Consumption of coffee or caffeine and serum concentration of inflammatory markers: A systematic review

Coffee consumption is associated with reduced risk of conditions that share low-grade inflammation as their physiopathological basis. We therefore summarized the effects of coffee or coffee components on serum levels of inflammatory markers. Clinical trials assessing the effect of coffee, caffeine or other coffee components on inflammatory markers were searched without restriction to publication date. Fifteen studies (8 involving coffee and 7 caffeine) were included. Increased adiponectin levels were found in four of seven trials comparing filtered coffee/caffeinated coffee with placebo or comparing its levels at baseline and after consumption of medium or dark roasted coffee, but no change was seen in caffeine trials. None of the five studies assessing the effects of coffee found changes in C-reactive protein (CPR), but one out of three trials found decreased CPR levels in response to caffeine. Interleukin (IL)-6 was increased by caffeinated coffee compared with placebo in one of four coffee trials, and by caffeine in three out of five studies. Caffeine increased IL-10 levels in two of three trials. These data suggest a predominant anti-inflammatory action of coffee but not of caffeine consumption. Moreover, the proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses to caffeine point to its complex effects on the inflammatory response.

Evaluation of genotoxicity and effects on reproduction of nonylphenol in Oreochromis niloticus (Pisces: Cichlidae)

Nonylphenol ethoxylate (NPE) is widely used as a component of detergents, paints, pesticides, and many other products. In the aquatic environment NPE breakdown to 4-nonylphenol (NP), which is more stable and persistent. NP is estrogenic in fish, avian, and mammals and is described as an environmental pollutant with endocrine disruptor characteristics. The genotoxicity of NP was evaluated through micronuclei assay and single cell gel electrophoresis (Comet assay) in peripheral erythrocytes of Oreochromis niloticus exposed in vivo. The study on reproductive development was also carried out in male and female gonads of O. niloticus. Lethal concentration (LC 50%) of 0.032 ml l(-1) was previously determined. We ran assays with O. niloticus exposed to concentrations of 1.0, 10.0, and 16.0 microl l(-1) of NP diluted in water. Our results showed that NP was not genotoxic. However, 3-day exposure to NP in concentrations of 1.0, 10.0, and 16.0 microl l(-1) of water increased the frequency of reproductive stages in males and females. The histology of the reproductive tract of the treated fish was significantly altered in females treated with 16.0 microl l(-1) of water when compared to controls. Analogous estrogenic effects were observed, such as accelerated maturation of oocytes and spermatogenesis. These results showed that the O. niloticus reproductive system is sensitive to NP estrogenicity.

Mercury and lead during breast-feeding

Hg and Pb are of public health concern due to their toxic effects on vulnerable fetuses, persistence in pregnant and breast-feeding mothers, and widespread occurrence in the environment. To diminish maternal and infant exposure to Hg and Pb, it is necessary to establish guidelines based on an understanding of the environmental occurrence of these metals and the manner in which they reach the developing human organism. In the present review, environmental exposure, acquisition and storage of these metals via maternal–infant interaction are systematically presented. Though Hg and Pb are dispersed throughout the environment, the risk of exposure to infants is primarily influenced by maternal dietary habits, metal speciation and interaction with nutritional status. Hg and Pb possess similar adverse effects on the central nervous system, but they have environmental and metabolic differences that modulate their toxicity and neurobehavioural outcome in infant exposure during fetal development. Hg is mainly found in protein matrices of animal flesh (especially fish and shellfish), whereas Pb is mainly found in osseous structures. The potential of maternal acquisition is higher and lasts longer for Pb than for Hg. Pb stored in bone has a longer half-life than monomethyl-mercury acquired from fish. Both metals appear in breast milk as a fraction of the levels found in maternal blood supplied to the fetus during gestation. Habitual diets consumed by lactating mothers pose no health hazard to breast-fed infants. Instead, cows' milk-based formulas pose a greater risk of infant exposure to neurotoxic substances.

Perinatal metabolism of dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene in Nicaraguan mothers

Umbilical cord and venous blood samples were collected at the time of delivery from 52 mothers living in urban and rural areas of the Atoya River basin, Nicaragua. In a subsample of 24 mothers that delivered by Cesarean section, abdominal adipose tissue samples were also collected, as was breast milk later in lactation. Cord and venous blood sera were analyzed for 13 organochlorine pesticides: 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (pp'-DDT); 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene (pp'-DDE); pp'-dichlorophenyldichlorodiene (pp'-DDD); alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane (alpha-HCH); beta-hexachlorocyclohexane (beta-HCH); gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (gamma-HCH); delta-hexachlorocyclohexane (delta-HCH); toxaphene; dieldrin; endrin; aldrin; heptachlor; and heptachlor epoxide. In venous blood only pp'-DDE (100% of samples), pp'-DDT (1.92%), dieldrin (15.38%), heptachlor (15.38%), gamma-HCH (7.69%), beta-HCH (11.53%), and delta-HCH (1.92%) were found, whereas in cord blood only pp'-DDE (100%), pp'-DDT (3.84%), dieldrin (19.23%), and heptachlor (9.16%), were found. The persistent DDT metabolite pp'-DDE, present in all samples of blood serum, adipose tissue, and breast milk, was studied in relation to maternal characteristics such as body mass index (BMI), age, lactation experience, and fetal pesticide acquisition. Mean venous (7.12 microg/g) and cord (6.39 microg/g) pp'-DDE concentrations were not significantly different but were significantly correlated. pp'-DDE in maternal adipose tissue was positively correlated with pp'-DDE in cord blood (P=0.0001) and breast milk (P<0.0001) and marginally correlated with changes in BMI (r=-0.03088; P=0.06). There was a higher proportion of samples (58%) with a greater concentration of DDE in venous than in cord blood. Although DDE accumulation may be less during fetal development than during breast feeding, exposure during embryogenesis may be more important than during the postnatal period.

Intrauterine device and maternal copper metabolism during lactation

The effects of intrauterine device (IUD) on maternal copper (Cu) metabolism during breastfeeding was studied in 95 volunteer mothers who chose to use non-hormonal contraceptive methods. They were divided into two groups that were inserted with the IUD-Cu 380A (n = 33), IUD-Cu 200B (n = 29), and a third group that did not use any IUDs served as control (n = 33). Endometrial biopsies, blood, and milk samples were collected before (at 10 weeks postpartum) and 6 weeks after insertion of device for the determination of metabolites associated with copper metabolism, namely, serum ceruloplasmin, and copper concentrations in breast milk and endometrium. Endometrial copper concentration increased in women using IUDs, but was statistically significant (p = 0.001) only in the IUD-Cu 380A group. The increase in endometrial copper concentration did not affect serum ceruloplasmin or milk copper concentrations.

Gender role attitudes and other determinants of breast feeding intentions in Brazilian women

This study of 230 Brazilian mothers examined the associations of several sociodemographic variables, maternal attitudes and perceptions with intended breast feeding duration. The usual relationships of sociodemographic variables such as mother's age, education, smoking, parity and infant birth weight with intended breast feeding duration were not found. However, mother's intentions were related to gender role attitudes with both the least and the most traditional women intending to breast feed longer than women with moderately traditional gender role attitudes. Mother's attitude toward breast feeding, help with household tasks, and the attitudes of friends and relatives toward breast feeding were also very significantly related to intended breast feeding duration. Women who did not work outside the home intended to breast feed significantly longer than those who were employed.

Concentrations of organochlorine pesticides in milk of Nicaraguan mothers

Breast-milk samples from 101 mothers from the basin of Rio Aloya, Nicaragua, were collected on two occasions within the first trimester of lactation. Milk samples were analyzed for 13 organochlorine pesticides: (1) p,p'-dichlorophenyldichloroethylene; (2) p,p'-dichlorophenyltrichloroethane; (3) p,p'-dichlorophenyldichlorodiene; (4) alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane; (5) beta-hexachlorocyclohexane; (6) gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane; (7) delta-hexachlorocyclohexane; (8) toxaphene; (9) dieldrin; (10) endrin; (11) aldrin; (12) heptachlor; and (13) heptachlor-epoxide. Organochlorines of the dichlorodiphenylethane class (i.e., p,p'-dichlorodiphenylethane and p,p'-dichlorodiphenylethane) were found in all samples and at the highest mean concentrations observed in the study. Chemicals in the hexachlorocyclohexane family (i.e., alpha- and delta-hexachlocyclohexane) were not found at all (0%), and the other hexachlorocyclohexane compounds (i.e., beta > gamma) were found in less than 6% of the samples. Twenty percent or less of the sample contained chlorInated cyclodienes (i.e., dieldrin > endrin > heptachlor-epoxide > heptachlor). No measurable concentrations of alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane, aldrin, p,p'-dichlorophenyldichlorodiene, and toxaphene were found in the breast milk samples. Analysis of variance demonstrated that only the concentration of p,p'-dichlorophenyldichloroethylene p,p'-dichlorophenyltrichloroethane, and endrin were affected significantly by maternal age. Overall, with the exception of p,p'-chlorophenyldichloroethylene, and p,p'-dichlorophenyltrichloroethane, the mean concentrations of the analyzed pesticides were low. Total p,p'-dichlorophenyltrichloroethane concentrations that exceeded the allowed daily intake set by the World Health Organisation were found in 5.9% of the samples.

Iron and copper in human milk

The reported concentrations of iron and copper in breast milk show a wide variation. Research published over the past 50 y has reported median values of 0.47 and 0.32 mg/L for iron and copper, respectively. The levels of both metals decrease with the progress of lactation. The calculated iron-to-copper ratio of reported means differs from 0.25 to 6.29 (median = 1.18). Maternal constitutional variables such as undernutrition, iron and copper body reserves, stage of lactation, adolescent motherhood, gestation length, and infection and environmental variables such as iron and copper dietary intake, in addition to supplementation, smoking, vegetarianism, and prolonged use of hormonal contraceptives before and during lactation did not consistently affect the concentrations of iron and copper in breast milk. Extreme cases of either low or high levels of body metal availability or altered metabolism due to chelating therapy or illnesses such as Wilson's disease and infections did not affect metal transfer from blood serum to breast milk. There is no clinical or scientific support for the need of extra iron or copper, besides the quantities provided by milk in the full-term breast-fed infant, at least during the first 6 mo.

Dietary intake of selenium and its concentration in breast milk

Selenium concentration was measured in the breast milk of 30 mothers at different stages of lactation and various body mass indices (BMI). For a maternal mean selenium intake meeting 100% of the Recommended Daily Allowance, mean milk selenium concentration was 14.06 ng/mL (range: 10.0-24.7 ng/mL). No significant correlation was found between the concentration of milk selenium with the stage of lactation, BMI, or dietary selenium intake.

The effects of oral contraceptive use on iron and copper concentrations in breast milk

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effects of oral contraceptive (OC) treatment on maternal iron and copper metabolism during lactation.

DESIGN

Observational study.

SETTING

Private and public clinics in Brazil.

PATIENT(S)

Lactating mothers attending the family planning clinic of the University of Brasilia.

INTERVENTION(S)

The OCs used were a combination pill (0.15 mg of levonorgestrel and 0.03 mg of ethinyl estradiol) and a minipill (0.35 mg of norethidrone). Blood and breast milk samples were collected before and after a measured period of OC treatment.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Iron and copper concentrations were studied in the serum and breast milk of 54 breast-feeding mothers who had been advised by their physicians to use an OC, and in a control group.

RESULT(S)

Regression analysis was performed using a model that took into consideration socioeconomic status, number of children, duration of previous lactation, type of OC, length of treatment, and age. Repeated measurements (before and after OC treatment) showed that only copper concentrations in breast milk were significantly affected by stage of lactation. During the study period, which varied from 2-15 weeks, the decline in iron concentrations in breast milk was negligible, whereas copper concentrations decreased by 50%.

CONCLUSION(S)

The use of OCs does not appear to affect significantly the secretion of iron and copper in breast milk during the first 6 months of lactation.

Calcium and phosphorus in milk of Brazilian mothers using oral contraceptives

OBJECTIVE

Oral contraceptives (OC) are the most efficient method of contraception and it is the most prescribed by doctors in developing countries. Therefore we studied the effects of combination pill and mini-pill on calcium and phosphorus in milk of breast-feeding mothers at different stages of lactation.

METHODS

Fifty-four breast-feeding mothers made up three study groups: 33 mothers who had been advised by their doctors to use either combination pill (12), or mini-pill (21), as well as a control group of 21 mothers that used no hormonal contraceptives. All mothers completed a questionnaire and provided samples of milk before and after a measured period of observation. Mean duration of study was 76, 120, and 101 days, respectively for users of mini-pill, combination pill, and controls. Determination of calcium and phosphorus was done by inductively coupled plasma-atomic absorption spectrometry.

RESULTS

Overall the decrease in milk concentrations of phosphorus (6%) and calcium (26.3%) during the study period was not influenced by OC treatment. Regression analyses which took into consideration length of treatment, socioeconomic status, number of children, duration of previous lactation, type of contraceptive, and age of mothers and repeated measurements (before and after OC) showed that milk calcium was significantly affected by stage of lactation (p=0.0013).

CONCLUSION

The use of hormonal contraceptive such as the combination pill (levonorgestrel 0.15 mg+ethynilestradiol 0.03 mg) and mini-pill (norethindone 0.35 mg) does not seem to affect the secretion of calcium and phosphorus in milk of mothers.

Selenium and mercury concentrations in some fish species of the Madeira River, Amazon Basin, Brazil

Samples of 7 species of piscivorous, omnivorous, and herbivorous fish caught at 12 different sites on the Madeira River, Amazon Basin, were analyzed for selenium and mercury. Selenium was determined by anodic stripping voltammetry and mercury by cold vapor atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The means for selenium concentrations ranged from 0.49 to 3.11 nmol/g and for mercury from 0.41 to 6.66 nmol/g depending on the fish species. The molar ratios of Hg:Se increased according to the fish trophic level. Piscivorous species had the highest mean ratio (4.0) and herbivorous species the lowest (0.9). There was a positive and statistically significant correlation between selenium and mercury concentrations for the herbivorous species (r = 0.716; p = 0.0088) not seen for omnivororus and piscivorous species (r = -0.2032; p = 0.3407). These findings are significant for the fish-eating population of the Madeira River because the ingestion of mercury would always be in excess of selenium.

Pregnancy-related changes in fat mass and total DDT in breast milk and maternal adipose tissue

BACKGROUND

Changes in body fat mass during pregnancy and its effects on total DDT concentration i.e. the, sum of pp'-DDT (pp'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), and pp'-DDE (pp'-dichlorophenyldichloroethylene), in maternal milk and abdominal fat were studied in humans.

METHODS

Forty mothers that delivered by Caesarean section and chose to breast feed consented in providing samples (abdominal fat and breast milk) for determination of organochlorine pesticides. Constitutional variables, such as the number of children, and estimators of body fat mass, based on height and body weight (before and after pregnancy), were measured.

RESULTS

Body mass index before and after pregnancy, as well as percent change in body weight, showed no significant difference in total DDT concentration in abdominal fat or breast milk. The only variable to significantly affect either body load of pesticides (abdominal fat) or its excretion (milk fat) was the number of children (p = 0.0117 and p = 0.0324, respectively). Correlation coefficients between DDT (in adipose tissue and milk fat) and variables related to body fatness (body mass index) were low and not significant. However, a close relationship was found between total DDT in adipose tissue and milk fat (r = 0.709; p = 0.0001).

Multielement determination in small samples of human milk by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry

Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) was used for routine analysis of small samples of human milk. The concentrations of calcium (Ca), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), phosphorus (P), and zinc (Zn) were determined in 203 milk samples from postpartum women at different stages of lactation after stepwise digestion in HNO3, HClO4, and H2O2 under heat. Validation of the procedure was achieved using certified reference material of bovine liver (NBS 1577) with mean recoveries of 103.5%. The concentrations of the above elements in milk matrix were comparable with previously reported values. The analytical results from breast milk will provide reference information for mineral studies of Brazilian mothers and breast-fed infants.

Antimony oxidation states in antileishmanial drugs

Chemical methods specific for the determination of the levels of trivalent antimony (Sb+3) and pentavalent antimony (Sb+5) were used to investigate proprietary formulas used to treat leishmaniasis. Trivalent antimony was determined by differential pulse polarography, whereas Sb+5 was determined by iodine titration. Proprietary formulas based on N-meglumine antimoniate (Glucantime) were analyzed in detail. The results showed Sb+3 in all ampules of Glucantime. In formulations said to contain either 85 or 100 mg of Sb+5/ml, we found both forms of antimony. The amount of Sb+3 ranged from 10.5 to 15.8% (10.06-18.96 mg of Sb/ml). These findings raise issues on product stability and standardization and may help to clarify resistance to antimonial drugs and the reducing effect of tissue on Sb+5.

Subcutaneous fat changes in low-income lactating mothers and growth of breast-fed infants

OBJECTIVE

We studied changes in body fat of lactating mothers and its relationship to milk fat and growth of exclusively breast-fed infants during the first 3 months of life.

METHOD

Changes in body fat measured by body mass index (BMI) and skinfold thickness (triceps, suprailiac, subscapular, pectoral) of 39 low socioeconomic status women were measured every 15 days during the first 3 months postpartum. Milk fat concentrations and growth of exclusively breast-fed infants were followed at the same intervals. Attained growth (ponderal and linear) of infants was analyzed through multivariate analyses against changes in maternal adiposity (BMI and sum of skinfolds), weight, and milk fat concentrations.

RESULTS

There was a decrease in maternal skinfold thickness from the 15th day postpartum. Milk fat concentrations decreased significantly only at the second month of lactation.

CONCLUSION

Statistical model adjustments for duration of study, milk fat concentration, and birth weight of infants explained 88% of variance in infant growth (r2 = 0.886, p = 0.0001).

Zinc reverses the increased sensitivity of lymphocytes from aged subjects to the antiproliferative effect of prostaglandin E2

To study the effect of zinc on the sensitivity of lymphocytes from aged people to prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), ZnCl2 was added to cultures of peripheral blood mononuclear cells stimulated with phytohemagglutinin (PHA). Mononuclear cells from 11 aged (greater than 65 years old) and 9 control (less than 36 years old) subjects were cultured with PHA and proliferation was measured 72 hr later by the uptake of [3H]thymidine. Lymphocytes from the aged group, whose mean plasma zinc concentration was significantly lower than that of the control group (68 +/- 6 micrograms/dl and 85 +/- 4 micrograms/dl, respectively), showed a decreased proliferation of lymphocytes and an increased sensitivity to the antiproliferative effect of PGE2. The addition of zinc to cultures increased proliferation of cultured cells in both groups, especially in the aged group. Our data indicate that zinc deficiency can act as a causal factor for T-lymphocyte dysfunction in elderly people.

Infant feeding practices among poor families of an urban squatter community

We studied the types of food, time of introduction, frequency and nutrient intake among 133 infants during the 1st year of life. A 24-hour dietary recall indicated that 42 different types of food, including mothers' milk, were offered directly or in suitable preparations. Breast- and mixed-fed infants were likely to receive more milk feedings than non-breast-fed infants. Sugar and liquids such as tea, fruit juices and soft drinks were introduced at a very early age. The breast-fed babies were offered only teas before the 3rd month. Solid food was offered as early as at 4 months, regardless of breast or bottle feeding. Fe and vitamin A were estimated to be below the recommended dietary allowance in the group that was not receiving breast milk.

Concentration of zinc, copper and metallocalorie ratio in bottle-milks prepared by poor urban families

The concentration of zinc and copper and metallocalorie ratios were measured in samples of bottle-milks fed to infants from a poor urban settlement in Brasilia, Brazil. The bottle-milks fed to infants under 1 year of age from a sample of 40 families were analysed for zinc and copper. Zinc and copper concentrations ranged from 0.7 to 11.5 mg/l (mean 3.37) and from 0.09 to 1.47 mg/l (mean 0.43), respectively. The mean metallocalorie ratio was 1.26 mg/MJ (5.29 mg/1000 kcal) for zinc and 0.17 mg/MJ (0.73 mg/1000 kcal) for copper. Based on minimum recommendations for formulae, 55% of the bottle-milks had both zinc and copper concentrations below 3.2 and 0.4 mg/l, respectively. However, owing to added sugar and high caloric concentrations in the milk preparations, metal:calorie ratios were below the minimum recommendations in 72.5 and 62.5% of cases for zinc and copper, respectively. The variation in zinc and copper concentrations in the milks prepared by mothers/infant caretakers under unsupervized home conditions is wide. Owing to the low availability of zinc in cow's milk preparations, it is of concern that more than half the bottle preparations had zinc and copper concentrations/ratios below the minimum recommendations.

Concentration of fat, protein, lactose and energy in milk of mothers using hormonal contraceptives

Energy, protein, lactose and fat were studied in the milk of mothers who were using different types of contraceptives. One hundred and eleven mothers made up the following groups. C: control (barrier and natural methods, or sterilization), n = 22; combined pill: LDP (low dose pill (levonorgestrel 0.15 mg + ethinylestradiol 0.03 mg)), n = 12 and MDP (medium dose pill (levonorgestrel 0.25 mg + ethinylestradiol 0.05 mg)), n = 13; MP (minipill (norethindrone 0.35 mg)), n = 37; DMPA (injectable progesterone (depot medroxiprogesterone acetate 150 mg)), n = 17; and IUD (plastic or copper intrauterine device), n = 10. The mean stages of lactation were, respectively, 15, 17, 5, 9, 5 and 9 weeks. The mean duration of observation for the study groups ranged from 2 to 4 weeks. Milk samples were collected before and after initiation of treatment (mean = 20 days; range = 14-103 days). The stage of lactation and the interval of nursing before sampling were recorded so that statistical account could be taken of these uncontrollable sources of variability. When incorporated as covariates, they showed that no significant differences existed between the groups tested, either before or after treatment.

Retention of antimony in skin biopsies of leishmaniasis patients after treatment with N-methylglucamine antimoniate

Leishmaniasis patients were treated with N-methylglucamine antimoniate by intravenous injections of 10 or 20 mg of Sb per kilogram of body weight per day for 10 or 20 days. Digests of skin biopsies taken from the site of lesion before and after treatment were analyzed for antimony by instrumental neutron activation (INAA). The detection limit of the assay was 20 ng, and no Sb could be measured in digests of samples (less than 2.45 mg) taken before treatment. Biopsies taken after injections of Sb showed concentrations in the range of 8.32 to 70.68 ng/g skin. We discuss the usefulness of INAA in the study of Sb in small samples of tissues.

Retention of antimony in skin biopsies of leishmaniasis patients after treatment with N-methylglucamine antimoniate

Leishmaniasis patients were treated with N-methylglucamine antimoniate by intravenous injections of 10 or 20 mg of Sb per kilogram of body weight per day for 10 or 20 days. Digests of skin biopsies taken from the site of lesion before and after treatment were analyzed for antimony by instrumental neutron activation (INAA). The detection limit of the assay was 20 ng, and no Sb could be measured in digests of samples (less than 2.45 mg) taken before treatment. Biopsies taken after injections of Sb showed concentrations in the range of 8.32 to 70.68 ng/g skin. We discuss the usefulness of INAA in the study of Sb in small samples of tissues.

Osmolalities of bottle- and breast-milk fed to poor urban Brazilian infants

Feeding practices related to osmotic strength of bottle-milk and breast-milk were studied in 133 families with infants less than 1 year of age in a poor urban settlement in Brasilia, Brazil. Osmolality [mean (SEM)] of breast-milk [318.8 (4.46) mOsm/kg water] was significantly less than that of bottle-milk [568.7 (29.9) mOsm/kg water]. The wide range of osmotic strength (253.7-1,380.0 mOsm/kg water) found in bottle-milk was partly due to the predominant use (82%) of powdered cow's milk among non-breastfeeders and its improper reconstitution. Diarrhoea and feeding management are also discussed.

Making sense of the hair zinc literature: where do we go from here?

The authors make a critical review on the hair zinc literature, discussing the main contributions in this field. Certain explanations, as well as some solutions aimed to put an end to the confusion which exists on this matter are suggested. As a first step, it is recommended that only endogenous zinc in hair be reliably measured. Therefore, the zinc metabolic status should be operationally defined in function of the zinc detected in hair. Each one of the variables should thus be identified, quantified and controlled. It must be added that these variables would have to include differences in zinc metabolism. Only then would it be possible to see the real baseline reference value of hair zinc. At present researchers should begin looking for a functional relation and not just a statistical significant association between hair zinc concentration and zinc metabolic status. At the same time, it would be necessary to ratify and prove findings of the great number of studies reported in the paper, through the replication of studies with experimental animals.

Concentration of copper and zinc in liver of fetuses and infants

Hepatic concentrations of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) were studied in 38 fetuses and infants, who died of various causes, from 26 weeks of gestation up to 16 weeks post-natally. The six fetuses of 28-32 weeks gestation had median and mean hepatic Cu concentrations micrograms/g fresh tissue) comparable to those found in the 21 born at term, but the range of values was much narrower: all of the Cu values for those born prematurely were at or below 40 micrograms/g. Values at 10 micrograms/g and below were found in five infants at term and five who died at 1-4 months of age. There was a comparable range of Zn values for both pre-term and term babies (10 to 300 micrograms/g fresh tissue). The value of 10 micrograms/g was found only in one 4-month-old infant. The accumulation of both Cu and Zn occurs independently in the fetuses. The socioeconomic status did not influence significantly the concentration of liver Cu or Zn in babies born at term. However, size of babies as measured by liver weight showed that larger babies had significantly higher mean Cu concentration (37 +/- 24 micrograms/g) than smaller babies (21 +/- 14 micrograms/g. The same trend, but without significant difference, was observed for hepatic Zn between larger (104 +/- 78 micrograms/g) and smaller (74 +/- 59 micrograms/g babies.

Antimony accumulation in hair during treatment of leishmaniasis

We used instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) to determine antimony in small quantities of hair from individuals living in an area of endemic leishmaniasis. The groups studied were 12 patients undergoing treatment with N-methylglucamine antimoniate, 34 patients who had received such treatment a year ago, and 17 control subjects (untreated) who were living in the same area. Patients receiving treatment showed mean and median (12.13, 2.9 micrograms/g) values for antimony in hair that significantly exceeded those in either controls (1.01, 0.4 microgram/g) or patients one year after treatment (1.54, 1.0 microgram/g). We conclude that INAA can be useful in monitoring and differentiating such exposure to antimony in patients under treatment.

Antimony accumulation in hair during treatment of leishmaniasis

We used instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) to determine antimony in small quantities of hair from individuals living in an area of endemic leishmaniasis. The groups studied were 12 patients undergoing treatment with N-methylglucamine antimoniate, 34 patients who had received such treatment a year ago, and 17 control subjects (untreated) who were living in the same area. Patients receiving treatment showed mean and median (12.13, 2.9 micrograms/g) values for antimony in hair that significantly exceeded those in either controls (1.01, 0.4 microgram/g) or patients one year after treatment (1.54, 1.0 microgram/g). We conclude that INAA can be useful in monitoring and differentiating such exposure to antimony in patients under treatment.

The rate of rhodopsin regeneration in the bleached eyes of zinc-deficient rats in the dark

Rats fed a zinc-deficient, phytate-containing diet (ZD rats) for 4 wk showed typical signs of zinc deficiency: reduced food intake, slow weight gain, a poor food efficiency ratio and subnormal zinc concentrations in the serum, femur and eye. Pair-fed, weight-matched rats fed a zinc-sufficient diet (PF rats) showed normal serum zinc values, intermediate femur zinc levels and eye zinc concentrations similar to those in ZD rats. The vitamin A status of all three groups, expressed as the concentration of vitamin A in the liver, was comparable. After extensive bleaching, the initial rate of rhodopsin regeneration in ad libitum-fed, zinc-sufficient rats (AL rats), ZD rats and PF rats was the same, whereas the extent of rhodopsin regeneration in AL rats kept in the dark for 120 min was almost twice that found in ZD and PF rats. These results are not consistent with the hypothesis that zinc deficiency primarily affects dark adaptation by reducing the activity of alcohol dehydrogenase in the eye. Rather, zinc deficiency and the generalized malnutrition that results from markedly reduced food intake seem to depress the synthesis of opsin, and probably other proteins as well, in the rod cells of the eye.

Lacteal zinc and copper in relation to volume, total ash and energy during the first three months of lactation of Brazilian women

The concentrations of zinc and copper were longitudinally studied during the first three months of self-determined lactation periods of nine Brazilian women. Both elements were studied in relation to volume, energy and total ash of milk. During the six bi-weekly intervals, zinc showed a significant difference between the high initial value (as mass/volume), mass/g of ash and mass/kcal) and later values toward the end of the third month, but no significant difference was observed for copper. With respect to all three of those parameters, regression analysis of zinc against length of lactation (six bi-weekly intervals) showed a significant and inverse correlation. Only when expressed as mass/g of ash was copper significantly and directly correlated with length of lactation. The data indicate that zinc secretion into human milk occurs independently of copper and mineral mass and also follows a previously identified physiological pattern.

The influence of hair color on the concentration of zinc and copper in boys' hair

Head hair of 150 normal boys from Brazil ranging in age from 1 to 12 years was studied for the influence of color on concentrations of zinc and copper. Hair color was classified visually and also quantified by melanin concentration. Visual classification and spectrophotometric measurements of melanin showed good agreement for blond and black colors, whereas large discrepancies were observed for intermediate colors such as light and dark brown. Hair distributed in four ranges of melanin concentration (the numerical estimate of color) showed no significant differences for concentration of Zn and Cu but showed a significantly higher (P less than 0.01) concentration for Zn:Cu in black hair than in the other color groups. Correlation between mineral content (Zn and Cu) and melanin was low and nonsignificant except for Zn in hair color ranging from 0-100 melanin units (r = -0.34, P less than 0.05). Discussion of these findings is presented regarding the importance of hair color change in children and estimation of mineral nutritional status.

Serum albumin and gamma globulin in Trypanosoma cruzi infections

This paper examines the association between serum protein levels and infection with Trypanosoma cruzi in a region of Central Brazil. 148 people 6 to 78 years of age, were included in this study. There were no statistically significant difference in albumin levels between those with positive T. cruzi serology (2.94 +/- 0.74 g/100 ml) and those with negative serology (3.04 +/- 0.61 g/100 ml). Thus the null hypothesis of no association between infection with T. cruzi and serum albumin is accepted. Gamma-globulin levels were elevated in both groups and were significantly greater (p less than 0.05) in the group with positive T. cruzi serology (1.91 +/- 0.41 g/100 ml) than in the group with negative serology (1.75 +/- 0.41 g/100 ml). The serum albumin levels suggest that malnutrition (either associated with low protein intake or increased loss due to hookworm) is a major problem and unlikely to change if T. cruzi transmission was controlled.

[Effects of anovulatory steroids on serum levels of zinc and copper]

Mean serum zinc (1.14 micrograms/ml) and copper (2.35 micrograms/ml) in 24 women taking oral contraceptive agents were compared against mean serum zinc (1.25 micrograms/ml) and copper (1.98 micrograms/ml) of 20 women of the same age range who served as controls. Serum zinc was significantly lower while serum copper was significantly higher for women taking the oral contraceptive agents. There was no significant correlation between the serum zinc and copper levels either in the control group (r = 0.04) or in the group taking the contraceptives (r = 0.36).

Hair zinc levels and nutritional status in urban children from Ilheus, Bahia, Brazil

The mean +/-s.d. hair zinc levels of 45 pre-school and 70 school children, age 1-12 years, were 123 +/- 74 and 103 +/- 74 micrograms/g hair, respectively. The prevalence of zinc levels less than 70 micrograms/g 15 per cent (9 and 19 per cent for pre-school and school children, respectively). Anthropometric measurements showed that 25 per cent suffered from chronic malnutrition. The form of malnutrition manifested was exclusively stunting, ie, low height-for-age in the presence of adequate weight-for-height. No association was found between low hair zinc levels and nutritional status.

[Diet survey based on family food consumption: the case of Ilheus, Bahia, in 1979]

A simplified method was used to analyze the diets of 31 poor families in the city of Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil. The results are presented in terms of frequency of foods consumed, nutritional density and theoretical adequacy of the diet. Intrafamilial distribution of food intake was not considered in the analysis. Results show that the home diet was very limited in variety; only eight of the 46 items in the dietary frequency were consumed by 50% or more of the sample. Nutrient density was low for calcium, riboflavin, vitamin A and zinc. Energy density, as measured by the ratio of fat calories to protein calories (G/P) was 1.0, value considered nutritionally inadequate. Protein provided 16% of the energy and, of all nine nutrients analyzed, presented the highest levels of intake compared to recommended amounts. Theoretically, the groups at greater nutritional risk were women and children.

Dietary analysis with programmable calculator: a simplified method

The use and applications of programmable calculator in dietary analysis are presented. Results which approximate those of large computers can be obtained with considerably less time, money, and data manipulation. Program flexibility allows operators to determine the number of foods and nutrients to be analyzed. Input, data checking, and results of total nutrient consumption are achieved within minutes. The dietary analysis described in this article is well suited for small hospitals and clinics, for teaching purposes and dietary surveys and for use by non-nutritionists who have a one-time or regular need to incorporate dietary information into their work.