodies (ANAs). The predominant disease manifestation was polyarthritis in 1 cat and bone marrow hypoplasia or dysplasia. accompanied by pancytopenia or anemia and thrombocytopenia, in 1 cat each. The alignment of E. canis partial 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA: 382 nucleotide positions), amplified from EDTA blood samples from each cat, was identical to each other and was identical to a canine isolate of E. canis (GenBank accession number AF373613). In 1 cat, concurrent treatment with corticosteroids may have interfered with the therapeutic effectiveness of doxycycline for the elimination of E. canis-like infection. To further define the spectrum of ehrlichiosis in cats, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing may be necessary until serologic testing is thoroughly validated in experimentally or naturally infected cats. In addition, until E. canis has been isolated from cats and several tissue culture isolates are available from disparate geographic regions for detailed comparative genetic study, the molecular evidence presented in this study supporting E. canis-like infection in cats must be interpreted with caution.

Frequency of pulmonary mineralization and hypoxemia in 21 dogs with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of hypoxemia and pulmonary mineralization using 99mTc-methylene diphosphonate (99mTc-MDP) in dogs with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism (PDH). Twenty-one dogs with PDH were prospectively evaluated using thoracic radiography, arterial blood gas analysis, and bone phase and pulmonary perfusion scintigraphy (using 99mTc-macro-aggregated albumin [99mTc-MAA]). The radiographs and bone and perfusion studies were evaluated subjectively. An averaged quantitative count density ratio was calculated between the thorax and cranial thoraco-lumbar vertebrae from lateral thoracic 99mTc-MDP images. Thoracic:vertebral ratios were calculated using 99mTc-MDP studies from 21 control dogs. The thoracic:vertebral ratios were compared between the 2 groups (PDH and control). The mean age (+/-SD) of the 21 PDH dogs was 10.2 (+/-3) years, whereas the mean age of the control group was 9.8 (+/-3) years. Seven of the 21 dogs with PDH were hypoxemic (defined as an arterial partial pressure of oxygen [PaO2] < 80 mm Hg) with an average PaO2 (+/-SD) of 62 (+/-15) mm Hg. Of the 7 hypoxemic dogs, 2 were found to have pulmonary mineralization based on bone scintigraphic images. Pulmonary perfusion abnormalities were not identified using 99mTc-MAA in any of the 21 PDH dogs. Six PDH dogs had an abnormal interstitial pulmonary pattern and 5 of these dogs were hypoxemic. The average quantitative thoracic:vertebral ratio was not significantly different between the PDH and control dogs (0.5 +/- 0.4 versus 0.4 +/- 0.1, P = .16). Causes of hypoxemia other than pulmonary thromboembolism should be considered in dogs with PDH. Pulmonary mineralization may contribute to hypoxemia in dogs with PDH.

Use of a modified stomach tube for bronchoalveolar lavage in dogs

A technique that did not require use of a bronchoscope for bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) in dogs was developed. An inexpensive, readily available 16-F Levin-type stomach tube was modified for the procedure. The technique was effective for collecting BAL fluid in 9 dogs that ranged from 9.3 to 26.2 kg (20.5 to 57.6 lb). Recovered fluid was consistent with fluid collected bronchoscopically. Mean recovery volume was 84/125 ml (67%), mean WBC counts were high (> 300 cells/microl), and > 70% of cells were macrophages. Complications from use of the technique were not detected on the basis of pulse oximetry, thoracic radiography, and clinical observation. This effective, simple, and safe technique for BAL can be readily performed in clinical settings that do not have bronchoscopic capabilities. It also provides a less costly alternative than bronchoscopic BAL.

Tracheal rupture in cats: 16 cases (1983-1998)

OBJECTIVE

To determine causes of tracheal rupture in cats and the mechanism of injury.

DESIGN

A retrospective study was conducted to identify cats with tracheal rupture. A second study was conducted to establish mechanism of injury, and a third study was conducted to determine volume of air needed to obtain an airtight seal when inflating the cuff of an endotracheal tube in a cat.

ANIMALS

16 cats with clinical signs of tracheal rupture, 10 cat cadavers, and 20 clinically normal cats that were undergoing anesthesia.

PROCEDURES

Details were extracted from medical records of 16 cats with tracheal rupture (9 treated surgically and 7 treated conservatively). For the cadaver study, the trachea of each cat cadaver was intubated and observed during overinflation of the endotracheal tube cuff. For clinically normal cats, volume of air needed to obtain an airtight seal for the endotracheal tube was recorded.

RESULTS

Most ruptures were associated with cats anesthetized for dental procedures. Clinical signs associated with tracheal rupture included subcutaneous emphysema, coughing, gagging, dyspnea, anorexia, and fever. Tracheoscopy was the method of choice for documenting tracheal rupture. Surgical and conservative management were successfully used, unless the injury extended to the carina. In the cadaver study, overinflation of the endotracheal tube cuff with > 6 ml of air resulted in tracheal rupture in 7 of 10 cadavers. For clinically normal cats, the volume of air (mean +/- SD) needed to obtain an airtight seal was 1.6 +/- 0.7 ml.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Overinflation of an endotracheal tube cuff may result in tracheal rupture in cats.

Concentration of enrofloxacin and its active metabolite in alveolar macrophages and pulmonary epithelial lining fluid of dogs

The purpose of this study was to determine the concentration of enrofloxacin and its active metabolite, ciprofloxacin, in alveolar macrophages (AM) and epithelial lining fluid (ELF) of the lungs in comparison to plasma concentrations in healthy dogs. Eleven dogs were given a single oral dose (5 mg/kg) of enrofloxacin. Four hours later, plasma and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid were collected. Cells were separated from the BAL fluid and lysed for determination of drug concentrations within AM. Supernatant was used to determine concentrations of drugs in ELF. Drug assays were performed by high-performance liquid chromatography. The concentration of enrofloxacin (mean +/- SD) was 0.33 +/- 0.14 microgram/mL in plasma, 3.34 +/- 2.4 micrograms/mL in AM and 4.79 +/- 5.0 micrograms/mL in ELF. The concentration of ciprofloxacin was 0.42 +/- 0.26 microgram/mL in plasma, 1.15 +/- 1.03 micrograms/mL in AM and 0.26 +/- 0.26 microgram/mL in ELF. Mean concentrations of both drugs in AM were greater than in plasma (AM to plasma ratio, 10.3 for enrofloxacin and 4.7 for ciprofloxacin). Mean concentrations of enrofloxacin, but not ciprofloxacin, in ELF were greater than in plasma (ELF to plasma ratio, 13.5 for enrofloxacin and 0.52 for ciprofloxacin). Enrofloxacin concentrations in AM and ELF largely exceeded the MICs of the major bacterial pathogens and surpassed by about two times the breakpoint MIC of that drug, and ciprofloxacin concentrations in AM surpassed the MIC of many susceptible organisms. These results suggest that sufficient antimicrobial activity is present in AM and ELF of dogs following oral administration of enrofloxacin to be effective in the treatment of lower respiratory tract infections involving susceptible organisms.

Effects of valacyclovir in cats infected with feline herpesvirus 1

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether orally administered valacyclovir can be used safely and effectively to treat cats with primary, feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV-1) infection.

ANIMALS

14 specific-pathogen-free adult cats.

PROCEDURE

Cats were infected with FHV-1 strain 87-727 (300 microliters, 10(7) plaque-forming units/ml) by ocular and nasal inoculations, and were treated every 6 hours with dextrose (controls) or valacyclovir (60 mg/kg of body weight, PO). Virus shedding from both eyes and the oropharynx was monitored every 2 days by virus isolation, and subjective clinical scores were assigned daily for ocular and nasal discharge and conjunctival hyperemia. Urinalysis, CBC, and serum biochemical analysis were done prior to inoculation, and on days 2, 5, 7, 9, and 12 of infection. Differences in CBC and serum biochemical indices between groups were compared, as were differences between preinfection values and maximal postinfection values, rectal temperature, and scores for disease severity.

RESULTS

All cats developed acute conjunctivitis and rhinitis typical of FHV-1 infection. Beginning between days 6 and 9, valacyclovir-treated cats became noticeably more lethargic and dehydrated than did cats of the control group. Total WBC and neutrophil counts were significantly lower in cats of the valacyclovir group. The experiment was terminated on day 12 for humane reasons. Histologic changes attributable to FHV-1 infection were similar in all cats. Additional histologic abnormalities seen only in the valacyclovir-treated cats were coagulative necrosis of the renal tubular epithelium, centrilobular atrophy and hepatic necrosis, and severe bone marrow depression.

CONCLUSIONS

Cats appear to be uniquely sensitive to the toxic effects of valacyclovir, and even high doses appear not to suppress FHV-1 replication in acutely infected cats.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Use of valacyclovir is of questionable value in cats with acute FHV-1 infection and, at high doses, the drug may be toxic.

Bronchoalveolar lavage in a dolphin

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) was performed twice to evaluate a stranded Atlantic bottle-nosed dolphin for pulmonary disease. A pediatric gastroscope with a working length of 1,090 mm and an outer diameter of 9.8 mm was of appropriate size for BAL in this dolphin. Fifty milliliters of sterile saline (0.9% NaCl) solution was used in each of 2 sites for the first lavage. Fluid recovery was 58 and 66% from the 2 sites; however, results of cytologic analyses were typical of a bronchial wash rather than BAL. Larger volumes of saline solution (85 to 100 ml/site) were used in the second lavage. Although fluid recovery was only 25 and 30% from the 2 sites, results of cytologic analyses were consistent with BAL. Mononuclear cells accounted for 72 and 90% of total WBC. Although the dolphin of this report did not appear to have pulmonary disease, experience obtained by performing BAL provided valuable information for the practical application of this technique in dolphins.

Fluconazole in cats: pharmacokinetics following intravenous and oral administration and penetration into cerebrospinal fluid, aqueous humour and pulmonary epithelial lining fluid

The pharmacokinetics of fluconazole following intravenous (i.v.) and oral (p.o.) administration and the penetration of fluconazole into cerebrospinal fluid, aqueous humour and epithelial lining fluid (ELF) of the lungs were evaluated in adult male cats. Pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated from serum concentration-time data obtained following i.v. and p.o. administration of 50 mg per cat using a cross-over study design. Fluconazole concentrations were measured using a high-performance liquid chromatography assay. Mean total body clearance of fluconazole was 37.7 mL/h.kg, mean volume of distribution at steady state was 1.14 L/kg, mean residence time was 31.0 h and mean half-life of elimination was 25 h as derived by non-compartmental analysis of data. Absorption was complete. Mean ratios of fluid:serum fluconazole concentrations following administration of 50 mg fluconazole per day for 8 days were as follows: cerebrospinal fluid, 0.88; aqueous humour 0.79; ELF, 1.20. Fluconazole concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid, aqueous humour and ELF exceeded reported minimum inhibitory concentrations of fluconazole for pathogenic fungi. Results of this study suggest fluconazole can effectively be administered to cats at 50 mg per cat per day.

Cytologic identification of Toxoplasma gondii in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of experimentally infected cats

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether it was possible to retrieve organisms, by means of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), from cats inoculated with Toxoplasma gondii.

DESIGN

Experimental study.

ANIMALS

27 cats. Sixteen of the 27 were experimentally infected with feline immunodeficiency virus.

PROCEDURE

All cats were inoculated with T gondii tachyzoites. Cats were grouped on the basis of feline immunodeficiency virus status and route (IV or intra-arterial) and number of tachyzoites administered. Bronchoalveolar lavage was performed by means of a standard technique. Lavage fluid was evaluated cytologically for tachyzoites.

RESULTS

Clinical signs of toxoplasmosis varied widely among individual cats, but were generally most pronounced in group-1 and -2 cats (n = 5 each) and less pronounced in group-3 (n = 5) cats. Group-4 and -5 cats (n = 6 each) did not have clinical signs of toxoplasmosis. In 14 of the 15 cats in groups 1, 2, and 3, tachyzoites were detected in BAL fluid collected 7 days after inoculation. Tachyzoites were detected 14 days after inoculation in the single cat without tachyzoites 7 days after inoculation. A necropsy was performed on 9 of these cats, and tachyzoites were identified histologically in 4 of the 9. Tachyzoites were not detected in BAL fluid collected 3 days (n = 6) or 7 days (n = 6) after inoculation from the 12 cats in groups 4 and 5. Tachyzoites were not identified histologically in any of these 12 cats.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

BAL may be useful in the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis, particularly in cats with signs of pulmonary involvement.

Effect of FIV infection on lung inflammatory cell populations recovered by bronchoalveolar lavage

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and ovine progressive pneumonia virus have been associated with lymphocytic pneumonitis. Pulmonary cell populations in cats infected with feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) were evaluated by bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) to identify changes associated with lentivirus infection in this species. Bronchoalveolar lavage was performed through an endotracheal tube using 15 ml kg-1 body weight of sterile 0.9% sodium chloride solution. Results of BAL fluid cytologic analysis from 19 cats experimentally infected with FIV for at least 8 months were compared with results from 34 uninfected cats. Infected cats had significantly higher total cell counts and relative neutrophil counts (P < 0.01). Lymphocytosis did not occur. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was collected from nine additional cats prior to, and 2, 6, and 17-18 weeks following infection with FIV. Neither neutrophilia nor lymphocytosis was associated with FIV infection in these cats.

Cytological analysis of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in the diagnosis of spontaneous respiratory tract disease in dogs: a retrospective study

Results of cytological analysis of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid were compared with clinical diagnoses in dogs that presented with signs of respiratory disease to referral hospitals. Of 68 dogs in which a clinical diagnosis was possible, BAL cytological findings were considered definitive for the diagnosis in 17 cases (25%), supportive of the diagnosis in 34 cases (50%), and not helpful in 17 cases (25%). Findings were most often considered supportive of or definitive for the clinical diagnosis in dogs with alveolar or bronchial radiographic patterns, or the presence of pulmonary masses. BAL results among lung lobes differed in 23 of 63 dogs (37%) with diffuse radiographic patterns. Tracheal wash cytology differed from BAL fluid cytology in 45 of 66 dogs (68%). Bronchoalveolar lavage was a clinically useful procedure for the diagnostic evaluation of dogs with signs of respiratory disease.

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha responses are depressed and interleukin-6 responses unaltered in feline immunodeficiency virus infected cats

Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), a lentivirus similar to HIV, causes an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in cats. Similar to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the pathogenesis of FIV is associated with dysregulation of the cytokine network. While alterations in tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) expression have been reported in HIV-infected patients, changes attributable to HIV and those caused by cofactors such as secondary infections cannot always be readily distinguished. This study evaluated the effect of FIV infection on TNF-alpha and IL-6 production in cats not exposed to other potential cofactors such as secondary infections. TNF-alpha and IL-6 activities were evaluated in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cells from FIV-infected and uninfected specific pathogen free (SPF) cats. Supernatants from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated BAL cells from uninfected SPF cats had high levels of TNF-alpha and IL-6 activity, while stimulated BAL cell supernatants from FIV-infected SPF cats had significantly lower levels of TNF-alpha but unaltered IL-6 activity. Similarly, Con A/phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) stimulated non-adherent (NA-) peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from FIV infected cats synthesized less TNF-alpha than similarly treated NA-PBMC from uninfected cats. Feline immunodeficiency virus could be recovered from the culture supernatants of BAL cells from infected cats by co-cultivation with susceptible lymphocytes. In situ hybridization identified FIV mRNA in a small fraction of alveolar macrophages in the BAL cell cultures.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Cytologic characterization of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid collected through an endotracheal tube in cats

Bronchoalveolar lavage was performed through an endotracheal tube in 34 specific-pathogen-free cats to determine expected values for bronchoalveolar lavage fluid cytologic analysis, using this method of collection. Saline solution for lavage was instilled in 3 separate aliquots at a volume of 5 ml/kg of body weight each. Analysis of sequential aliquots was performed to investigate the differences in cell counts among the 3 fractions. The effect of combining aliquots, including or omitting the first fraction, was evaluated to determine whether all aliquots could be combined for analysis without substantially affecting results. The total number of nucleated cells retrieved from each cat ranged from 0.9 to 31.1 x 10(6). Most of these cells were macrophages (78 +/- 15%, mean +/- SD) and eosinophils (16 +/- 14%). The first aliquot had the greatest number of epithelial cells, and the lowest total nucleated cell count and relative and absolute eosinophil counts. Differences among aliquots also were identified for relative and absolute macrophage counts, relative and absolute neutrophil counts, and absolute lymphocyte count. Statistically significant differences were found for many of the cell counts when values from the combination of the second and third aliquots were compared with values from the combination of all 3 aliquots. Magnitude of the differences was small, and these differences were not believed to be of practical consequence.