Zika-Induced Male Infertility in Mice Is Potentially Reversible and Preventable by Deoxyribonucleic Acid Immunization

Background

Zika virus (ZIKV) infection has been associated with prolonged viral excretion in human semen and causes testicular atrophy and infertility in 10-week-old immunodeficient mice.

Methods

Male IFNAR-/- mice, knockout for type I interferon receptor, were immunized with GLS-5700, a deoxyribonucleic acid-based vaccine, before a subcutaneous ZIKV challenge with 6 × 105 plaque-forming units at 13 weeks of age. On day 28 postinfection, testes and epididymides were collected in some mice for histological and functional analyses, whereas others were mated with naive female wild-type C57BL/6J.

Results

Although all mice challenged with ZIKV developed viremia, most of them were asymptomatic, showed no weight loss, and survived infection. On day 28 postinfection, none of the unvaccinated, infected mice (9 of 9) exhibited abnormal spermatozoa counts or motility. However, 33% (3 of 9) and 36% (4 of 11) of mated males from this group were infertile, from 2 independent studies. Contrarily, males from the noninfected and the vaccinated, infected groups were all fertile. On days 75 and 207 postinfection, partial recovery of fertility was observed in 66% (2 of 3) of the previously infertile males.

Conclusions

This study reports the effects of ZIKV infection on male fertility in a sublethal, immunodeficient mouse model and the efficacy of GLS-5700 vaccination in preventing male infertility.

Daylily protein constituents of the pollen and stigma a proteomics approach

This study was aimed at the identification and quantification of the protein components of the pollen grains in parallel with the distal stigmatic tissue of tetraploid cultivars. Proteomes were analyzed using iTRAQ 4plex labeling, peptides separation by online RP-nano-LC and analysis by ESI-MS/MS. Protein identification and quantification were made using the Asparagales database as a reference. A total of 524,037 MS/MS spectra were produced from pollen and stigma samples. From these, a total of 8368 peptides wereidentified corresponding to 994 unique peptides and 432 protein groups. Among them, 128 differentially expressed proteins were retained for further analysis. In absence of the daylily genome availability, we exploited numerous databases and bioinformatics resources to exploring the putative biological functions of these proteins. The profile of differentially expressed proteins suggests an important representation of functions associated to the signalling and response against endogenous and environmental stresses, including several enzymes implicated in the biosynthesis of antibiotics. The abundance in stigma of several structural proteins of the ribosomal sub-units as well as of the core histones suggest that the translation processes and the regulation of gene expression in stigma is a more active mechanism than in pollen. In addition, pollen prioritizes the synthesis of fructose and glucose as opposed to sucrose in stigma as a source of energy. Finally, the modulated proteins in Hemerocallis point to several pathways that give potential clues concerning the molecular mechanisms underlying the functions of the pollen and the stigmatic fluid in daylily reproduction.

The immobilization of human spermatozoa by STAT3 inhibitory compound V results from an excessive intracellular amount of reactive oxygen species

We previously showed that Stattic V (Stat3 inhibitory compound V) reduces human sperm motility and cellular ATP levels, increases intracellular Ca(2+) concentration, and promotes mitochondrial membrane depolarization resulting in increased levels of extracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). As these alterations in cellular function are highly similar to what is observed in a cell undergoing apoptosis, our goal was to determine if the immobilizing effect of Stattic V on spermatozoa results from apoptosis or was because of an oxidative stress. To address this question, spermatozoa were incubated with Stattic V in combination with a caspase inhibitor, a proteasome inhibitor or a cell permeant ROS scavenger. Following incubation in different conditions, sperm motility was evaluated by CASA, acrosomal integrity by FITC conjugated Pisum sativum agglutinin (PSA-FITC) labeling, intracellular pH, and mitochondrial superoxide production by flow cytometry using BCECF and MitoSoxRed dye, respectively. Levels of reduced thiols were assessed by iodoacetamidofluorescein staining on total and on sperm surface proteins, and protein tyrosine phosphorylation was evaluated by western blot. The loss in sperm motility induced by Stattic V was associated with a slight intracellular acidification and an important increase in intracellular superoxide anion. Unlike caspase and proteasome inhibitors, low molecular weight thiols, such as N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), prevented Stattic V-induced sperm immobilization and increase responsiveness to acrosome reaction inducers. NAC also efficiently prevented the production of superoxide anion, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, intracellular acidification and the oxidation of protein free thiols caused by Stattic V. These results show that the deleterious effects of Stattic V on sperm functions are caused directly or indirectly by excessive intracellular ROS production without causing sperm apoptosis or necrosis.

Urinary PSA: a potential useful marker when serum PSA is between 2.5 ng/mL and 10 ng/mL

INTRODUCTION

Our objective was to evaluate the usefulness of urinary prostate specific antigen (PSA) in the differential diagnosis of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostate cancer.

METHODS

We undertook a prospective study and obtained informed consent from 170 men. They provided blood samples to measure serum PSA and 50 mL of first-voided urine to measure urinary PSA. Seventy-seven men were diagnosed with BPH; 42 patients had newly diagnosed prostate cancer; and 51 were selected as age-matched control subjects. Data were analyzed using Wilcoxon signed rank tests, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves and logistic regression.

RESULTS

Prostate volume was 35 cm(3) and 45 cm(3) (p < 0.05), serum PSA was 9.7 ng/mL and 4.5 ng/mL (p < 0.001) and PSA density was 0.28 and 0.11 (p < 0.01) for prostate cancer and BPH patients, respectively. Overall, urinary PSA was not significantly different, but PSA ratio (urinary:serum) was significantly different at 6.7 and 30.6 (p < 0.001) for prostate cancer and BPH patients, respectively. A subgroup with serum PSA between 2.5 ng/mL and 10.0 ng/mL was selected and urinary PSA was significant: 52.6 ng/mL (n = 29) and 123.2 ng/mL (n = 35) (p < 0.05) for prostate cancer and BPH patients, respectively. PSA ratios were also significant (p = 0.007). ROC curves identified a cutoff for urinary PSA at > 150 ng/mL, with a sensitivity of 92.5%. When comparing prostate cancer patients with age-matched control subjects, serum PSA, urinary PSA and PSA ratio were different (p = 0.004).

CONCLUSION

Our study supports urinary PSA as a useful marker in the differential diagnosis of prostate cancer and BPH, especially when serum PSA is between 2.5 ng/mL and 10 ng/mL. Low urinary PSA and PSA ratios point toward prostate cancer. A urinary PSA threshold of > 150 ng/mL may be used to decrease the number of prostatic biopsies.

Early detection of prostate cancer local recurrence by urinary prostate-specific antigen

PURPOSE

We assessed the role of urinary prostate-specific antigen (uPSA) in the follow-up of prostate cancer after retropubic radical prostatectomy (RRP) for the early detection of local recurrences.

METHODS

We recruited 50 patients previously treated for prostate cancer with RRP and who had not experienced a prostate-specific antigen (PSA) recurrence within their first postoperative year into a cross-sectional laboratory assessment and prospective 6-year longitudinal follow-up study. We defined biochemical failure as a serum PSA (sPSA) of 0.3 μg/L or greater. Patients provided blood samples and a 50-mL sample of first-voided urine. We performed Wilcoxon rank-sum and Fisher exact tests for statistical analysis.

RESULTS

The median sPSA was 0.13 μg/L. The median uPSA was 0.8 μg/L, and was not significantly different when comparing Gleason scores or pathological stages. Of the 50 patients, 27 initially had a nondetectable sPSA but a detectable uPSA, and 11 patients experienced sPSA failure after 6 years. Six patients had detectable sPSA and uPSA initially. Fifteen patients were negative for both sPSA and uPSA, and 13 remained sPSA-free after 6 years. The odds ratio (OR) of having sPSA failure given a positive uPSA test was 4.5 if sPSA was undetectable, but was reduced to 2.6 if sPSA was detectable. The pooled Mantel-Haenszel OR of 4.2 suggested that a detectable uPSA quadrupled the risk of recurrence, independent of whether sPSA was elevated or not. The sensitivity of uPSA for detecting future sPSA recurrences was 81% and specificity was 45%.

CONCLUSION

Urinary PSA could contribute to an early detection of local recurrences of prostate cancer after a radical prostatectomy.

Functional testosterone: biochemical assessment of hypogonadism in men--report from a multidisciplinary workshop hosted by the Ontario Society of Clinical Chemists

OBJECTIVES

In 2004, the Ontario Society of Clinical Chemists (OSCC) held an invitational multidisciplinary workshop to establish the most reliable, cost-effective approach to the biochemical assessment of hypogonadism in men.

METHODS

Specialists across Canada in clinical biochemistry, endocrinology, family medicine and urology were invited to participate in this workshop which included individual presentations and a consensus component addressing two challenge statements: 1) 'Determinations for total testosterone (TT) are equivalent to those for bioavailable testosterone (BAT) or calculated BAT (cBAT) or free testosterone (FT) (by analogue radioimmunoassay or equilibrium dialysis) or calculated FT (cFT)'; 2) 'There is no good evidence that borderline low testosterone concentrations in men should be treated'. The main outcomes were to identify what agreement exists in Canada, what issues were still controversial, and what research remains to be addressed.

RESULTS

Six recommendations based on expert opinion addressed these main themes: investigate with morning total testosterone (TT) followed by repetition and reflexive testing of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) if testosterone is 8-15 nmol/L with automatic calculation of cBAT; discontinue the use of analogue free testosterone assays; and definitive methods and standards must be available to ensure standardized results.

CONCLUSIONS

Total testosterone is a reliable marker for the initial investigation of men presenting with symptoms of hypogonadism; cBAT is a reasonable follow-up test in patients with equivocal biochemical or consistent symptomatic findings.

Can we get away from serum total testosterone in the diagnosis of andropause?

Because of its multifactorial origin, andropause is usually considered as a clinical entity whose diagnosis is difficult. Practitioners sometimes distrust the symptoms and the diagnostic tools. The clinical manifestations are however the reflection of a lack of anabolism commonly associated with a decreased production of testosterone which is translated in decreased serum values of total testosterone, bioavailable testosterone and calculated values of testosterone. Because of the similarity between the age of the control group and of andropausal men in this study, the Sex Hormone Binding Globulin dogma postulating a modest increase of the glycoprotein with age is evacuated from the argument and therefore it is proposed to rely on total testosterone as a first line assay to support the diagnosis of andropause; however the presence of confounding factors to the diagnosis sometimes require an easy access to calculated values of free or bioavailable testosterone.

Thermoreversible gel formulation containing sodium lauryl sulfate as a potential contraceptive device

The contraceptive properties of a gel formulation containing sodium lauryl sulfate were investigated in both in vitro and in vivo models. Results showed that sodium lauryl sulfate inhibited, in a concentration-dependent manner, the activity of sheep testicular hyaluronidase. Sodium lauryl sulfate also completely inhibited human sperm motility as evaluated by the 30-sec Sander-Cramer test. The acid-buffering capacity of gel formulations containing sodium lauryl sulfate increased with the molarity of the citrate buffers used for their preparations. Furthermore, experiments in which semen was mixed with undiluted gel formulations in different proportions confirmed their physiologically relevant buffering capacity. Intravaginal application of the gel formulation containing sodium lauryl sulfate to rabbits before their artificial insemination with freshly ejaculated semen completely prevented egg fertilization. The gel formulation containing sodium lauryl sulfate was fully compatible with nonlubricated latex condoms. Taken together, these results suggest that the gel formulation containing sodium lauryl sulfate could represent a potential candidate for use as a topical vaginal spermicidal formulation to provide fertility control in women.

Catabolic/anabolic balance and muscle wasting in patients with COPD

BACKGROUND

The mechanisms leading to muscle wasting in patients with COPD are still uncertain. This study was undertaken to evaluate the relationships among circulating levels of catabolic factors (ie, interleukin [IL]-6 and cortisol), anabolic factors (ie, bioavailable testosterone [Tbio], dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate [DHEAS], and insulin-like growth factor [IGF]-I), and mid-thigh muscle cross-sectional area (MTCSA) in patients with COPD.

METHODS

Serum levels of the above factors were measured in 45 men with COPD (mean [+/- SEM] FEV(1), 43 +/- 3% predicted; mean age, 67 +/- 1 years) and 16 sedentary healthy men of similar age. MTCSA was quantified using CT scanning. Patients with COPD were subdivided into two groups according to the MTCSA (< 70 or >or= 70 cm(2)).

RESULTS

There was a greater prevalence of hypogonadism (ie, Tbio, < 2 nmol/L) in patients with COPD compared to control subjects (22% vs 0%, respectively). Patients with an MTCSA of < 70 cm(2) had significantly reduced levels of DHEAS compared to those in healthy subjects (p < 0.01). IL-6 levels were significantly higher in both subgroups of COPD patients compared to those in control subjects (p < 0.005). The cortisol/DHEAS, IL-6/DHEAS, IL-6/Tbio, and IL-6/IGF-I ratios were significantly greater in COPD patients with an MTCSA of < 70 cm(2) compared to those in control subjects (p < 0.05). The cortisol/DHEAS and IL-6/DHEAS ratios were also significantly greater in COPD patients with an MTCSA of < 70 cm(2) than in COPD patients with an MTCSA of >or= 70 cm(2) (p < 0.05). In a stepwise multiple regression analysis, the IL-6/DHEAS ratio explained 20% of the variance in MTCSA (p < 0.005).

CONCLUSION

Catabolic/anabolic disturbances were found in COPD patients leading to a shift toward catabolism and possibly to the development of peripheral muscle wasting.

Correlation between L-Carnitine and alpha-1, 4-glucosidase activity in the semen of normal, infertile and vasectomized men

The semen content of L-carnitine and of alpha 1, 4-glucosidase has been measured in subjects consulting for evaluation of their fertility. A close correlation (r=0.684) was found between both parameters over the range of azoospermia to normal zoospermia. A significant number of patients with oligo or azoospermia displayed normal values of L-carnitine and of alpha-1, 4-glucosidase while approximately 50% showed levels in the low spectrum of vasectomized men. On the basis of these findings, an obstructive pathology at epididymal or vas deferens level was established by vasography and/or bilateral scrotal exploration in 9 patients with azoospermia. These 2 epididymal markers might thus be useful in the hands of the practicing andrologist who has to determine precisely the site of a dysfunction in the reproductive system which leads to infertility.

The major androgen-dependent protease in dog prostate belongs to the kallikrein family: confirmation by partial amino acid sequencing

Canine prostate fluids and seminal plasma contain a major androgen-dependent protein which was identified as a proteolytic enzyme exhibiting an Arg-esterase activity. This protease, as characterized, is shown to be present as a two-chain structure held together by at least one disulfide bridge and composed of approximately 220 amino acids. Amino acid sequence determination of both chains has revealed a clear homology to other known amino acid sequences of serine proteases. Furthermore, the comparison of the presented 58 amino acids of the Arg-esterase with the other sequences revealed a very strong homology (larger than 50%) to members of the kallikrein family. The two chain structure could thus result from autolysis of a single chain enzyme in the 'kallikrein autolysis loop'. Amino acid composition of the canine prostatic enzyme suggests that it is related, but not identical, to pancreatic canine kallikrein.

High concentrations of the macrophage migration inhibitory factor in human seminal plasma and prostatic tissues

During purification procedures to isolate kallikrein hK2 from human seminal plasma, kallikrein hK2 was found to be associated with another protein after several chromatographic steps. This study was conducted to identify the hK2 companion protein and characterize its properties and distribution. The protein was identified as macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) by its NH2-terminal amino acid sequence. It had an enzymatic activity identical to that of recombinant MIF. Its concentration varied between 1 and 10 micrograms/mL in various seminal plasma. By immunohistochemical analysis, MIF was found to be localized mainly in the epithelial cells of normal and cancerous prostates. Since MIF is a well-known proinflammatory mediator, these results suggest that it may have important functions in both human reproduction and prostatic physiology.

Simple purification procedure for human prostatic kallikrein hK2 in its active form

Kallikrein hK2 is a new potential marker of prostate cancer. It is the last member of the human kallikrein gene family to be isolated. We propose a simple purification procedure permitting us to obtain the active form of hK2 starting from human seminal plasma and using commonly available chromatography matrices. In contrast to recently published papers, this procedure is carried out without any immunoaffinity chromatography step and without the need for any antibody to follow the purification. Furthermore, it does not require any recombinant DNA technology nor sophisticated instruments.

Assessment of the trypsin-like human prostatic kallikrein, also known as hK2, in the seminal plasma of infertile men: respective contributions of an ELISA procedure and of Western blotting

Human seminal plasma (SP) is a unique source of kallikreins. Prostate-specific antigen (hK3), which is a chymotrypsin-like human prostatic kallikrein (CHPK), and its cousin protein (hK2), which is recognized as a trypsin-like human prostatic kallikrein (THPK), have been assessed in infertility disorders to test the hypothesis that oligoasthenoteratozoospermia (OAT) is associated with an abnormal prostatic function. Monoclonal antibodies specific for THPK (hK2) were produced by Immunova, Canada, and used to develop a new enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay procedure and to perform Western blot analyses in SP. The immunoradiometric assay from Hybritech Inc., San Diego, Calif., was selected for CHPK (hK3) measurements in SP. Determinations of the THPK and of CHPK contents in SP from four groups of subjects were performed after validation of the assays. The concentration of both kallikreins was similar in three groups of infertile men, and no statistical difference from the control group was recorded. Western blot analysis confirmed the existence of different molecular forms of both kallikreins in SP. Generally, these molecular forms were not affected by infertility disorders except when obstructive azoospermia led to the exclusion of seminal vesicles, which are the sources of protein C inhibitor (PCI). No THPK-PCI complex was observed because THPK, unlike CHPK, is bound mainly to PCI within a few minutes after ejaculation. These data suggest that measurements of kallikreins in the SP of infertile men are much less useful than evaluation of their different molecular forms. Specifically, the absence of THPK-PCI appears to be a reliable feature of obstructive azoospermia, and this test should be routinely practiced in andrology laboratories.

Contamination of purified prostate-specific antigen preparations by kallikrein hK2

This paper ascertained the contamination by hK2 of two types of PSA preparation, that of Sensabaugh and Blake (J. Urol., 144: 1523, 1990) and that of Deperthes et al (J. Androl., 17: 659, 1996). In the first procedure, the free forms of hK2 co-migrated with PSA during the CM-Sephadex and the Sephacryl S-200 steps. By contrast, in the second procedure a very high proportion of hK2 was separated from PSA. In two different Sensabaugh and Blake procedures, the hK2 contamination per microg. of PSA was found to be respectively 0.3 and 1.0 ng. We conclude that hK2 is a quantitatively minor contaminant of some PSA preparations. That contamination is probably of little consequence for PSA standardization but it could lead to erroneous conclusions in enzymatic studies of PSA.

Abundant cysteine-rich protein-1 is localized in the stromal compartment of the human prostate

The cysteine-rich protein-1 (CRP1) is one of the major proteins of the human prostate. Because of the suspected importance of that protein in cell proliferation and differentiation, its expression was investigated in the prostate, prostatic cancer cells, and other organs of the body. At the mRNA level, the highest concentrations of CRP1 were found in the prostate and the colon followed by the brain and the testis. It was virtually absent from the spleen, liver, heart, and kidney. Prostatic cancer cells PC-3, DU-145, and LNCaP also expressed CRP1 mRNA but virtually no protein. CRP1 protein localization in tissues was determined by immunohistochemical analysis using polyclonal antibodies developed against recombinant CRP1 protein. Strong positive cytoplasmic immunoreactions were observed only in the stromal compartment of the prostate and of other smooth muscle-rich tissues without significant staining in any secretory epithelium. These results, along with previously reported data of colocalization of CRP1 with stress fibers and adhesion plaques, suggest that the main function of CRP1 may be structural.

Serpin-derived peptide substrates for investigating the substrate specificity of human tissue kallikreins hK1 and hK2

The third human tissue kallikrein to be identified, hK2, could be an alternate or complementary marker to kallikrein hK3 (prostate-specific antigen) for prostate diseases. Most of the hK2 in seminal plasma forms an inactive complex with protein C inhibitor (PCI), a serpin secreted by seminal vesicles. As serpin inhibitors behave as suicide substrates that are cleaved early in the interaction with their target enzyme, and kallikreins have different sensitivities to serpin inhibitors, we prepared a series of substrates with intramolecularly quenched fluorescence based on the sequences of the serpin reactive loops. They were used to compare the substrate specificities of hK1 and hK2, which both have trypsin-like specificity, and thus differ from chymotrypsin-like hK3. The serpin-derived peptides behaved as kallikrein substrates whose sensitivities reflected the specificity of the parent inhibitory proteins. Substrates derived from PCI were the most sensitive for both hK1 and hK2 with specificity constants of about 10(7) M-1. s-1. Those derived from antithrombin III and alpha2-antiplasmin were more specific for hK2 while a kallistatin-derived substrate was specifically cleaved by hK1. hK1 and hK2 substrates of greater specificity were obtained using chimeric peptides based on the sequence of serpin reactive loops. The main difference between specificities of hK1 and hK2 arise because hK2 can accommodate positively charged as well as small residues at P2 and requires an arginyl residue at P1. Thus, unlike hK1, hK2 does not cleave kininogen-derived substrates overlapping the region of N-terminal insertion of bradykinin in human kininogens.

Human kallikrein hK2 has low kininogenase activity while prostate-specific antigen (hK3) has none

In the present paper, we determined the kinin-releasing activity of human prostatic kallikrein hK2 and compared it to one of the kallikreins hK1 and prostate specific antigen (hK3). Kinin-like substances active on the rabbit jugular vein were progressively produced when nanomolar concentrations of hK2 were incubated with heated plasma. However in these experiments, hK1 appeared much more potent than hK2 while hK3 was totally inactive. When hK2 was incubated with purified high molecular weight kininogen, several peptides were generated as shown by the analysis on C18 reverse-phase HPLC. Kinin activity was localized exclusively in a small peak having an elution time identical to that of bradykinin while the only important peak obtained with hK1 corresponded to Lys-bradykinin. Finally, the rate of kinin production of hK2 was found to be more than a thousandfold lower than that of hK1. These experiments show that kallikreins hK2 has only a low kininogenase activity. However, it is not excluded that some of the peptides produced by hK2 action could have other types of biological activity.

Prostatic kallikrein hK2, but not prostate-specific antigen (hK3), activates single-chain urokinase-type plasminogen activator

Our work was undertaken to compare the relative efficiency of 2 purified prostatic kallikreins, namely, hK2 and prostate-specific antigen (PSA or hK3), in the activation of single-chain urokinase (scuPA). We found that hK2 converts scuPA into an active enzyme with an efficiency equal to approximately 1/50 that of plasmin. During the activation of scuPA by hK2, two fragments of 33 and 22 kDa were generated. The NH2-terminal amino acid sequence of the 33 kDa fragment showed that hK2 cleaved scuPA between Lys158 and Ile159. In contrast to a previous report by another group, our purified hK3 preparation containing no trypsin-like contaminants was totally unable to activate scuPA. Our results show that kallikrein hK2 has plasmin-like activity and suggest that it could be the initiator of a proteolytic cascade leading to prostatic cancer invasion.

Purification of enzymatically active kallikrein hK2 from human seminal plasma

Kallikrein hK2 is a member of the human glandular kallikrein family which includes prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and pancreatic-renal kallikrein. The purpose of this work was to isolate and characterize for the first time the enzymatically active form of the hK2 protein starting from the PCI-hK2 complex isolated from human seminal plasma (Deperthes, D., Chapdelaine, P., Tremblay, R.R., Brunet, C., Berton, J., Hébert, J., Lazure, C. and Dubé, J.Y. (1995) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1245, 311-316). That complex was dissociated by an incubation at alkaline pH and final purification was achieved by C-18 reverse phase HPLC. The purified material contained a 27 kDa band by SDS gel electrophoresis and had the expected NH2-terminal amino acid sequence of hK2. It hydrolyzed synthetic chromogenic substrates containing esters of lysine and arginine but not of phenylalanine. Furthermore, hK2 formed molecular complexes with alpha 2 -antiplasmin, alpha 1-antichymotrypsin, antithrombin III and alpha 2-macroglobulin but not with alpha 1-antitrypsin. In conlusion, the new findings of the present paper are that the PCI-hK2 complex can be dissociated by mild procedures, that the free hK2 protein can be purified thereafter by standard HPLC procedures, that the recovered free hK2 is a trypsin-like enzyme and that it can form molecular complexes with many of the major serum proteinase inhibitors.

Immunohistochemical study suggesting a complementary role of kallikreins hK2 and hK3 (prostate-specific antigen) in the functional analysis of human prostate tumors

The development of monoclonal antibodies directed against prostatic kallikrein hK2 prompted us to evaluate its content, along with that of hK3 (prostate-specific antigen), in human prostate carcinoma. Seventy tumors categorized according to the M.D. Anderson Hospital classification (grade I to IV) were analyzed by immunohistochemistry. The staining intensity or the kallikrein content of benign prostatic hyperplasia glandular tissue (used as control) and of grade I tumors appeared similar. In grade II to IV tumors, histochemical data revealed highly variable hK2 or hK3 content in approximately 25% of tumors. Such patterns are consistent with a current observation related to heterogeneity of prostate tumors. In addition, a few tumors did not express hK3 (n = 3), hK2 (n = 3), or both (n = 3), indicating that some growth patterns of prostatic neoplasia are associated with a lack of secretion or storage of hK3 or hK2 for immunodetection. This statement also appears relevant to metastases. It was interesting to note that 4% of hK3-negative tumors had detectable hK2. Because of the importance of hK3 as a serum marker of prostate disorder, this study addresses for the first time the question of the relative importance of both hK3 and hK2 in the immunohistochemical diagnosis of prostatic tumors. We conclude that hK2 may add new information to prostate cancer diagnosis and characterization.

Remodeling of the cytoskeletal lattice in denervated skeletal muscle

The effect of denervation-induced atrophy on the cytoskeletal lattice in rat fast- and slow-twitch skeletal muscle has been investigated. Immunochemical analyses and immunofluorescence microscopy experiments employing monospecific antibodies to dystrophin, desmin, and alpha-tubulin were carried out on intact and denervated muscles. The relative cellular content of dystrophin and desmin were reduced in the soleus muscle (slow-twitch), while significant increases were shown in the gastrocnemius muscle (fast-twitch). In both muscles, alpha-tubulin levels increased up to 12-fold as a function of time compared to control values. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed a distinct rearrangement of the microtubule network toward a predominantly longitudinal alignment, which was accompanied by an increase in the density of the fluorescence. It is concluded that the relative increase of the three structural proteins in the fast-twitch gastrocnemius muscle may be related to the apparent resistance of this muscle type to denervation-induced atrophy. The increased alpha-tubulin content in denervated slow- and fast-twitch muscles could be indicative of an adaptive mechanism designed to maintain the integrity of the muscle fiber in view of eventual regenerative activities.

Potential involvement of kallikrein hK2 in the hydrolysis of the human seminal vesicle proteins after ejaculation

We have recently demonstrated in liquefied human seminal plasma the presence of the novel kallikrein hK2 in association with protein C inhibitor (PCI) as a 75-kDa complex. In the present study, we showed that hK2, immediately after ejaculation, was recovered only in its free form but complex formation with PCI occurred rapidly thereafter and was completed within 10 minutes. That reaction required an enzymatically active kallikrein. In order to determine the patterns of hydrolysis of major seminal vesicle proteins, semenogelins and fibronectin were exposed to hK2 and to hK3 (prostate-specific antigen or PSA) and cleavage sequences were identified by N-terminal sequencing. Free hK2 was able to hydrolyze semenogelins and fibronectin in vitro. Most of cleavage sites were at the carboxyl-side of arginyl residues. Semenogelins were hydrolyzed to a similar extent by catalytic (and similar) concentration of either hK2 or PSA though no common cleavage sites was identified for both proteinases. Unlike semenogelins, fibronectin was hydrolyzed much more efficiently by hK2 than by PSA. These results show that hK2 is enzymatically active during a short period of time after ejaculation, that major seminal vesicle proteins can be the target of this proteolytic activity, and that hK2 and PSA have different substrate specificities.

Kallikreins expression in a mature cystic ovarian teratoma

We report an example of benign cystic ovarian teratoma that was incidentally discovered in a nulliparous 24-year-old woman taking contraceptive pills. Histological examination of the cyst revealed the presence of prostatelike tissue in association with a wide variety of other tissues. The use of highly specific monoclonal antibodies developed against the two prostate-specific kallikreins (hK2 and hK3) in humans allowed the demonstration that the multiple islets of epithelial cells were prostatic tissue in nature and that only part of these cells had conserved their intrinsic property of producing kallikreins.

Isolation of prostatic kallikrein hK2, also known as hGK-1, in human seminal plasma

To demonstrate the presence of kallikrein hK2 in the human prostate and seminal plasma, we used mouse monoclonal antibodies (MAb) against a recombinant hK2-fusion protein. Using one of these MAb 9D5, we detected the presence of several major immunoreactive spots of 22 kDa and minor ones of 31 and 55 kDa in prostate cytosol and seminal plasma. After ion exchange and immunoaffinity chromatography of seminal plasma proteins, the 22-kDa immunoreactive proteins were isolated along with 55- and 75-kDa proteins. The NH2-terminal amino acid sequencing permitted identification of fragments of hK2 and protein C inhibitor, respectively, in the 22- ad 55-kDa bands. Furthermore, immunoblotting experiments in one and two-D gels with two different anti-hK2 MAbs and one polyclonal anti-PCI antibody suggested that the major 55- and 75-kDa bands were covalent hK2-PCI complexes containing either the full-length hK2 chain or only its carboxyterminal fragment in the presence of mercaptoethanol. These results demonstrate for the first time the existence of kallikrein hK2 and suggest that PCI may regulate its activity in seminal plasma.

Search for androgen response elements in the proximal promoter of the canine prostate arginine esterase gene

We have demonstrated the binding of the recombinant DNA binding domain of the rat androgen receptor to a DNA sequence of the canine prostate arginine esterase gene and have determined the functional significance of this sequence in transient transfection experiments. One of the binding sites was localized to a region (-172 to -148 bp) containing the sequence AGGACAACAGGTGTT that has 73% homology with the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) androgen response element (ARE) found at a similar position in the PSA promoter. Competition experiments showed that the androgen receptor had an approximately 100-fold more affinity for the PSA ARE than for the arginine sequence at -172 to -148. Transient cotransfection of 5'-deletion mutants of the arginine esterase promoter and 5'-flanking sequences driving the activity of the reporter gene along with the rat androgen receptor expression vector yielded only negligible inductions of chloramphenicol acetyl transferase (CAT) activity when dihydrotestosterone (DHT) was added to the culture medium. The introduction of one to four repeats of the -172 to -148 sequence of the arginine esterase gene upstream of the basal promoter of the mouse p12 gene in p12.108 also resulted in a minimal induction of CAT activity compared with a 10-fold induction of PSA AREs under similar conditions. These results suggest that the regulation of the canine arginine esterase gene by androgens is most probably achieved by mechanisms that differ from the ones prevailing with the human PSA and kallikrein-2 (hKLK2) genes.

Identification of glandular kallikrein in dog pancreas and determination of its tissue distribution

In order to establish a formal link between previously purified canine urinary kallikrein and dog pancreatic kallikrein whose cDNA sequence has recently been published, we have isolated the pancreatic kallikrein from that animal species. Pancreatic cytosol proteins were sequentially subjected to chromatography on DEAE-Sepharose CL-6B and Concanavalin A-Sepharose, to an autolysis step and finally to two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Kallikrein immunoreactive spots were identified with an antibody directed against canine urinary kallikrein. These proteins were isolated after electroblotting and the amino acid sequence of their NH2-terminal portion was determined by microsequencing. The sequence was found to be identical to the one deduced from pancreatic kallikrein cDNA. Using the same antibody and immunohistochemical procedures, kallikrein was found to be present in the pancreas, the salivary glands, the kidney, the colon, the lungs and the testis. These results thus confirm the molecular nature of a glandular kallikrein in the canine species.

Putative effects of nerve extract on carbonic anhydrase III expression in rat muscles

Carbonic anhydrase III (CA III), the predominant CA isoform in skeletal muscle is very sensitive to neuronal influences. We aimed to determine whether CA III expression could be influenced by neurotrophic factor(s) present in sciatic nerve extract (SNE). Intact muscles were thus compared with denervated soleus (SOL), extensor digitorum longus (EDL), and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles injected daily for 7 days with saline solution (SS) or with SNE. CA III activity was significantly increased in SS-treated EDL and TA muscles compared to control (CTR), while SNE injections partially prevented this increase. There was no significant difference for CA III activity in the SOL between CTR, SS, and SNE groups. The CA III mRNA increase observed in response to denervation was reduced by 40% in SNE-treated EDL and TA muscles. While SOL CA III mRNA level was not affected by denervation, a 52% decrease was observed with SNE. We concluded that neuronal modulation of CA III expression in type II fibers may involve a neurotrophic component.

Production practices, calf health and mortality on six white veal farms in Ontario

A group of 4863 white veal calves reared on six commercial white veal farms in Ontario were followed through production to describe calf characteristics and production levels. Patterns of morbidity, mortality, and culling were investigated at the farm, room and individual level. The majority of the calves were male Holsteins, with approximately half originating from Ontario. The mean average daily gain for shipped calves over the entire production period was 1.1 kg/day (SE = 0.002). The overall percentage of calves receiving at least one individual treatment was 59%, with an average number of treatment days per calf of 3.3. The majority of calves receiving one or more treatment days were first treated between the fourth and seventh week of production. The mortality rate was 3.7%, and 5.1% of the calves were culled. Pneumonia was the largest single cause of death. Peak death and cull losses occurred during the seventh and eighth week of production.

Production indices, calf health and mortality on seven red veal farms in Ontario

Production, morbidity, mortality and culling were investigated on seven commercial red veal farms in Ontario. The total number of calves included in the study group was 2251. The mean exit weight of marketed calves was 291 kg, with an average daily gain of 1.52 kg/day over the entire production period. The percentage of calves receiving one or more treatment days was 55%, with an average number of individual treatment days per treated calf of 3.9. An increasing number of treatment days, particularly up to eight days of treatment, was associated with decreasing average daily gain, and an increased probability of being lost from production due to death or culling. The percentage of calves which died during production was 5.4, with 0.8% of calves culled.

Characterization of canine pancreas kallikrein cDNA

Using a combination of primer extension and RT-PCR, the cDNA encoding a canine tissue kallikrein expressed in the pancreas was cloned and sequenced. The cloned 0.85 kbp cDNA contained a complete open reading frame encoding a polypeptide of 261 amino acids. The calculated molecular mass of the processed, unglycosylated, 237 amino acid protein was 26,428 Da. Its mRNA was expressed at high levels in the pancreas, kidney and submaxillary gland. The sequence of the encoded protein was highly homologous with canine prostatic arginine esterase (66%) and human renal/pancreatic kallikrein (74%). Therefore, the cloned cDNA encoded a previously uncharacterized canine kallikrein enzyme which was named dog renal/pancreatic kallikrein or dK2 according to the new nomenclature for kallikrein gene family members. Because of its specific pattern of tissue expression and the presence of all the amino acid residues necessary for kininogenase activity, we suggest that dK2 is the canine true tissue kallikrein.

Tetanus in the horse: a review of 20 cases (1970 to 1990)

The case records of 20 horses with tetanus referred to the Ontario Veterinary College-Veterinary Teaching Hospital between 1970 and 1990 were reviewed. The fatality rate was 75%. There was a strong association with previous vaccination and survival (P = .03). Most of the animals had been injured an average of 9 days (range 2 to 21 days) prior to development of clinical signs. Hyperesthesia and prolapse of the third eyelid were the most common clinical signs. Treatment regimens varied during hospitalization; however, all horses received parenteral penicillin, tranquilizers, tetanus toxoid, and antitoxin. Five of the nonsurviving animals were given intrathecal tetanus antitoxin. One animal had seizures as a complication of intrathecal treatment. The prognosis was best for horses that (1) had been vaccinated prior to the injury, (2) responded to the phenothiazine tranquilizers, and (3) did not rapidly (over 24 to 48 hours) become recumbent. Considering the species susceptibility, potential for contaminated wounds, and the increased survival of vaccinated horses, yearly revaccination is recommended.

Comparison of flutamide and spironolactone in the treatment of hirsutism: a randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

To compare the clinical efficacy and safety of the pure antiandrogen flutamide and the steroidal derivative spironolactone in the treatment of hirsutism in women.

DESIGN

Fifty-three premenopausal women suffering from moderate to severe hirsutism were randomized into two groups and received either flutamide or spironolactone in association with a triphasic oral contraceptive (OC) pill. Hirsutism, acne, seborrhea, alopecia, and side effects were monitored monthly for a treatment period of 9 months and a follow-up after treatment period of 6 months. Blood samples were taken at each visit for assessment of endocrine, biochemical, and hematologic parameters.

RESULTS

After only 6 months of therapy, flutamide caused a maximal reduction in the hirsutism score to a value within almost normal range; during the same period, spironolactone caused only a 30% reduction of the hirsutism score. Whereas flutamide caused a dramatic (80%) decrease in total acne, seborrhea, and hair loss score after only 3 months of therapy, spironolactone caused only a 50% reduction in acne and seborrhea, with no significant effect on the hair loss score. Four patients in the spironolactone group but only one in the flutamide group stopped the medication because of adverse side effects.

CONCLUSION

The present data obtained in a randomized prospective study clearly demonstrate that the pure antiandrogen flutamide is superior to spironolactone in the treatment of female hirsutism and its related androgen-dependent symptoms and signs in women.

The major dog pancreas protein recognized by an antiserum to dog prostate kallikrein is the anionic trypsin

1. On the basis of its immunoreactivity with a polyclonal antiserum to dog prostate kallikrein in Western blot experiments, a 30 kDa protein was purified from the pancreas of the dog using ion-exchange and gel filtration chromatography. 2. That protein was identified as the anionic trypsin by its NH2-terminal amino acid sequence. 3. The immunoreaction occurred despite an overall amino acid homology which was limited to 39% between the prostate kallikrein and anionic trypsin. 4. Otherwise, the anti-prostatic kallikrein antiserum was rather specific since it did not react with dog cationic trypsin, dog renal kallikrein and human prostate specific antigen.

Compromise in the treatment of hirsutism with flutamide

The association of Flutamide (500 mg/day) and of a contraceptive pill has been proposed for the treatment of hirsutism but the efficacy of low doses of the antiandrogen as single medication has never been ascertained. Twelve adult hirsute women, aged 31-40 years, were therefore recruited because they were sterile following tubal ligation. Severity of hirsutism was evaluated according to Ferriman and Gallwey scale. After one year, 10 out 12 patients experienced a satisfactory control of their hirsutism with Flutamide dosages varying between 250 and 375 mg/day. The antiandrogen can thus be used at lower dosages than initially expected.

Characterization of rhesus monkey prostate specific antigen cDNA

Using a RT-PCR approach, we obtained two overlapping cDNA clones containing the entire 1.5 kb sequence of rhesus monkey prostate specific antigen (rmPSA). The sequence obtained revealed an open reading frame of 261 amino acids. One potential N-glycosylation site was identified at Asn-78. The calculated molecular mass for the unglycosylated mature protein was 26,147 Da. Extensive amino acid homology (89%) was observed between rmPSA and its human counterpart. These results demonstrate that rhesus monkey and man prostate share a major biochemical component, and suggest that this animal species might be useful to answer specific questions related to human prostatic function and pathology.

Transcriptional regulation of dog prostate arginine esterase gene by androgens

These studies were designed to define the molecular events involved in the modulation of dog prostate arginine esterase gene expression following short castration intervals and androgen treatment. Arginine esterase enzymatic activity and protein levels decreased about 50% 24 h after castration. Thereafter, a more progressive decrease was observed, resulting in 2-4-fold lower levels in 12-day castrates than in the intact controls. Total prostatic arginine esterase mRNA levels slowly decreased during the first five days after castration but more abruptly thereafter and were about 150-fold lower in 12-day castrated animals. By contrast, in isolated prostatic nuclei, levels of arginine esterase RNA precursors and mature transcripts rapidly fell following orchiectomy, with a 50-70% decrease 24 h after castration. Nuclear run-on experiments confirmed that the latter effects were the result of decreased arginine esterase gene transcription. All these changes could be at least partially reversed by administration of testosterone cypionate. Furthermore, no striking modifications in the proportion of epithelial/stromal cells in the prostatic tissue were observed following orchiectomy. These results show that castration and androgens exert very rapid effects on the gene expression of arginine esterase, and that the regulation occurs at the transcriptional level.

Effect of combination treatment with zanoterone (WIN 49596), a steroidal androgen receptor antagonist, and finasteride (MK-906), a steroidal 5 alpha-reductase inhibitor, on the prostate and testes of beagle dogs

The effects of the steroidal androgen receptor antagonist zanoterone (WIN 49596) and the steroidal 5 alpha-reductase inhibitor finasteride (MK-906) either alone or in combination on prostatic size, histomorphology, and biochemistry were determined in the intact male dog. Additionally, the effects of treatment with zanoterone and/or finasteride on testicular size, serum testosterone and LH levels, and spermatogenesis were determined in the same dogs. Daily oral treatment for 16 weeks with either zanoterone alone at 10 mg/kg.day or finasteride alone at 1.0 mg/kg.day reduced (P < 0.05) the size of the prostate, resulted in mild to moderate diffuse glandular atrophy of the prostate, and decreased prostatic DNA and prostatic arginine esterase (the primary canine prostatic protein) levels compared to those in intact controls. These changes occurred with no effect on testicular weight, testicular histomorphology, daily sperm production, or serum LH levels. Serum testosterone concentrations were increased (P < 0.05) approximately 3-fold in the 10 mg/kg.day zanoterone treatment group compared to those in intact controls. Combination treatment of male dogs for 16 weeks with zanoterone (10 mg/kg.day) plus finasteride (1.0 mg/kg.day) orally also reduced (P < 0.05) prostate size, resulted in moderate to marked diffuse prostatic glandular atrophy, and decreased prostatic DNA and arginine esterase levels more than either drug alone, without affecting testicular size, testicular histomorphology, serum LH concentrations, or serum testosterone concentrations compared to those in intact controls. The effects of combination treatment with zanoterone and finasteride on prostatic size; histomorphology; and DNA, arginine esterase protein, and arginine esterase mRNA levels were similar to those observed in castrate controls. In addition, in situ estimates of prostatic size using transrectal ultrasonography indicated that the median time to 70% prostatic regression in dogs administered combination zanoterone plus finasteride was similar to that in castrate controls (9.6 and 9.3 weeks, respectively), indicating that the combination was more effective in causing prostatic regression than either drug alone. Finally, at the dosages used, no adverse effects of combination treatment with zanoterone plus finasteride on testicular or other major body organ weights were observed. Based on these results, combination therapy using zanoterone and finasteride for the treatment of human androgen-dependent disorders such as benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer has potential utility.

Effect of carbonic anhydrase III inhibition on substrate utilization and fatigue in rat soleus

Carbonic anhydrase III (CA III; EC 4.2.1.1) is the most abundant cytosolic enzyme in type I skeletal muscle fibers. We have previously shown that inhibiting the CA III activity of type I muscle can influence fatigability. Our goal was to test the hypothesis that the influence on fatigability of CA III inhibition is linked to an increased utilization of carbohydrates. Rat soleus muscles were incubated in vitro in a physiological solution with or without CA inhibitor (methazolamide, 1 mM) and submitted to a fatigue protocol. When the bathing solution contained glucose, the muscles incubated with methazolamide maintained a higher level of tension production than control muscles for the first 55-60 min of the test compared with 35-40 min when glucose was not added. Measurement of muscle glycogen content revealed that muscles incubated with CA inhibitor were utilizing their glycogen at a higher rate than control muscles over the first 45 min of the fatigue protocol. When glycolysis was inhibited with sodium iodoacetate, fatigability was not influenced by the addition of a CA inhibitor. These results further support the existence of a link between CA III activity and energy metabolism in type I skeletal muscle fibers.

Adrenocorticotrophic hormone fails to alter plasma fibrinogen and fibronectin values in calves but does so in rabbits

The intramuscular administration of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) to calves, in either a short-acting form (cosyntrophin) or a longer-acting form (ACTHAR Gel), failed to induce any alteration in circulating fibrinogen or fibronectin values, despite marked elevations in plasma cortisol concentrations. With the longer-acting ACTH, plasma cortisol was elevated for at least 12 h following treatment and induced the expected physiological response of an elevation in blood glucose. In contrast, both forms of ACTH induced marked increases (p < 0.01) in plasma fibrinogen and fibronectin when administered to rabbits. The elevation in the circulating levels of these proteins was first observed 24 h after ACTH administration, by which time plasma corticosteroid values had returned to pre-treatment values. With both ACTH preparations the increases in the circulating levels of these proteins were sustained for at least 96 h. The results suggest that, in cattle, the well-recognized increases in plasma fibrinogen values following stress are not associated with the concomitant increase in plasma cortisol. Further, the results clearly illustrate the marked species differences in the response of acute-phase reactant proteins to elevated glucocorticoids.

Demonstration of DNA binding factors interacting with a fragment of the canine prostate arginine esterase gene promoter

We have studied, by the gel mobility shift assay, the interaction of DNA binding proteins with a fragment of the proximal promoter (from nucleotides -177 to -47) of the androgen-regulated canine prostate arginine esterase gene. Several shifted bands were obtained using nuclear extracts from various tissues. In the case of the prostate, the intensity of some of the shifted bands was decreased or increased when the extracts were prepared from animals that had been castrated 12 days earlier. Several of the DNA-protein complexes could be assigned to an interaction with part or all of the sequence GGGGGTGGGGG from-124 to -114. We also obtained evidence for the presence of protein(s) interacting with an Sp1 motif present in the same fragment. These results suggest that some ubiquitous factors different from the androgen receptors could be involved in the regulation of the arginine esterase gene.

Rapid, simple and sensitive microassay for skeletal and cardiac muscle myoglobin and hemoglobin: use in various animals indicates functional role of myohemoproteins

A novel, simple, rapid, sensitive and reproducible microassay is described for determination of myoglobin and hemoglobin content of myocardial and skeletal muscle biopsy specimens from various mammals, birds and fish. As little as 50 mg of tissue is needed and myoglobin concentrations lower than 1 mg% can be detected. Myoglobin and hemoglobin are separated at alkaline pH by ammonium sulfate extraction followed by ultrafiltration. Heme content is determined by absorption of the Soret band when the hemoprotein extract is visibly colored or more sensitively by its peroxidase activity when the extract has low color. The heme reacts with tertiary-butyl hydroperoxide and orthotolidine to generate a blue color. Hemoglobin content is correlated with myoglobin content and is related to aerobic capacity and blood flow to the tissue. Myoglobin content varied over 5 orders of magnitude up to 7 per cent of the weight of tissue, whereas hemoglobin content varied over 2 orders of magnitude up to 6 per cent of tissue weight. Myoglobin content is increased in species with high basal metabolic rate, high physical activity, prolonged diving capacity, fatigue resistance, and red muscle, whereas it is decreased in white muscle, iron-deficient animals, animals with sedentary lifestyles, and in animals and tissues with small fiber diameters such as avian or fish hearts.