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Jeffery SC, Hosking J, Jeffery AN, Murphy MJ, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ, Pinkney J. Insulin resistance is higher in prepubertal girls but switches to become higher in boys at age 16: A Cohort Study (EarlyBird 57). Pediatr Diabetes 2018; 19:223-230. [PMID: 28851041 DOI: 10.1111/pedi.12571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2017] [Revised: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The risk of type 2 diabetes is increasing in teenage girls, and is associated with their greater insulin resistance (IR). HYPOTHESIS We hypothesized that the adverse metabolic profile of girls (compared with boys) would persist from childhood through adolescence. PATIENTS AND METHODS Community-based longitudinal cohort of 292 children (147 boys) studied annually from 9 to 16 years. MEASURES IR (homeostasis-model-assessment-2), high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C), triglycerides, % body-fat (dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry), pubertal stage (age at peak height velocity), physical activity (accelerometry). Multi-level modelling established the age-related trends in IR and lipids and the influence of covariates. RESULTS Each year from 9 to 15 years, girls had 21% to 63% higher IR than boys (girls mean IR 0.73-1.33, boys 0.51-0.89, P < .005). At 16 years the gender difference was not significant (girls IR 0.60, boys 0.56, P = .45). Girls had lower HDL-C from 9 to 12 years, higher triglycerides from 9 to 14 years, greater adiposity throughout, and earlier puberty, but boys were more active than girls (all P < .05). After adjustment for %-fat, puberty and activity, the gender difference in IR between girls and boys aged 9 to 15 years became non-significant (IR girls 0.66-1.01, boys 0.65-1.04, P > .07). However, after adjustment at 16 years, girls' IR was 25% lower than boys' (girls 0.44, boys 0.63, P = .001), and they had 22% higher HDL-C (P < .001) and 20% lower triglycerides (P = .003). CONCLUSIONS The higher IR of prepubertal and early pubertal girls diminishes during late puberty, and boys begin to exhibit greater metabolic risk. Despite being leaner and more active, boys at 16 years have higher IR than girls, suggesting future higher risk for diabetes, thus we reject our hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C Jeffery
- Centre for Clinical Trials and Population Studies, Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, UK.,Newcastle University Medical School, Newcastle, UK
| | - Joanne Hosking
- Centre for Clinical Trials and Population Studies, Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, UK
| | - Alison N Jeffery
- Centre for Clinical Trials and Population Studies, Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, UK
| | - Michael J Murphy
- Division of Pathology and Neuroscience, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Linda D Voss
- Centre for Clinical Trials and Population Studies, Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, UK
| | - Terence J Wilkin
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Exeter Medical School, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Jonathan Pinkney
- Centre for Clinical Trials and Population Studies, Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, UK
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Metcalf BS, Hosking J, Henley WE, Jeffery AN, Mostazir M, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Erratum to: Physical activity attenuates the mid-adolescent peak in insulin resistance but by late adolescence the effect is lost: a longitudinal study with annual measures from 9-16 years (EarlyBird 66). Diabetologia 2015; 58:2900. [PMID: 26358581 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-015-3753-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brad S Metcalf
- Institute of Health Research, University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter, UK.
- Sport and Health Sciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, St Luke's Campus, Heavitree Road, Exeter, EX1 2LU, UK.
| | - Joanne Hosking
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, UK
| | - William E Henley
- Institute of Health Research, University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter, UK
| | - Alison N Jeffery
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, UK
| | - Mohammod Mostazir
- Wellcome Trust Biomedical Informatics Hub, College of Life and Environmental Sciences (CLES), University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Linda D Voss
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, UK
| | - Terence J Wilkin
- Institute of Health Research, University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter, UK
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Metcalf BS, Hosking J, Henley WE, Jeffery AN, Mostazir M, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Physical activity attenuates the mid-adolescent peak in insulin resistance but by late adolescence the effect is lost: a longitudinal study with annual measures from 9-16 years (EarlyBird 66). Diabetologia 2015; 58:2699-708. [PMID: 26264061 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-015-3714-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS The aim of this work was to test whether the mid-adolescent peak in insulin resistance (IR) and trends in other metabolic markers are influenced by long-term exposure to physical activity. METHODS Physical activity (7 day ActiGraph accelerometry), HOMA-IR and other metabolic markers (glucose, fasting insulin, HbA1c, lipids and BP) were measured annually from age 9 years to 16 years in 300 children (151 boys) from the EarlyBird study in Plymouth, UK. The activity level of each child was characterised, with 95% reliability, by averaging their eight annual physical activity measures. Age-related trends in IR and metabolic health were analysed by multi-level modelling, with physical activity as the exposure measure (categorical and continuous) and body fat percentage (assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) and pubertal status (according to age at peak height velocity and Tanner stage) as covariates. RESULTS The peak in IR at age 12-13 years was 17% lower (p < 0.001) in the more active adolescents independently of body fat percentage and pubertal status. However, this difference diminished progressively over the next 3 years and had disappeared completely by the age of 16 years (e.g. difference was -14% at 14 years, -8% at 15 years and +1% at 16 years; 'physical activity × age(2), interaction, p < 0.01). Triacylglycerol levels in girls (-9.7%, p = 0.05) and diastolic blood pressure in boys (-1.20 mmHg, p = 0.03) tended to be lower throughout adolescence in the more active group. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION Our finding that physical activity attenuates IR during mid-adolescence may be clinically important. It remains to be established whether the temporary attenuation in IR during this period has implications for the development of diabetes in adolescence and for future metabolic health generally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad S Metcalf
- Institute of Health Research, University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter, UK.
- Sport and Health Sciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, St Luke's Campus, Heavitree Road, Exeter, EX1 2LU, UK.
| | - Joanne Hosking
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, UK
| | - William E Henley
- Institute of Health Research, University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter, UK
| | - Alison N Jeffery
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, UK
| | - Mohammod Mostazir
- Institute of Health Research, University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter, UK
| | - Linda D Voss
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, UK
| | - Terence J Wilkin
- Institute of Health Research, University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter, UK
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Jeffery AN, Metcalf BS, Hosking J, Mostazir MBA, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Awareness of body weight by mothers and their children: repeated measures in a single cohort (EarlyBird 64). Child Care Health Dev 2015; 41:434-42. [PMID: 24912623 DOI: 10.1111/cch.12167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mothers often do not realize when their child is overweight. We aimed to compare mothers' perceptions of children's weight before and during puberty, and to explore factors at 7 years predicting recognition of overweight at 16 years. METHODS Mothers of 237 children (136 boys) from the EarlyBird study estimated their own weight category and that of their child aged 7 years and 16 years. The children estimated their own weight category at 16 years. Annual measures: body mass index standard deviation score (BMIsds), per cent fat, physical activity. Pubertal development assessed by age at peak height velocity (APHV). MATERNAL MEASURES: BMI, education, socio-economic status. RESULTS At 7 years 21% of girls and 16% of boys were overweight or obese, rising to 27% and 22% respectively at 16 years. The accuracy of the mother's perception of her child's weight category improved from 44% at 7 years to 74% at 16 years, but they were less able to judge overweight in sons than daughters. The mothers' level of concern about overweight was greater for girls than boys, and increased for girls (52% mothers of overweight/obese girls were worried at 7 years, 62% at 16 years), but remained static in the boys (42% vs. 39%). Over 80% of the youngsters realized when they were overweight, but 25% normal-weight girls also classed themselves as overweight. Only BMI predicted a mother's ability to correctly perceive her child's weight. Neither her awareness, nor concern, about the child's weight at 7 years had any impact on the trajectory of the child's BMI from 7 years to 16 years. CONCLUSIONS Parents are central to any successful weight reduction programme in their children, but will not engage while they remain ignorant of the problem. Crucially, any concern mothers may have about their child's excess weight at 7 years appears to have no impact on subsequent weight change.
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Affiliation(s)
- A N Jeffery
- Institute of Translational and Stratified Medicine, Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, UK
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Clarke-Harris R, Wilkin TJ, Hosking J, Pinkney J, Jeffery AN, Metcalf BS, Godfrey KM, Voss LD, Lillycrop KA, Burdge GC. PGC1α promoter methylation in blood at 5-7 years predicts adiposity from 9 to 14 years (EarlyBird 50). Diabetes 2014; 63:2528-37. [PMID: 24622795 DOI: 10.2337/db13-0671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The early environment, acting via epigenetic processes, is associated with differential risk of cardiometabolic disease (CMD), which can be predicted by epigenetic marks in proxy tissues. However, such measurements at time points disparate from the health outcome or the environmental exposure may be confounded by intervening stochastic and environmental variation. To address this, we analyzed DNA methylation in the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α promoter in blood from 40 children (20 boys) collected annually between 5 and 14 years of age by pyrosequencing. Body composition was measured annually by dual X-ray absorptiometry, physical activity by accelerometry, and pubertal timing by age at peak high velocity. The effect of methylation on transcription factor binding was investigated by electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Seven cytosine guanine dinucleotide (CpG) loci were identified that showed no significant temporal change or association with leukocyte populations. Modeling using generalized estimating equations showed that methylation of four loci predicted adiposity up to 14 years independent of sex, age, pubertal timing, and activity. Methylation of one predictive locus modified binding of the proadipogenic pre-B-cell leukemia homeobox-1/homeobox 9 complex. These findings suggest that temporally stable CpG loci measured in childhood may have utility in predicting CMD risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Clarke-Harris
- Academic Unit of Human Development and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, U.K.National Institute for Health Research Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University of Southampton, and University Hospital Southampton National Health Service Foundation Trust, Southampton, U.K
| | | | - Joanne Hosking
- Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, U.K
| | - Jonathan Pinkney
- Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, U.K
| | - Alison N Jeffery
- Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, U.K
| | | | - Keith M Godfrey
- National Institute for Health Research Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University of Southampton, and University Hospital Southampton National Health Service Foundation Trust, Southampton, U.K.Medical Research Council Lifecourse Epidemiology Unit, University of Southampton, Southampton, U.K
| | - Linda D Voss
- Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, U.K
| | - Karen A Lillycrop
- Faculty of Natural and Environmental Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, U.K.
| | - Graham C Burdge
- Academic Unit of Human Development and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, U.K
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Voss LD, Hosking J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Frémeaux AE, Wilkin TJ. Metabolic risk in contemporary children is unrelated to socio-economic status: longitudinal study of a UK urban population (EarlyBird 42). Pediatr Diabetes 2014; 15:244-51. [PMID: 24827703 DOI: 10.1111/pedi.634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2009] [Accepted: 12/07/2009] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Lifestyle interventions to improve health in young children tend to target areas of relative deprivation, but the evidence for so doing is largely historical. Accordingly, we have re-examined the link between deprivation, obesity and metabolic risk in contemporary UK children. Using a postcode-based index of multiple deprivation (IMD), we assessed 269 children from the community-based EarlyBird Study, attending 53 schools representing a wide socio-economic range. Annual measures of fatness from 5 to 8 yr included body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), and sum of five skinfolds (SSF). A metabolic risk score, based on blood pressure, lipids and insulin resistance, was derived from annual fasting blood samples. There were no significant associations between deprivation and any measure of adiposity in girls (all p > 0.37). In boys, there was a weak but consistently inverse relationship between deprivation and WC (r = -0.19, p = 0.03) and BMI (r = -0.14, p = 0.09) at 8 yr. Changes in adiposity over 3 yr were unrelated to deprivation in boys. In girls there was a slight but significant increase in SSF only (1 mm/yr per 20 IMD units, p = 0.001). Importantly, in both genders, metabolic risk score was unrelated to deprivation throughout (r values -0.05 to -0.13, all p > 0.12), as was change in metabolic risk (all p > 0.30). Our data do not support the assumption that obesity, metabolic disturbance and thus risk of type 2 diabetes are more prevalent among poorer children. In today's increasingly obesogenic environment, youngsters from all backgrounds appear to be vulnerable, with population-wide implications for public health spending, and the prevention of diabetes in contemporary youth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda D Voss
- Department of Endocrinology & Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth campus, Plymouth, UK
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Hosking J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Streeter AJ, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Divergence between HbA1c and fasting glucose through childhood: implications for diagnosis of impaired fasting glucose (Early Bird 52). Pediatr Diabetes 2014; 15:214-9. [PMID: 25705748 DOI: 10.1111/pedi.12082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE An HbA1c threshold of ≥ 6.5% has recently been adopted for the diagnosis of diabetes in adults, and of ≥ 5.7% to identify adults at risk. Little,however, is known of HbA1c's behaviour or diagnostic value in youth. Our aim was to describe the course of HbA1c during childhood, and its association with fasting glucose. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS HbA1c and glucose were measured every year in a cohort of 326 healthy children (162 boys) from 5 to 15 years. Mixed effects modelling was used to establish the determinants of HbA1c and its development over time. ROC analysis was used to determine the diagnostic value of HbA1c in the 55 individuals who showed impaired fasting glucose(IFG – glucose ≥ 5.6 mmol/L). RESULTS Glucose rose progressively from 4.3 mmol/L at 5 years to 5.1 mmol/Lat 15 years, and although there were positive associations between HbA1c and glucose, from 10 to 13 years, HbA1c fell while glucose continued to rise. IFG developed in 55 children, but HbA1c exceeded 5.7% in only 16 of them. The maximum area under the ROC curve was 0.71 at the age of 14 (p<0.001), and the sensitivity and specificity were optimal at 50 and 80% respectively,corresponding to HbA1c of 5.4%. CONCLUSIONS Although HbA1c retains a positive association with glucose throughout childhood, it is weak, and their trends diverge from 10 years,suggesting that factors other than glycaemia systematically influence the variance of HbA1c in youth. These findings therefore limit the interpretation of HbA1c for the diagnosis of IFG during childhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Hosking
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, UK
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Streeter AJ, Hosking J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Body fat in children does not adversely influence bone development: a 7-year longitudinal study (EarlyBird 18). Pediatr Obes 2013; 8:418-27. [PMID: 23447431 DOI: 10.1111/j.2047-6310.2012.00126.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2012] [Revised: 10/24/2012] [Accepted: 10/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT Both negative and positive associations have been reported between body fat and bone density. Extra mechanical loading from excess fat may lead to greater bone mass. Excess ectopic fat may lead to bone demineralisation through inflammatory pathways. WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS Longitudinally collected data from narrow-angle beam densitometry gives a novel insight into bone growth through adolescence. There is no evidence of a deleterious effect of body fat on children's growing bones after adjustment for height and age. Body fat, mediated by puberty, is associated with larger bones in boys and bones that are both denser and larger in girls. OBJECTIVE Bone growth is an important determinant of peak bone mass and fracture risk, but there is limited data on the impact of fat-on-bone development at a time when childhood obesity is reaching epidemic proportions. Accordingly, we explored the effect of body fat (BF) on bone growth over time in the context of age, pubertal tempo and gender. METHOD A cohort of 307 children was measured biannually from 9-16 years for height and weight, and every 12 months for percent BF, bone area (BA), bone mineral content and areal bone mineral density (aBMD) by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Pubertal tempo was determined quantitatively by age at peak height velocity. RESULTS Percent BF increased and then fell in the boys, but increased throughout in the girls. aBMD and BA increased in both genders (P < 0.001). Greater BF was associated with higher aBMD and BA in girls (P < 0.001), but only BA in boys (P < 0.001). The extra aBMD associated with increased BF was greater in older girls. The rise in aBMD and BA was associated with earlier puberty in both genders (P < 0.001). The impact of BF on aBMD was greater in later puberty in girls (0.0025 g cm(-2) per 10% BF at 10 years versus 0.016 g cm(-2) per 10% BF at 14 years, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION Greater BF is associated with larger bones, but also denser bones in girls. The effects of fat and puberty are complex and gender specific, but BF of contemporary UK children does not appear to be deleterious to bone quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Streeter
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry (Plymouth Campus), Plymouth, UK
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Hosking J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Streeter AJ, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Evidence of early beta-cell deficiency among children who show impaired fasting glucose: 10-yr cohort study (EarlyBird 56). Pediatr Diabetes 2013; 14:481-9. [PMID: 23721587 DOI: 10.1111/pedi.12049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2012] [Revised: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Impaired fasting glucose (IFG) is a predictor of future diabetes and is increasingly common in children, but the extent to which it results from excess insulin demand or failure of supply is unclear. Our aim was to compare the behaviour of insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function in children who developed IFG with those whose glucose levels remained within the normal range. METHODS We examined trends in fasting glucose, insulin sensitivity (HOMA-S) and beta-cell function (HOMA-B) in 327 healthy children annually from 5 to 15 yr, and the parents at baseline. RESULTS Fifty-five children showed IFG, mostly after age 11 yr. Fasting glucose rose progressively and was higher throughout in those who developed IFG compared with those who did not (p < 0.001). Beta-cell function was lower from the age of 5 yr in those who developed IFG (p = 0.006), but there was no difference in BMI (p = 0.71). A difference in insulin sensitivity was revealed on adjustment for covariates (p = 0.03). Glucose was higher (p < 0.001), beta-cell function lower (p = 0.01), and insulin sensitivity the same (p = 0.86) in the mothers of children who showed IFG, compared with those who did not. CONCLUSIONS IFG is common in contemporary children, and appears to be related to a defect in beta-cell function already present at 5 yr. Similar findings in the mothers of IFG children suggest that the beta-cell defect may be transmissible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Hosking
- University Medicine, Level 07 Derriford Hospital, Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth, UK
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Ajala O, Hosking J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. The contribution of parental BMI to the metabolic health of their offspring: a longitudinal cohort study (EarlyBird 55). Pediatr Obes 2012; 7:143-50. [PMID: 22434754 DOI: 10.1111/j.2047-6310.2011.00013.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2011] [Revised: 10/12/2011] [Accepted: 10/18/2011] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to establish the extent to which parental factors influence the metabolic health of their offspring. DESIGN The study was designed as a prospective longitudinal cohort study SUBJECTS The study's subjects were 226 healthy trios from a 1995 to 1996 birth cohort randomly recruited in the city of Plymouth, UK MEASUREMENTS: Body mass index (BMI) and metabolic z-score (derived from natural log HOMA-IR, triglycerides, total/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio), measured at nine annual time points, from 5 to 13 years. RESULTS As expected, the metabolic z score was closely related to BMI in both genders and at all ages (r = 0.40-0.57, P < 0.001). Accordingly, there were large and significant differences in the metabolic z-score between children categorized as normal weight or overweight/obese. At 13 years, for example, the metabolic z score of the overweight/obese girls was 14-fold greater than that of the normal-weight girls (P < 0.001). However, parental BMI and metabolic status had little effect on these differences. Indeed, mixed effects modelling showed that, as the child's BMI increased, so the influence of parental factors became less relevant. Time-lag analyses confirmed that weight gain preceded metabolic disturbances in the children. CONCLUSION The impact of obesity on the metabolic health of contemporary children is a function of their own weight gain, rather than that of their parents, and is therefore potentially preventable.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Ajala
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry (Plymouth Campus), Plymouth, UK
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Jeffery AN, Metcalf BS, Hosking J, Streeter AJ, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Age before stage: insulin resistance rises before the onset of puberty: a 9-year longitudinal study (EarlyBird 26). Diabetes Care 2012; 35:536-41. [PMID: 22279034 PMCID: PMC3322712 DOI: 10.2337/dc11-1281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Insulin resistance (IR) is associated with diabetes. IR is higher during puberty in both sexes, with some studies showing the increase to be independent of changes in adiposity. Few longitudinal studies have reported on children, and it remains unclear when the rise in IR that is often attributed to puberty really begins. We sought to establish from longitudinal data its relationship to pubertal onset, and interactions with age, sex, adiposity, and IGF-1. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS The EarlyBird Diabetes study is a longitudinal prospective cohort study of healthy children aged 5-14 years. Homeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR), skinfolds (SSF), adiposity (percent fat, measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), serum leptin, and IGF-1 were measured annually in 235 children (134 boys). Pubertal onset was adduced from Tanner stage (TS) and from the age at which luteinizing hormone (LH) first became serially detectable (≥0.2 international units/L). RESULTS IR rose progressively from age 7 years, 3-4 years before TS2 was reached or LH became detectable. Rising adiposity and IGF-1 together explained 34% of the variance in IR in boys and 35% in girls (both P < 0.001) over the 3 years preceding pubertal onset. The contribution of IGF-1 to IR was greater in boys, despite their comparatively lower IGF-1 levels. CONCLUSIONS IR starts to rise in mid-childhood, some years before puberty. Its emergence relates more to the age of the child than to pubertal onset. More than 60% of the variation in IR prior to puberty was unexplained. The demography of childhood diabetes is changing, and prepubertal IR may be important.
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Metcalf BS, Hosking J, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Henley W, Wilkin TJ. Fatness leads to inactivity, but inactivity does not lead to fatness: a longitudinal study in children (EarlyBird 45). Arch Dis Child 2011; 96:942-7. [PMID: 20573741 DOI: 10.1136/adc.2009.175927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To establish in children whether inactivity is the cause of fatness or fatness the cause of inactivity. DESIGN A non-intervention prospective cohort study examining children annually from 7 to 10 years. Baseline versus change to follow-up associations were used to examine the direction of causality. SETTING Plymouth, England. PARTICIPANTS 202 children (53% boys, 25% overweight/obese) recruited from 40 Plymouth primary schools as part of the EarlyBird study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Physical activity (PA) was measured using Actigraph accelerometers. The children wore the accelerometers for 7 consecutive days at each annual time point. Two components of PA were analysed: the total volume of PA and the time spent at moderate and vigorous intensities. Body fat per cent (BF%) was measured annually by dual energy x ray absorptiometry. RESULTS BF% was predictive of changes in PA over the following 3 years, but PA levels were not predictive of subsequent changes in BF% over the same follow-up period. Accordingly, a 10% higher BF% at age 7 years predicted a relative decrease in daily moderate and vigorous intensities of 4 min from age 7 to 10 years (r=-0.17, p=0.02), yet more PA at 7 years did not predict a relative decrease in BF% between 7 and 10 years (r=-0.01, p=0.8). CONCLUSIONS Physical inactivity appears to be the result of fatness rather than its cause. This reverse causality may explain why attempts to tackle childhood obesity by promoting PA have been largely unsuccessful.
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Affiliation(s)
- B S Metcalf
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, University Medicine, Level 7, Derriford Hospital, Plymouth PL6 8DH, UK.
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Hosking J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Direction of causality between body fat and insulin resistance in children--a longitudinal study (EarlyBird 51). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 6:428-33. [PMID: 21867370 DOI: 10.3109/17477166.2011.608800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the direction of causality in the association between adiposity and insulin resistance in children. METHODS Body composition by DEXA, and insulin resistance by HOMA-2 IR were measured annually in 238 children aged from 7-13 years. Longitudinal modelling was used to establish whether baseline and/or trends in adiposity were associated with change in IR or whether, conversely, baseline and/or trends in IR were associated with change in adiposity. RESULTS Baseline adiposity was associated with change in IR in the short-term (p < 0.001) but less so in the long-term (p < 0.09) in both genders. Baseline IR was not associated with short-term change in adiposity in either gender (p > 0.42). In the long-term, baseline IR appeared to be positively associated with change in adiposity in boys (p = 0.02) but inversely associated with change in adiposity (the higher the baseline IR, the lower the gain in %fat) in girls (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS The dominant direction of causality appears to be from adiposity to insulin resistance. In boys, adiposity appears to be both a cause and an effect of IR in the long term. In girls, however, higher insulin resistance appeared to limit further gain in body fat in the long term, an observation consistent with insulin desensitization as an adaptive response to weight gain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Hosking
- Department of Endocrinology & Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth campus, UK
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Ajala O, Fr Meaux AE, Hosking J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. The relationship of height and body fat to gender-assortative weight gain in children. A longitudinal cohort study (EarlyBird 44). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 6:223-8. [PMID: 21682579 DOI: 10.3109/17477166.2011.583662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Height, body fat and body mass index (BMI) are correlated in children, so we hypothesized that the gender-assortative associations in BMI recently reported in contemporary children might extend to their height and body fat. DESIGN Prospective longitudinal cohort study. SUBJECTS A total of 226 healthy trios (mother, father and child) from a 1995?1996 birth cohort randomly recruited in the city of Plymouth, UK. MEASUREMENTS Height, weight, and BMI (kg/m(2)) were measured in each of the parents and, in addition, sum of five skin-folds (SF) in their children at 5, 6, 7 and 8 y. RESULTS BMI and SF were strongly height-dependent in the children by 8 y (r = 0.41-0.56). SF was gender-assortative insofar as the mean SF was significantly greater in the daughters (but not the sons) of obese mothers (obese vs. normal weight: +2.5 cm p < 0.001) and in the sons (but not the daughters) of obese fathers (obese vs. normal: +1.3 cm p < 0.001). As expected, offspring height correlated with that of their parents, but overweight/obese children were systematically taller than normal weight children (boys: +1.02 SDS, girls: +1.14 SDS, p < 0.01), and this difference was independent of parental height or BMI. CONCLUSIONS Height is transmitted by both parents, and the body fat of overweight/obese children largely by the same-sex parent, but the extra height associated with more fat in the child is unrelated to the height or weight of either parent. The secular trend in height among contemporary children may simply reflect their rising body fat. Excess fat is unhealthy, so the trend in height may not be healthy either.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olubukola Ajala
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry (Plymouth Campus), UK
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Frémeaux AE, Mallam KM, Metcalf BS, Hosking J, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. The impact of school-time activity on total physical activity: the activitystat hypothesis (EarlyBird 46). Int J Obes (Lond) 2011; 35:1277-83. [PMID: 21407175 DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2011.52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Hosking J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Little impact of resting energy expenditure on childhood weight and body composition:. Nutr Res 2011; 31:9-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nutres.2010.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2010] [Revised: 12/23/2010] [Accepted: 12/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Hosking J, Henley W, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Changes in resting energy expenditure and their relationship to insulin resistance and weight gain: a longitudinal study in pre-pubertal children (EarlyBird 17). Clin Nutr 2010; 29:448-52. [PMID: 20138693 DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2010.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2009] [Revised: 12/11/2009] [Accepted: 01/06/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS In adults, adjustments in resting energy expenditure (REE) are used to defend energy balance against disturbance caused by over-and under-nutrition, and may be linked to changes in insulin resistance and leptin. Little is known of these associations in children. Our aim was to test the hypothesis that long-term weight gain in children is met with adaptive changes in resting energy expenditure, mediated by insulin resistance and/or leptin. METHODS REE by indirect calorimetry, anthropometry, body composition by DEXA, insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and serum leptin were measured annually in 232 children from the age of 7-10 y. RESULTS REE rose from 7 to 10 y, and the rise exceeded that predicted by the concurrent rise in fat and fat-free mass by 184 kcal/day in the boys and by 160 kcal/day in the girls. However, there were no significant relationships in either gender between this 'excess' rise in REE and change in body composition (r < or = 0.08, p > or = 0.42). The rise in both boys and girls was associated with, but not explained by, a rise in insulin resistance (p < or = 0.002). There was no association with serum leptin (p > or = 0.32). CONCLUSIONS The data do not support the hypothesis of adaptive changes in REE in pre-pubertal children, and insulin resistance explains very little of the pre-pubertal rise in REE. The rise in REE beyond that explained by changes in body composition may reflect an increase in energy requirements prior to puberty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Hosking
- Department of Endocrinology & Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth Campus, Plymouth, UK.
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Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Hosking J, Voss LD, Sattar N, Wilkin TJ. Objectively measured physical activity and its association with adiponectin and other novel metabolic markers: a longitudinal study in children (EarlyBird 38). Diabetes Care 2009; 32:468-73. [PMID: 19033408 PMCID: PMC2646031 DOI: 10.2337/dc08-1329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recent evidence suggests that, in children, traditional markers of metabolic disturbance are related only weakly to physical activity. We therefore sought to establish the corresponding relationships with newer metabolic markers. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS This was a nonintervention longitudinal study of 213 healthy children recruited from 54 schools in Plymouth, U.K. MTI accelerometers were used to make objective 7-day recordings of physical activity at ages 5 +/- 0.3 (mean +/- SD), 6, 7, and 8 years. Overall physical activity was taken as the average of the four annual time points. The metabolic markers at 8 years were adiponectin, leptin, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), and insulin resistance (homeostasis model assessment). Potential confounders included percent body fat measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and diet measured by food frequency questionnaire. RESULTS Whereas physical activity did not correlate with insulin resistance (r = -0.01), leptin (r = +0.04), or hsCRP (r = +0.01) independently of percent body fat, it did correlate with adiponectin, but inversely (r = -0.18, P = 0.02). This unexpected inverse relationship was strongest among the less active children (physical activity < median: r = -0.30, P = 0.01) but negligible in the more active children (physical activity > median: r = +0.04, P = 0.76). Adiponectin was significantly higher (0.52 SD, P < 0.01) in the least active tertile compared with the other two tertiles. Insulin resistance, however, did not differ across the physical activity tertiles (P = 0.62). CONCLUSIONS Adiponectin levels in children are highest among those who are least active, but their insulin resistance is no different. Adiponectin has a known insulin-sensitizing effect, and our findings are consistent with a selective effect at low levels of physical activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad S Metcalf
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth Campus, Plymouth, UK.
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Abstract
Adiponectin, a hormone produced and secreted by adipocytes, is present in circulation in high circulating concentrations, suggesting an important physiological role. An indirect regulator of glucose metabolism, adiponectin increases insulin sensitivity, improves glucose tolerance and inhibits inflammation. Plasma adiponectin relates inversely to adiposity and, importantly, reflects the sequelae of accumulation of excess adiposity. The role of adiponectin in adults has been explored in detail. Studies in children are now available and, given the increasing rates of childhood obesity, it is important to establish the role of adiponectin in mediating insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease in this age group. This paper reviews the regulation of adiponectin, its effect on body mass, glucose metabolism and cardiovascular risk in infants, children and adolescents. It demonstrates clear links between adiponectin and features of the metabolic syndrome in obese children and adolescents. However, adiponectin's role as a predictor of metabolic dysfunction in healthy, normal-weight youngsters is less clear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison N Jeffery
- Department of Endocrinology & Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth Campus, UK.
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Gardner DSL, Hosking J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Contribution of early weight gain to childhood overweight and metabolic health: a longitudinal study (EarlyBird 36). Pediatrics 2009; 123:e67-73. [PMID: 19117849 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2008-1292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Early weight gain (0-5 years) is thought to be an important contributor to childhood obesity and consequently metabolic risk. There is a scarcity of longitudinal studies in contemporary children reporting the impact of early weight gain on metabolic health. OBJECTIVE We aimed to assess the impact of early weight gain on metabolic health at 9 years of age. METHOD Two hundred thirty-three children (134 boys, 99 girls) with a gestational age of >37 weeks were assessed at birth, 5 years of age, and 9 years of age. Measures included weight SD scores at each time point and excess weight gained (Delta weight SD score) between them. The outcome measure included composite metabolic score (sum of internally derived z scores of insulin resistance, mean blood pressure, triglyceride level, and total cholesterol/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio). RESULTS Weight SD score increased by 0.29 SD score in girls and 0.26 SD score in boys from 0 to 5 years of age and by 0.03 SD score in girls and 0.11 SD score in boys from 5 to 9 years of age. Weight SD score correlated poorly to moderately before 5 years of age but strongly after 5 years of age. Birth weight SD score predicted (girls/boys) 2.4%/0% of the variability in composite metabolic score at 9 years of age. Adding Delta weight SD score (0-5 years old) contributed (girls/boys) 11.2%/7.0% to the score, and adding Delta weight SD score (5-9 years old) additionally contributed (girls/boys) 26.4%/16.5%. Importantly, once weight SD score at 9 years of age was known, predictive strength was changed little by adding Delta weight SD score. CONCLUSIONS Most excess weight before puberty is gained before 5 years of age. Weight at 5 years of age bears little relation to birth weight but closely predicts weight at 9 years of age. Single measures of current weight are predictive of metabolic health, whereas weight gain within a specific period adds little. A single measure of weight at 5 years of age provides a pointer to future health for the individual. If metabolic status at 9 years of age means future risk, diabetes/cardiovascular prevention strategies might better focus on preschool-aged children, because the die seems to be largely cast by 5 years of age, and a healthy weight early in childhood may be maintained at least into puberty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daphne S L Gardner
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry, Plymouth Campus, Plymouth, UK
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Metcalf BS, Voss LD, Hosking J, Jeffery AN, Wilkin TJ. Physical activity at the government-recommended level and obesity-related health outcomes: a longitudinal study (Early Bird 37). Arch Dis Child 2008; 93:772-7. [PMID: 18591181 DOI: 10.1136/adc.2007.135012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the UK and USA, government guidelines for childhood physical activity have been set (> or =60 min/day at > or =3 metabolic equivalents of thermogenesis (METs)), and body mass index (BMI) chosen as the outcome measure. AIM To determine the extent to which physical activity at the government-recommended intensity is associated with change in body mass/fat and metabolic health in pre-pubertal children. METHODS Non-intervention longitudinal study of 113 boys and 99 girls (born 1995/96) recruited from 54 schools. Physical activity (Actigraph accelerometers), changes in body mass (raw and age/gender-standardised BMI), fatness (skin-fold thickness and waist circumference) and metabolic status (insulin resistance, triglycerides, cholesterol/HDL ratio and blood pressure - separately and as a composite metabolic z score) were measured on four annual occasions (5, 6, 7 and 8 years). RESULTS Mean physical activity did not change over time in either sex. Averaging the 7-day recordings from four time points rather than one increased the reliability of characterising a child's activity from 71% to 90%. Some 42% of boys and 11% of girls met the guideline. There were no associations between physical activity and changes in any measurement of body mass or fatness over time in either sex (eg, BMI standard deviation scores: r = -0.02, p = 0.76). However, there was a small to moderate inverse association between physical activity and change in composite metabolic score (r = -0.19, p<0.01). Mixed effects modelling showed that the improvement in metabolic score among the more active compared to the less active children was linear with time (-0.08 z scores/year, p = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS In children, physical activity above the government-recommended intensity of 3 METs is associated with a progressive improvement in metabolic health but not with a change in BMI or fatness. Girls habitually undertake less physical activity than boys, questioning whether girls in particular should be encouraged to do more, or the recommendations adjusted for girls.
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Affiliation(s)
- B S Metcalf
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth Campus, Plymouth, UK.
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Voss LD, Hosking J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Wilkin TJ. Children from low-income families have less access to sports facilities, but are no less physically active: cross-sectional study (EarlyBird 35). Child Care Health Dev 2008; 34:470-4. [PMID: 18485026 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2214.2008.00827.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rising levels of childhood obesity have led to an increasing number of Government sponsored initiatives attempting to stem the problem. Much of the focus to date has been on physical activity and out-of-school activity in particular. There is an assumption that children from low-income families suffer most where there is a lack of structured physical education in school. Accordingly, provision of additional facilities for sport and other forms of active recreation tend to target areas of socio-economic deprivation. AIM We have assessed the relationship between parental income, the use of out-of-school sports facilities and the overall physical activity of young children across a wide socio-economic range. METHODS Total weekly physical activity was measured, objectively, over 7 days both at 7 years and 8 years in a healthy cohort of 121 boys and 93 girls using actigraph accelerometers. Questionnaires were used to establish parental income and parents reported the child's weekly use of out-of-school facilities for structured physical activity. RESULTS Children from low-income families attended significantly fewer sessions of structured out-of-school activities than those from wealthier families (r = 0.39), with a clear dose-response relationship across income groups. Nevertheless, total physical activity, measured objectively over seven continuous days, showed no relationship between parental income and the mean activity level of the children (r = -0.08). Nor did we find a relationship between parental income and time spent in higher intensity activity (r = -0.04). CONCLUSION Social inequality appears to have little impact on physical activity in young children. Those from poorer families make less use of facilities for structured activity out-of-school but they nevertheless record the same overall level of activity as others. What they lack in opportunity they appear to make up in the form of unstructured exercise. Improving provision for sport may not lead to the expected rise in activity levels in young children.
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Affiliation(s)
- L D Voss
- Department of Endocrinology & Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth Campus, UK.
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Murphy MJ, Hosking J, Metcalf BS, Voss LD, Jeffery AN, Sattar N, Williams R, Jeffery J, Wilkin TJ. Distribution of adiponectin, leptin, and metabolic correlates of insulin resistance: a longitudinal study in British children; 1: Prepuberty (EarlyBird 15). Clin Chem 2008; 54:1298-306. [PMID: 18539644 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2008.103499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The emergence of type 2 diabetes in young populations has mirrored a rising prevalence of obesity and insulin resistance during childhood and adolescence. At the same time, the role of adipokines as links between obesity and insulin resistance is becoming more appreciated. We sought to establish age- and sex-specific distributions of metabolic correlates of insulin resistance in healthy prepubertal children. METHODS We collected fasting blood samples from a contemporary cohort of 307 British children at ages 5, 6, 7, and 8 years and measured insulin, glucose, triglycerides, total and HDL cholesterol, urate, glycohemoglobin, sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), leptin, and adiponectin. We used homeostasis model assessment (HOMA 2) to estimate insulin sensitivity (HOMA-%S) and beta-cell function (HOMA-%B). Anthropometric measures included body mass index. RESULTS Body mass index increased from age 5 to 8 years (P < 0.001). HOMA-%B decreased (P < 0.001) and HOMA-%S increased (P < 0.05), but glucose also increased (P < 0.001) whereas glycohemoglobin decreased (P < 0.001). Consistent with the rise in insulin sensitivity, HDL cholesterol increased (P < 0.001) and triglycerides decreased (NS), whereas adiponectin decreased (P = 0.02). The patterns were similar in boys and girls, although girls were less insulin sensitive throughout. Accordingly, triglycerides tended to be higher in the girls, and HDL cholesterol and SHBG lower. CONCLUSIONS The metabolic disturbances associated with insulin resistance appear to be more advanced in girls. Markers of metabolic health improve in both sexes from 5 to 8 years, despite rising adiposity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Murphy
- Division of Pathology and Neuroscience, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK.
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Gardner DSL, Metcalf BS, Hosking J, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Trends, associations and predictions of insulin resistance in prepubertal children (EarlyBird 29). Pediatr Diabetes 2008; 9:214-20. [PMID: 18331409 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-5448.2008.00380.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rising obesity has been observed in all age groups. Anthropometric cut-points have been used to predict metabolic risk in children, although they are not based on known outcomes. AIM We examined the trends, associations and predictions of metabolic health from anthropometry in prepubertal children. METHOD Three hundred and seven healthy children were examined annually between 5 and 8 yr. MEASURES height, weight, body mass index (BMI), sum of skinfold thickness at five sites (SSF) and waist circumference (WC). OUTCOME MEASURES homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and triglycerides (TG). RESULTS Two hundred and thirty-one [131 boys (B) and 100 girls (G)] children had complete data sets at all four time points. (i) All measures of adiposity rose from 5 to 8 yr (BMI - B: +3.4%, G: +5.7%; WC - B: +10.4%, G: +11.8%; SSF - B: +23.3%, G: +30.7%, all p < 0.001). HOMA-IR unexpectedly fell (B: -16.6%, p = 0.01; G: -32.5%, p < 0.001). This fall was significant between 5 and 6 yr in both genders (5-6 yr - B: -17.8%, p < 0.001; G: -20.0%, p = 0.002) and between 6 and 7 yr in girls only (6-7 yr - B: -10.8%, p = 0.12; G: -19.2%, p = 0.001). HDL-C rose (B: +17.8%, G: +17.1%, both p < 0.001) and TG fell (B: -4.8%, p = 0.16; G: -11.6%, p = 0.006). (ii) Correlations between insulin resistance (IR) and anthropometry were poor at 5 yr but strengthened by 8 yr (BMI - B: r = 0.20/0.38, G: r = 0.28/0.49; WC - B: r = 0.25/0.40, G: r = 0.32/0.58; SSF - B: r = 0.11/0.36, G: r = 0.18/0.53). (iii) In girls, but not boys, adiposity at 5 yr predicted IR better at 8 yr (BMI - r(2 )= 0.17; WC - r(2 )= 0.28; SSF - r(2 )= 0.17, all p < 0.001) than it did at 5 yr (BMI - r(2 )= 0.08, p < 0.01; WC - r(2 )= 0.10, p < 0.01; SSF - r(2 )= 0.03, p = 0.07). CONCLUSIONS Cross-sectional association cannot indicate direction of trend or predict the future. Predicting metabolic health from anthropometric measures in prepubertal children requires longitudinal data, tracking variables from childhood into adulthood. Until the data set reaches adulthood, it is probably not safe to make recommendations on which children to 'target' or whether early intervention would be of benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daphne S-L Gardner
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth campus, Plymouth, UK
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Jeffery AN, Alba S, Murphy MJ, Voss LD, Metcalf BS, Hosking J, Gardner DSL, Sattar N, Wilkin TJ. Behavior of insulin resistance and its metabolic correlates in prepubertal children: a longitudinal study (EarlyBird 32). Diabetes Care 2007; 30:2962-4. [PMID: 17712029 DOI: 10.2337/dc07-0178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alison N Jeffery
- Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth Campus, Plymouth, UK.
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Hosking J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Gardner D, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Resting energy expenditure, adiponectin and changes in body composition of young children (EarlyBird 34). Int J Pediatr Obes 2007; 3:46-51. [PMID: 17852541 DOI: 10.1080/17477160701538134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE. Serum adiponectin levels are inversely related to adiposity and resting energy expenditure (REE) in adults yet may protect against excess weight gain. Little is known of these associations in children, in whom obesity is rising. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the relationships between REE, adiponectin and weight gain in young children. METHODS. Adiponectin by ELISA, REE by indirect calorimetry, fat-free mass (FFM) and fat mass (FM) by DEXA were measured at 6.9 years, and repeated one year later in 151 healthy children, aged 7.9±0.3 years. RESULTS. There were no significant correlations between REE and adiponectin at 6.9 years or at 7.9 years (boys r=-0.02, p=0.88 and r=0.05, p=0.69, respectively; girls r=-0.11, p=0.35 and r=0.05, p=0.70, respectively). There was no link between REE at 6.9 years and subsequent weight gain or adverse change in body composition (all r<0.20, all p>0.08). Similarly, there were no correlations between adiponectin and weight change, but there was a significant inverse association between adiponectin at 6.9 years and FFM gain in boys (r=-0.27, p=0.02). CONCLUSIONS. The relationship between adiponectin and REE has yet to appear in young children. REE is not a significant predictor of future weight gain or adverse change in body composition and, although the period of follow-up was limited, adiponectin seems unlikely to confound such a relationship in healthy young children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Hosking
- Department of Endocrinology & Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth campus, UK
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Hosking J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Validation of foot-to-foot bioelectrical impedance analysis with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in the assessment of body composition in young children: the EarlyBird cohort. Br J Nutr 2007; 96:1163-8. [PMID: 17181893 DOI: 10.1017/bjn20061960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Foot-to-foot bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is simple and non-invasive, making it particularly suitable for use in children. There is insufficient evidence of the validity of foot-to-foot BIA compared with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) as the criterion method in healthy young children. Our objective was to assess the validity of foot-to-foot BIA against DEXA in a large cohort of healthy young children. Body composition was measured by foot-to-foot BIA and DEXA in 203 children (mean age 8·9 (sd0·3) years). Bland–Altman and simple linear regression analyses were used to determine agreement between methods. BIA overestimated fat-free mass by a mean of 2·4 % in boys and 5·7 % in girls, while fat mass was underestimated by 6·5 % in boys and 10·3 % in girls. The percentage fat recorded by BIA was, accordingly, also lower than by DEXA (boys 4·8 %; girls 12·8 %). In boys, however, there were correlations between the size of the difference between methods and the size of the measure under consideration such that in smaller boys fat-free mass was underestimated (r − 0·57;P < 0·001) while fat mass and percentage fat were overestimated (r0·74 for fat mass;r0·69 for percentage fat; bothP < 0·001) with the reverse in bigger boys. Mean differences between techniques were greater in the girls than in the boys but in boys only, the direction of the differences was dependent upon the size of the child. Therefore, BIA may be useful for large-scale studies but is not interchangeable with DEXA and should be interpreted with caution in individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Hosking
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth Campus, Plymouth, UK.
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Weedon MN, Clark VJ, Qian Y, Ben-Shlomo Y, Timpson N, Ebrahim S, Lawlor DA, Pembrey ME, Ring S, Wilkin TJ, Voss LD, Jeffery AN, Metcalf B, Ferrucci L, Corsi AM, Murray A, Melzer D, Knight B, Shields B, Smith GD, Hattersley AT, Di Rienzo A, Frayling TM. A common haplotype of the glucokinase gene alters fasting glucose and birth weight: association in six studies and population-genetics analyses. Am J Hum Genet 2006; 79:991-1001. [PMID: 17186458 PMCID: PMC1698701 DOI: 10.1086/509517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2006] [Accepted: 09/14/2006] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Fasting glucose is associated with future risk of type 2 diabetes and ischemic heart disease and is tightly regulated despite considerable variation in quantity, type, and timing of food intake. In pregnancy, maternal fasting glucose concentration is an important determinant of offspring birth weight. The key determinant of fasting glucose is the enzyme glucokinase (GCK). Rare mutations of GCK cause fasting hyperglycemia and alter birth weight. The extent to which common variation of GCK explains normal variation of fasting glucose and birth weight is not known. We aimed to comprehensively define the role of variation of GCK in determination of fasting glucose and birth weight, using a tagging SNP (tSNP) approach and studying 19,806 subjects from six population-based studies. Using 22 tSNPs, we showed that the variant rs1799884 is associated with fasting glucose at all ages in the normal population and exceeded genomewide levels of significance (P=10-9). rs3757840 was also highly significantly associated with fasting glucose (P=8x10-7), but haplotype analysis revealed that this is explained by linkage disequilibrium (r2=0.2) with rs1799884. A maternal A allele at rs1799884 was associated with a 32-g (95% confidence interval 11-53 g) increase in offspring birth weight (P=.002). Genetic variation influencing birth weight may have conferred a selective advantage in human populations. We performed extensive population-genetics analyses to look for evidence of recent positive natural selection on patterns of GCK variation. However, we found no strong signature of positive selection. In conclusion, a comprehensive analysis of common variation of the glucokinase gene shows that this is the first gene to be reproducibly associated with fasting glucose and fetal growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael N Weedon
- Institute of Biomedical and Clinical Science, Peninsula Medical School, Exeter, EX1 2LU, UK
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Jeffery AN, Metcalf BS, Hosking J, Murphy MJ, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Little evidence for early programming of weight and insulin resistance for contemporary children: EarlyBird Diabetes Study report 19. Pediatrics 2006; 118:1118-23. [PMID: 16951006 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2006-0740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to evaluate whether adaptive responses made to the uterine or very early infant environment are affecting the current metabolic health of young children in the United Kingdom. METHODS Participants were 300 healthy children and their parents from the EarlyBird Diabetes Study cohort. Children were recruited from randomly selected schools at 5 years of age. Retrospective measures were maternal prepregnancy weight (n = 230), maternal fasting glucose levels at 28 weeks of pregnancy (n = 27), birth weight, and infant weight at ages 3 and 6 weeks. Prospective measures were insulin resistance, height, weight, and percentage of body fat (sum of 5 skinfold measurements) at ages 5, 6, 7, and 8 years. RESULTS Maternal third-trimester fasting glucose levels were associated positively with birth weight but were not associated with either weight or insulin resistance for the same children at 8 years. Birth weight was unrelated to insulin resistance at 8 years. There were no relationships between weight change in the first weeks of life and weight, percentage of fat, or insulin resistance at 8 years. Longer breastfeeding correlated inversely, although weakly, with percentage of body fat for boys only. Current weight was correlated with insulin resistance at 8 years. CONCLUSIONS For these contemporary children, neither the gestational environment nor early postnatal growth predicted insulin resistance, which was best predicted by current weight. There was no evidence that predictive adaptive responses made by the fetus or infant affected the child's weight or insulin resistance later in childhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison N Jeffery
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth, United Kingdom.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND High birth weight predicts subsequent obesity, but paradoxically, a reduced risk of subsequent cardiovascular disease compared with low birth weight. This apparent paradox might be explained if high birth weight programmed a greater proportion of subsequent lean mass, which carries less cardiovascular risk than fat tissue. AIM The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that the direct correlation between birth weight and subsequent body mass index (BMI) represents an association between birth weight and lean tissue, and to assess the metabolic impact of this relationship. METHODS A total of 234 healthy prepubertal children (133 boys, 101 girls, mean age 5.9 yr +/- 0.3 standard deviation) were studied. Birth weights were obtained from maternity records. Lean mass was measured by bioelectrical impedance. Anthropometric measures included height, weight (BMI), waist circumference, and subcutaneous fat mass (FM). Insulin resistance was assessed by the homeostasis model method. Metabolic correlates of insulin resistance included total and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and sex-hormone-binding globulin. RESULTS Birth weight correlated significantly with lean mass in boys (r = 0.41, p < 0.001) and girls (r = 0.27, p < 0.01). Adjusting for BMI did not improve the correlation further. After adjustment for FM, lean mass correlated inversely with triglycerides in boys only (r = -0.41, p < 0.01). Birth weight correlated inversely with triglycerides in boys (r = -0.18, p < 0.05); after adjustment for lean mass, this correlation was not significant. INTERPRETATION In boys, the relationships between birth weight, triglycerides, and lean mass are consistent with the hypothesis. Overall, our findings provide limited evidence in support of the argument that higher birth weight predicts lower metabolic risk because it marks programming of more lean mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Murphy
- Division of Pathology and Neuroscience, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK.
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Wilkin TJ, Mallam KM, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Voss LD. Variation in physical activity lies with the child, not his environment: evidence for an ‘activitystat’ in young children (EarlyBird 16). Int J Obes (Lond) 2006; 30:1050-5. [PMID: 16801942 DOI: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE There is currently wide interest in the physical activity of children, but little understanding of its control. Here, we use accelerometers to test the hypothesis that habitual activity in young children is centrally, rather than environmentally, regulated. By central regulation we mean a classic biological feedback loop, with a set-point individual to the child, which controls his/her activity independently of external factors. DESIGN Non-intervention, observational and population-based, set in the home and at school. RESULTS Girls were systematically less active than boys, and both weekday/weekend day and year-on-year activities were correlated (r=0.43-0.56). A fivefold variation in timetabled PE explained less than 1% of the total variation in physical activity. The activity cost of transport to school was only 2% of total activity, but over 90% of it was recovered elsewhere in the day. The weekly activity recorded by children in Plymouth was the same (to within <0.3%) as that recorded independently in Glasgow, 800 km away. Total daily activity was unrelated to time reportedly spent watching TV. INTERPRETATION The correlations within groups and the similarities between them suggest that physical activity in children is under central biological regulation. There are implications both for public health planners and for the potentially novel signalling pathways involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Wilkin
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth, Devon, UK
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Abstract
The International Obesity TaskForce has published paediatric cutoffs from the age of 2 years for overweight and obesity, based on adult thresholds. We question their rationale. The adult cutoffs were based on known health risk; the children's were not. Data from the EarlyBird Study show that BMI category for overweight and obesity in young children are poor markers of insulin resistance and, by implication, of metabolic risk and diabetes. Moreover, BMI is known to track poorly from early childhood to adulthood. We know even less about the tracking of insulin resistance and other indices of metabolic risk from the earliest years. Until we understand more about which children acquire such risk factors, any such thresholds for overweight and obesity should be used with caution in the very young, as they may unnecessarily stigmatise the heavier child.
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Affiliation(s)
- L D Voss
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth, UK.
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE For a decade or more, poor nutrition during gestation, expressed as low weight at birth, was held to be the factor responsible for insulin resistance later in life. Birth weights, however, are rising and insulin-resistant states, such as diabetes, faster still. Alternative explanations are needed for insulin resistance in contemporary society. This review cites data from the EarlyBird study on the relationships of insulin resistance and metabolic disturbance in early childhood. DESIGN EarlyBird is a nonintervention prospective cohort study that asks the question 'Which children develop insulin resistance, and why?' It is unique in taking serial blood samples from a young age with which to monitor the behaviour of insulin resistance and its metabolic correlates, and in its comprehensive assessment of factors known or thought to influence insulin resistance SUBJECTS In all, 307 randomly selected healthy school children at school entry (mean age 4.9 y) and at 12 and 24 months later. MEASUREMENTS In the children: Birth weight and, at each time point height, weight, body mass index (BMI, kg/m(2)), skinfolds at five sites, circumferences, resting energy expenditure, physical activity, body composition, heart rate variability, diet, HOMA-IR and HOMA-ISC, blood pressure, full blood count, haemoglobin and haematocrit, HbA1C, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, uric acid, IGF-1, gonadotrophins and SHBG. In their parents: At baseline height, weight, BMI, waist circumference, HOMA-IR and HOMA-ISC, full blood count, haematocrit, HbA1C, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, calculated LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, uric acid, gonadotrophins and SHBG. RESULTS Four observations are reported here: (1) There are clear correlations in contemporary children between insulin resistance and weight at 5 y, but none with birth weight. (2) Females throughout life are intrinsically more insulin resistant than males. (3) The substantial variation of physical activity among young children is attributable to the child, and not to his environment. (4) There is dissociation in young children between fatness and insulin resistance. CONCLUSION There is much yet to be learned about the development of obesity and insulin resistance in children. The notions of overnutrition and underactivity alone are too simplistic.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Wilkin
- The EarlyBird Research Centre, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth, UK.
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Affiliation(s)
- A N Jeffery
- Peninsula Medical School, University Medicine, Derriford Hospital, Plymouth PL6 8DH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terence J Wilkin
- Department of Endocrinology & Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School (Plymouth campus), Level 7, Derriford Hospital, Plymouth PL6 8DH, UK.
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Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Metcalf BS, Wilkin TJ. The impact of pregnancy weight and glucose on the metabolic health of mother and child in the south west of the UK. Midwifery 2004; 20:281-9. [PMID: 15337284 DOI: 10.1016/j.midw.2004.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2003] [Revised: 05/13/2003] [Accepted: 01/08/2004] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE to explore relationships between maternal pre-pregnancy weight, third trimester glucose, baby birth weight, weight and metabolic health of the mother and child 5 years after birth. DESIGN an observational study set within a non-intervention, longitudinal cohort study looking at insulin resistance in children. SETTING a teaching hospital in the south west of the United Kingdom. PARTICIPANTS 300 mothers and their five-year-old children from randomly selected Plymouth schools, stratified according to socioeconomic status. MEASUREMENTS were obtained from obstetric records maternal pre-pregnant weight, random and fasting third trimester blood glucose, baby birth weight. Five years later the following measurements were made of the mother and child: height, weight, glucose and insulin resistance. FINDINGS five years after the pregnancy, 33% of the mothers were overweight, with an additional 19% obese. In the children 13% of boys were overweight (4% obese), and in the girls, 26% were overweight (5% obese). In the five-year-old children, weight (r=0.28, p<0.001) but not birth weight (r=0.03, p=0.573), correlated with insulin resistance. Maternal pre-pregnant weight was related to both random and fasting third trimester glucose, and to insulin resistance 5 years later. Third trimester fasting glucose, even within a normal range, was a better predictor than random glucose of the baby's birth weight (r=0.39, p=0.044) and the mother's future insulin resistance (r=0.67, p<0.001). No maternal measures predicted insulin resistance in the child at 5 years. CONCLUSIONS maternal weight had an important influence on the gestational environment, and predicted insulin resistance 5 years later. Fasting glucose, even within the reference range, was a better predictor than random glucose of the baby's birth weight and the mother's future insulin resistance. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE these concern the importance of pre-conception weight management, and support replacement of routine random glucose sampling during the third trimester with an earlier, fasting measurement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terence J Wilkin
- Department of Endocrinology & Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School (Plymouth campus), Level 7, Derriford Hospital, Plymouth PL6 8DH, UK.
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Abstract
Short stature, per se, is clearly not a disease, but is commonly perceived to be associated with social and psychological disadvantage. The assumption, widely held by pediatricians that short children are likely to be significantly affected by their stature, has been founded largely on older, poorly designed clinic-based studies and laboratory investigations of beliefs about the association between stature and individual characteristics. In contrast, data from more recent and better designed clinic- and community-based studies show that, in terms of psychosocial functioning, individuals with short stature are largely indistinguishable from their peers, whether in childhood, adolescence or adulthood. Parents and children alike should be reassured by these findings. In the absence of clear pathology, physical or psychological, GH therapy for the short but otherwise normal child raises ethical concerns about so-called 'cosmetic endocrinology'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda D Voss
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth, UK.
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Kirkby J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, O'Riordan CF, Perkins J, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Sex differences in resting energy expenditure and their relation to insulin resistance in children (EarlyBird 13). Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 80:430-5. [PMID: 15277166 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/80.2.430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Insulin resistance is believed to be the process underlying type 2 diabetes and premature cardiovascular disease. We have established that a relation between body mass and insulin resistance calculated by homeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR) exists by 5 y of age in contemporary UK children. Resting energy expenditure (REE) is variable among individuals and is one of many factors controlling body mass. OBJECTIVE The objective was to investigate the relations between REE, body mass, and HOMA-IR in young children. DESIGN EarlyBird is a nonintervention prospective cohort study of 307 healthy 5-y-olds that asks the question: Which children develop insulin resistance and why? REE by indirect calorimetry and HOMA-IR were measured in addition to total body mass, fat-free mass (FFM) by bioimpedance, body mass index (BMI; in kg/m(2)), and skinfold thickness when the mean age of the cohort was 5.9 +/- 0.2 y. RESULTS Whereas the BMI of the boys was lower than that of the girls (x +/- SD: boys, 15.9 +/- 1.9; girls, 16.5 +/- 1.9; P = 0.03), their REE was higher by 6% (x +/- SD: 4724 +/- 615 compared with 4469 +/- 531 kJ/d; P = 0.002). This difference persisted after adjustment for FFM and other anthropometric variables (P = 0.04). In boys, there was a weak, although significant, inverse correlation between REE and HOMA-IR, independent of fat mass and FFM (boys: r = -0.21, P = 0.03; girls: r = 0.12, P = 0.34). CONCLUSION There is a sex difference in REE at 6 y of age that cannot be explained by body composition. The difference appears to be intrinsic, and its contribution to sex differences in adiposity and HOMA-IR in children merits further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jo Kirkby
- Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth, United Kingdom
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Voss LD, Jeffery AN, Snaith R, Perkins J. Bleeding ethics. Arch Dis Child 2004; 89:590. [PMID: 15155414 PMCID: PMC1719958 DOI: 10.1136/adc.2003.045427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Mitchell SMS, Hattersley AT, Knight B, Turner T, Metcalf BS, Voss LD, Davies D, McCarthy A, Wilkin TJ, Smith GD, Ben-Shlomo Y, Frayling TM. Lack of support for a role of the insulin gene variable number of tandem repeats minisatellite (INS-VNTR) locus in fetal growth or type 2 diabetes-related intermediate traits in United Kingdom populations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89:310-7. [PMID: 14715866 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2003-030605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The insulin gene variable number of tandem repeats minisatellite (INS-VNTR) class III allele is associated with altered fetal growth, type 2 diabetes risk (especially when paternally inherited), and insulin and IGF2 gene expression. Further studies are needed to establish the role of the INS-VNTR in fetal growth and assess whether its effects depend on the parent of origin. We analyzed the INS-VNTR-linked -23 Hph1 polymorphism in 2283 subjects, comprising 1184 children and 1099 parents. There were no differences (P < 0.05) in birth weight between offspring of the three genotypes: III/III (n = 108) vs. I/I (n = 558), effect size, -8 g (P = 0.87); and I/III (n = 464) vs. I/I, effect size, -19 g (P = 0.54). We observed no differences in head circumference [III/III (n = 95) vs. I/I (n = 470), effect size, -0.14 cm; P = 0.31] or birth length. No differences were observed when stratifying by postnatal growth realignments [nonchangers III/III (n = 37) vs. I/I (n = 170), effect size, -43 g; P = 1.00] or by parent of origin of the class III allele (presence of paternal III allele effect size, -15 g; P = 0.74). INS-VNTR was nominally associated (P < 0.05) with body mass index and insulin resistance, but not with beta-cell function, in young adults. In the largest study to date, we found a lack of support for a role for INS-VNTR in fetal growth and nominal association with type 2 diabetes-related intermediate traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon M S Mitchell
- Department of Diabetes and Vascular Medicine, Peninsula Medical School, Exeter, United Kingdom EX2 5AX
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Murphy MJ, Metcalf BS, Voss LD, Jeffery AN, Kirkby J, Mallam KM, Wilkin TJ. Girls at five are intrinsically more insulin resistant than boys: The Programming Hypotheses Revisited--The EarlyBird Study (EarlyBird 6). Pediatrics 2004; 113:82-6. [PMID: 14702453 DOI: 10.1542/peds.113.1.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recent studies of type 2 diabetes in young populations consistently show a predominance of affected girls over boys. Girls are more insulin resistant than boys. We aimed in the present report to establish how much of the sex difference in insulin resistance is intrinsic. METHODS EarlyBird is a community-based, nonintervention cohort study of 307 healthy children from school entry at age 5 years. It asks the question: which children are insulin resistant and why? Anthropometric measures, physical activity, resting energy expenditure, and insulin resistance and its metabolic correlates were measured. RESULTS At 5 years, insulin resistance was 35% higher in girls than in boys. Girls carried 26% more subcutaneous fat despite similar body weights. However, after correcting for anthropometric variables and physical activity, girls remained 33% more insulin resistant than boys. Triglycerides were significantly higher in girls, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and sex hormone-binding globulin were significantly lower. CONCLUSIONS Sex-linked genes may account for the intrinsic sex difference observed. These genes may have an important impact on the development of insulin resistance and the metabolic syndrome and may help to explain the female preponderance of type 2 diabetes in children. Their identification may also help in understanding the pathogenesis of insulin resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Murphy
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pathology, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
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Voss LD, Kirkby J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, O'Riordan C, Murphy MJ, Wilkin TJ. Preventable factors in childhood that lead to insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus and the metabolic syndrome: the EarlyBird diabetes study 1. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2003; 16:1211-24. [PMID: 14714742 DOI: 10.1515/jpem.2003.16.9.1211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
For a decade or more, poor nutrition during gestation, expressed as low weight at birth, was held to be the factor responsible for insulin resistance later in life. Birth weights, however, are rising and insulin resistant states, such as diabetes mellitus, faster still. Alternative explanations are needed to explain insulin resistance in contemporary industrialised populations. EarlyBird is a non-intervention prospective cohort study that asks the question 'Which children develop insulin resistance, and why?' It is unique in taking serial blood samples from a young age with which to monitor the behaviour of insulin resistance and its metabolic correlates. This, the baseline report of the EarlyBird Study, describes the rationale, design and methodology of the study, and the profile of the population at entry. It situates the anthropometric, physical activity and dietary status of the EarlyBird children and provides a detailed metabolic profile of the British 5 year-old in the year 2000.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda D Voss
- The EarlyBird Research Centre, Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth, UK.
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Mallam KM, Metcalf BS, Kirkby J, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Contribution of timetabled physical education to total physical activity in primary school children: cross sectional study. BMJ 2003; 327:592-3. [PMID: 12969924 PMCID: PMC194084 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.327.7415.592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katie M Mallam
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Peninsula Medical School, Derriford Hospital, Plymouth PL6 8DH
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Wilkin TJ, Metcalf BS, Murphy MJ, Kirkby J, Jeffery AN, Voss LD. The relative contributions of birth weight, weight change, and current weight to insulin resistance in contemporary 5-year-olds: the EarlyBird Study. Diabetes 2002; 51:3468-72. [PMID: 12453901 DOI: 10.2337/diabetes.51.12.3468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
For more than a decade, the fetal programming hypothesis has taught that insulin resistance and its associated metabolic disturbances result from poor gestational environment, for which low birth weight is a surrogate. Low birth weight, however, is now uncommon in industrialized societies. We have investigated the relevance of birth weight, "catch-up" weight, and current weight to insulin resistance in 300 contemporary British children. Insulin resistance at 5 years was not related to birth weight but was correlated with current weight and weight catch-up in both sexes, more strongly so in girls (r = 0.33, P < 0.001 vs. r = 0.18, P = 0.03), who were intrinsically more insulin-resistant than boys. Weight change merely co-correlated with current weight (r = 0.67, P < 0.01 in both sexes) and did not improve on the prediction of insulin resistance. Most important, insulin resistance at 5 years was the same in children of heavier birth weight, whose weight SD score had not changed, as in those of lighter birth weight, matched for current weight, who had experienced so-called catch-up (boys 0.89 and 0.88 units, respectively, P = 0.96; girls 1.26 and 1.13 units, P = 0.41). Insulin resistance in contemporary children seems to be a function of excess current weight rather than of low birth weight or change in weight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terence J Wilkin
- Department of Medicine, The Peninsula Medical School, Plymouth Campus, U.K. Department Clinical Chemistry, Derriford Hospital, Plymouth PL6 8DH, U.K.
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Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the technical performance of the CSA accelerometer-based activity monitor. METHODS Twenty-three CSA monitors were subjected to intra- and inter-instrument variability tests by controlled trials using a motorized turntable. The CSA monitor measures change in acceleration, and precision was tested by producing sinusoidal variations in speed around two fixed baseline speeds (fast and medium). The angle of the monitor to the line of force along the radius of the turntable was varied using tilted blocks. Three sets of tests were carried out. 1. Intra-instrument variability: seven monitors were tested three times in each of the four quadrants. 2. All 23 monitors were used for inter-instrument tests. 3. The effects of tilt at 15 degrees, 30 degrees, and 45 degrees were carried out on six monitors. RESULTS Intra-instrument coefficients of variation (CV) never exceeded 2% for fast or medium speed and achieved "between run" intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) of 0.92 and 0.84 respectively. There were no significant differences between the monitors in terms of repeatability (fast: = 0.97, medium: = 0.77). Although there were significant differences between monitors in terms of mean score, inter-instrument variability did not exceed 5% at either speed. Inter-batch ICCs ranged from 0.87 to 0.98 for fast and from 0.71 to 0.99 for medium. The angle test results corresponded closely to those predicted theoretically, with a loss in mean score of only 6% when the monitor was tilted from 0 degrees to 15 degrees. CONCLUSION The CSA monitor provides a precise tool for measuring changes in acceleration in laboratory settings. Technically, the device performs well, and is likely to prove a useful tool in the assessment of physical activity in children and adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad S Metcalf
- University Medicine Level 7, Derriford Hospital, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL6 8DH, UK.
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Abstract
The advent of biosynthetic growth hormone (GH) has been accompanied by a transformation in the clinical management of youths with short stature. An important--if not always explicitly stated--goal of endocrine therapies is an improvement in the psychological adaptation of individuals with short stature. Negative stereotypes regarding short stature constitute a potential source of psychosocial stress for the affected child and, in turn, the entire family. Nevertheless, studies have demonstrated that the psychological adaptation of individuals who are shorter than average is largely indistinguishable from others, whether in childhood, adolescence or adulthood. "Short stature" as an isolated physical characteristic appears to hold little value as a predictor of the individual's psychological adaptation or quality of life. In order to avoid the unwarranted medicalizing of healthy short stature, clinicians would be well advised to incorporate factors beyond auxology in the decision-making algorithm when selecting and preparing patients for possible growth-promoting therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E Sandberg
- Pediatric Psychiatry and Physiology, The Children's Hospital of Buffalo, 219 Bryant Street, Buffalo, NY 14222, USA
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Abstract
Accelerometers revealed a fivefold variation in physical activity among healthy 5 year old children. They singled out habitually inactive children, most of them girls, who did little, whether at school or over the weekend. Accelerometers are of potential value in identifying, from an early age, children at risk of becoming obese.
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Affiliation(s)
- B S Metcalf
- University Medicine, Derriford Hospital, Plymouth, UK
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