Impact of PEG sensitization on the efficacy of PEG hydrogel-mediated tissue engineering

While poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogels are generally regarded as biologically inert blank slates, concerns over PEG immunogenicity are growing, and the implications for tissue engineering are unknown. Here, we investigate these implications by immunizing mice against PEG to stimulate anti-PEG antibody production and evaluating bone defect regeneration after treatment with bone morphogenetic protein-2-loaded PEG hydrogels. Quantitative analysis reveals that PEG sensitization increases bone formation compared to naive controls, whereas histological analysis shows that PEG sensitization induces an abnormally porous bone morphology at the defect site, particularly in males. Furthermore, immune cell recruitment is higher in PEG-sensitized mice administered the PEG-based treatment than their naive counterparts. Interestingly, naive controls that were administered a PEG-based treatment also develop anti-PEG antibodies. Sex differences in bone formation and immune cell recruitment are also apparent. Overall, these findings indicate that anti-PEG immune responses can impact tissue engineering efficacy and highlight the need for further investigation.

Rescuing Photoreceptors in RPE Dysfunction-Driven Retinal Degeneration: The Role of Small Extracellular Vesicles Secreted from Retinal Pigment Epithelium

Dysfunction of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a common shared pathology in major degenerative retinal diseases despite variations in the primary etiologies of each disease. Due to their demanding and indispensable functional roles throughout the lifetime, RPE cells are vulnerable to genetic predisposition, external stress, and aging processes. Building upon recent advancements in stem cell technology for differentiating healthy RPE cells and recognizing the significant roles of small extracellular vesicles (sEV) in cellular paracrine and autocrine actions, we investigated the hypothesis that the RPE-secreted sEV alone can restore essential RPE functions and rescue photoreceptors in RPE dysfunction-driven retinal degeneration. Our findings support the rationale for developing intravitreal treatment of sEV. We demonstrate that intravitreally delivered sEV effectively penetrate the full thickness of the retina. Xenogenic intraocular administration of human-derived EVs did not induce acute immune reactions in rodents. sEV derived from human embryonic stem cell (hESC)-derived fully differentiated RPE cells, but not sEV-depleted conditioned cell culture media (CCM minus sEV), rescued photoreceptors and their function in a Royal College of Surgeons (RCS) rat model. This model is characterized by photoreceptor death and retinal degeneration resulting from a mutation in the MerTK gene in RPE cells. From the bulk RNA sequencing study, we identified 447 differently expressed genes in the retina after hESC-RPE-sEV treatment compared with the untreated control. Furthermore, 394 out of 447 genes (88%) showed a reversal in expression toward the healthy state in Long-Evans (LE) rats after treatment compared to the diseased state. Particularly, detrimental alterations in gene expression in RCS rats, including essential RPE functions such as phototransduction, vitamin A metabolism, and lipid metabolism were partially reversed. Defective photoreceptor outer segment engulfment due to intrinsic MerTK mutation was partially ameliorated. These findings suggest that RPE-secreted sEV may play a functional role similar to that of RPE cells. Our study justifies further exploration to fully unlock future therapeutic interventions with sEV in a broad array of degenerative retinal diseases.

Scalable manufacture of therapeutic mesenchymal stromal cell products on customizable microcarriers in vertical wheel bioreactors that improve direct visualization, product harvest, and cost

BACKGROUND AIMS

Human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSCs) and their secreted products show great promise for treatment of musculoskeletal injury and inflammatory or immune diseases. However, the path to clinical utilization is hampered by donor-tissue variation and the inability to manufacture clinically relevant yields of cells or their products in a cost-effective manner. Previously we described a method to produce chemically and mechanically customizable gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) microcarriers for culture of hMSCs. Herein, we demonstrate scalable GelMA microcarrier-mediated expansion of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived hMSCs (ihMSCs) in 500 mL and 3L vertical wheel bioreactors, offering several advantages over conventional microcarrier and monolayer-based expansion strategies.

METHODS

Human mesenchymal stromal cells derived from induced pluripotent cells were cultured on custom-made spherical gelatin methacryloyl microcarriers in single-use vertical wheel bioreactors (PBS Biotech). Cell-laden microcarriers were visualized using confocal microscopy and elastic light scattering methodologies. Cells were assayed for viability and differentiation potential in vitro by standard methods. Osteogenic cell matrix derived from cells was tested in vitro for osteogenic healing using a rodent calvarial defect assay. Immune modulation was assayed with an in vivo peritonitis model using Zymozan A.

RESULTS

The optical properties of GelMA microcarriers permit noninvasive visualization of cells with elastic light scattering modalities, and harvest of product is streamlined by microcarrier digestion. At volumes above 500 mL, the process is significantly more cost-effective than monolayer culture. Osteogenic cell matrix derived from ihMSCs expanded on GelMA microcarriers exhibited enhanced in vivo bone regenerative capacity when compared to bone morphogenic protein 2, and the ihMSCs exhibited superior immunosuppressive properties in vivo when compared to monolayer-generated ihMSCs.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that the cell expansion strategy described here represents a superior approach for efficient generation, monitoring and harvest of therapeutic MSCs and their products.

Serum Extracellular Vesicle Protein Profiling for Prediction of Corneal Transplant Rejection

BACKGROUND

Corneal transplantation is the most common transplant procedure worldwide. Despite immune and angiogenic privilege of the cornea, 50% to 70% of corneal transplants fail in high-risk recipients, primarily because of immune rejection. Therefore, it is crucial to identify predictive biomarkers of rejection to improve transplant survival.

METHODS

In search for predictive biomarkers, we performed proteomics analysis of serum extracellular vesicles (EVs) in a fully major histocompatibility complex-mismatched (C57BL/6-to-BALB/c) murine corneal transplantation model, wherein 50% of transplants undergo rejection by day 28 following transplantation.

RESULTS

Our time course study revealed a decrease in the number of serum EVs on day 1, followed by a gradual increase by day 7. A comparative analysis of proteomics profiles of EVs from transplant recipients with rejection (rejectors) and without rejection (nonrejectors) found a distinct enrichment of histocompatibility 2, Q region locus 2, which is a part of major histocompatibility complex-class I of donor C57BL/6 mice, in day 7 EVs of rejectors, compared with nonrejectors, syngeneic controls, or naïve mice. In contrast, serum amyloid A2, a protein induced in response to injury, was increased in day 7 EVs of nonrejectors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings offer noninvasive EV-based potential biomarkers for predicting corneal allograft rejection or tolerance.

Association of prior treatment with nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates on outcomes of COVID-19 positive patients

COVID-19 infection has resulted in significant morbidity and mortality globally, especially among older adults. Repurposed drugs have demonstrated activity in respiratory illnesses, including nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates. In this retrospective longitudinal study at 4 academic medical centers, we show no benefit of nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates regarding ICU admission, ventilator use, and mortality among older adults with COVID-19 infection. We specifically evaluated the intravenous bisphosphonate zoledronic acid and found no difference compared to oral bisphosphonates.

BACKGROUND

Widely used in osteoporosis treatment, nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates (N-BP) have been associated with reduced mortality and morbidity among older adults. Based on prior studies, we hypothesized that prior treatment with N-BP might reduce intensive care unit (ICU) admission, ventilator use, and death among older adults diagnosed with COVID-19.

METHODS

This retrospective analysis of the PCORnet Common Data Model across 4 academic medical centers through 1 September 2021 identified individuals age >50 years with a diagnosis of COVID-19. The composite outcome included ICU admission, ventilator use, or death within 15, 30, and 180 days of COVID-19 diagnosis. Use of N-BP was defined as a prescription within 3 years prior. ICU admission and ventilator use were determined using administrative codes. Death included both in-hospital and out-of-hospital events. Patients treated with N-BP were matched 1:1 by propensity score to patients without prior N-BP use. Secondary analysis compared outcomes among those prescribed zoledronic acid (ZOL) to those prescribed oral N-BPs.

RESULTS

Of 76,223 COVID-19 patients identified, 1,853 were previously prescribed N-BP, among whom 559 were prescribed ZOL. After propensity score matching, there were no significant differences in the composite outcome at 15 days (HR 1.22, 95% CI: 0.89-1.67), 30 days (HR 1.24, 95% CI: 0.93-1.66), or 180 days (HR 1.17, 95% CI: 0.93-1.48), comparing those prescribed and not prescribed N-BP. Compared to those prescribed oral N-BP, there were no significant differences in outcomes among those prescribed ZOL.

CONCLUSION

Among older COVID-19 patients, prior exposure to N-BP including ZOL was not associated with a reduction in ICU admission, ventilator use, or death.

TWIST1 and TSG6 are coordinately regulated and function as potency biomarkers in human MSCs

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) have been evaluated in >1500 clinical trials, but outcomes remain suboptimal because of knowledge gaps in quality attributes that confer potency. We show that TWIST1 directly represses TSG6 expression that TWIST1 and TSG6 are inversely correlated across bone marrow-derived MSC (BM-MSC) donor cohorts and predict interdonor differences in their proangiogenic, anti-inflammatory, and immune suppressive activity in vitro and in sterile inflammation and autoimmune type 1 diabetes preclinical models. Transcript profiling of TWIST1HiTSG6Low versus TWISTLowTSG6Hi BM-MSCs revealed previously unidentified roles for TWIST1/TSG6 in regulating cellular oxidative stress and TGF-β2 in modulating TSG6 expression and anti-inflammatory activity. TWIST1 and TSG6 levels also correlate to donor stature and predict differences in iPSC-derived MSC quality attributes. These results validate TWIST1 and TSG6 as biomarkers that predict interdonor differences in potency across laboratories and assay platforms, thereby providing a means to manufacture MSC products tailored to specific diseases.

Revisiting the Mesenchymal "Stem vs. Stromal" Cell Dichotomy and Its Implications for Development of Improved Potency Metrics

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cell (MSC)-based therapies have been evaluated in over 1500 human clinical trials for a diverse array of disease indication, but outcomes remain unpredictable due to knowledge gaps in the quality attributes that confer therapeutic potency onto cells and their mode of action in vivo. Based on accumulated evidence from pre-clinical models, MSCs exert therapeutic effects by repressing inflammatory and immune-mediated response via paracrine action following reprogramming by the host injury microenvironment, and by polarization of tissue resident macrophages following phagocytosis to an alternatively activated (M2) state. An important tenet of this existing paradigm is that well-established stem/progenitor functions of MSCs are independent of paracrine function and dispensable for their anti-inflammatory and immune suppressive functions. Herein, we review evidence that stem/progenitor and paracrine functions of MSCs are mechanistically linked and organized hierarchically and describe how this link may be exploited to develop metrics that predict MSC potency across a spectrum of activities and regenerative medicine applications.

Inhibitory Effects of Extracellular Vesicles from iPS-Cell-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells on the Onset of Sialadenitis in Sjögren's Syndrome Are Mediated by Immunomodulatory Splenocytes and Improved by Inhibiting miR-125b

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) from allogeneic-tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are promising to improve Sjögren's syndrome (SS) treatment, but their application is hindered by high variations in and limited expandability of tissue MSCs. We derived standardized and scalable MSCs from iPS cells (iMSCs) and reported that EVs from young but not aging iMSCs (iEVs) inhibited sialadenitis onset in SS mouse models. Here, we aim to determine cellular mechanisms and optimization approaches of SS-inhibitory effects of iEVs. In NOD.B10.H2b mice at the pre-disease stage of SS, we examined the biodistribution and recipient cells of iEVs with imaging, flow cytometry, and qRT-PCR. Intravenously infused iEVs accumulated in the spleen but not salivary glands or cervical lymph nodes and were mainly taken up by macrophages. In the spleen, young but not aging iEVs increased M2 macrophages, decreased Th17 cells, and changed expression of related immunomodulatory molecules. Loading miR-125b inhibitors into aging iEVs significantly improved their effects on repressing sialadenitis onset and regulating immunomodulatory splenocytes. These data indicated that young but not aging iEVs suppress SS onset by regulating immunomodulatory splenocytes, and inhibiting miR-125b in aging iEVs restores such effects, which is promising to maximize production of effective iEVs from highly expanded iMSCs for future clinical application.

MHC Class I Enables MSCs to Evade NK-Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity and Exert Immunosuppressive Activity

Allogeneic mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) are frequently used in clinical trials due to their low expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and lack of MHC class II. However, the levels of MHC classes I and II in MSCs are increased by inflammatory stimuli, raising concerns over potential adverse effects associated with allogeneic cell therapy. Also, it is unclear how the host immune response to MHC-mismatched MSCs affects the therapeutic efficacy of the cells. Herein, using strategies to manipulate MHC genes in human bone marrow-derived MSCs via the CRISPR-Cas9 system, plasmids, or siRNAs, we found that inhibition of MHC class I-not MHC class II-in MSCs lowered the survival rate of MSCs and their immunosuppressive potency in mice with experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis, specifically by increasing MSC vulnerability to natural killer (NK)-cell-mediated cytotoxicity. A subsequent survey of MSC batches derived from 6 human donors confirmed a significant correlation between MSC survival rate and susceptibility to NK cells with the potency of MSCs to increase MHC class I level upon stimulation. Our overall results demonstrate that MHC class I enables MSCs to evade NK-cell-mediated cytotoxicity and exert immunosuppressive activity.

A scalable system for generation of mesenchymal stem cells derived from induced pluripotent cells employing bioreactors and degradable microcarriers

Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) are effective in treating disorders resulting from an inflammatory or heightened immune response. The hMSCs derived from induced pluripotent stem cells (ihMSCs) share the characteristics of tissue derived hMSCs but lack challenges associated with limited tissue sources and donor variation. To meet the expected future demand for ihMSCs, there is a need to develop scalable methods for their production at clinical yields while retaining immunomodulatory efficacy. Herein, we describe a platform for the scalable expansion and rapid harvest of ihMSCs with robust immunomodulatory activity using degradable gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) microcarriers. GelMA microcarriers were rapidly and reproducibly fabricated using a custom microfluidic step emulsification device at relatively low cost. Using vertical wheel bioreactors, 8.8 to 16.3‐fold expansion of ihMSCs was achieved over 8 days. Complete recovery by 5‐minute digestion of the microcarriers with standard cell dissociation reagents resulted in >95% viability. The ihMSCs matched or exceeded immunomodulatory potential in vitro when compared with ihMSCs expanded on monolayers. This is the first description of a robust, scalable, and cost‐effective method for generation of immunomodulatory ihMSCs, representing a significant contribution to their translational potential.

Identification of Molecules Responsible for Therapeutic Effects of Extracellular Vesicles Produced from iPSC-Derived MSCs on Sjo¨gren's Syndrome

Recent research indicated that extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) are a promising alternative to MSCs for immunomodulatory therapy. However, the contents of MSC-EVs would change as their parent MSCs change, hence the therapeutic efficacy of MSC-derived EVs (MSC-EVs) would largely depend on donors, tissue sources and culture conditions of MSCs. To overcome limitations of tissue-derived MSCs, we previously used MSCs derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iMSCs) to produce EVs and demonstrated their therapeutic potential in a mouse model of secondary Sjo¨gren's Syndrome. Here, we further found that EVs from early-passage iMSCs had better immunomodulatory potency than EVs from late-passage iMSCs in TLR4-stimulated splenocytes and in a mouse model of primary Sjögren's syndrome. Comparative molecular profiling using proteomics and microRNA sequencing revealed distinctive molecular profiles of iMSC-EVs with or without immunomodulation capacity. Amongst them, manipulation of TGF-β1, miR-21 and miR-125b levels in iMSC-EVs significantly affected their immunosuppressive effects. These findings would help improve our understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying iMSC-EV-mediated immunomodulation and further provide strategies to improve regulatory function of EVs for the treatment of immune-mediated diseases.

In Vitro Macrophage Assay Predicts the In Vivo Anti-inflammatory Potential of Exosomes from Human Mesenchymal Stromal Cells

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play key roles in cell biology and may provide new clinical diagnostics and therapies. However, it has proven difficult to develop protocols for their purification and characterization. One of the major barriers in the field has been a lack of convenient assays for their bioactivity. Developing assays has not been a trivial matter, because of the heterogeneity of EVs, the multiple activities they demonstrate, and the uncertainty about their modes of action. Therefore, it is likely that multiple assays for their activities are needed. One important assay will be for the anti-inflammatory activity observed in mice after administration of the small EVs commonly referred to as exosomes. We developed an assay for the anti-inflammatory activity of exosomes with a line of mouse macrophages. The assay makes it possible to rank different preparations of exosomes by their anti-inflammatory activity, and their ranking predicts their efficacy in suppressing LPS-stimulated inflammation in mice. The assay is convenient for comparing multiple samples and, therefore, should be useful in developing protocols for the purification and characterization of anti-inflammatory exosomes.

Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Inhibit Inflammatory Lymphangiogenesis in the Cornea by Suppressing Macrophage in a TSG-6-Dependent Manner

The cornea is a transparent tissue devoid of blood and lymphatic vessels. However, various inflammatory conditions can cause hemangiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis in the cornea, compromising transparency and visual acuity. Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) have therapeutic potentials in a variety of diseases because of anti-inflammatory properties. Herein, we investigated the effects of MSCs on corneal angiogenesis using a model of suture-induced inflammatory corneal neovascularization. Data demonstrated that an intravenous administration of MSCs suppressed corneal inflammation and neovascularization, inhibiting both hemangiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis. MSCs reduced the levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C, VEGF-D, Tek, MRC1, and MRC2 in the cornea, which are expressed by pro-angiogenic macrophages. Moreover, the number of CD11b⁺ monocytes/macrophages in the cornea, spleen, peripheral blood, and draining lymph nodes was decreased by MSCs. Depletion of circulating CD11b⁺ monocytes by blocking antibodies replicated the effects of MSCs. Importantly, knockdown of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)-stimulated gene/protein 6 (TSG-6) in MSCs abrogated the effects of MSCs in inhibiting corneal hemangiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis and monocyte/macrophage infiltration. Together, the results suggest that MSCs inhibit inflammatory neovascularization in the cornea by suppressing pro-angiogenic monocyte/macrophage recruitment in a TSG-6-dependent manner.

Erratum: iPS-derived MSCs from an expandable bank to deliver a prodrug-converting enzyme that limits growth and metastases of human breast cancers

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1038/cddiscovery.2016.64.].

Data against a Common Assumption: Xenogeneic Mouse Models Can Be Used to Assay Suppression of Immunity by Human MSCs

Much of what we know about immunology suggests that little is to be gained from experiments in which human cells are administered to immunocompetent mice. Multiple reports have demonstrated that this common assumption does not hold for experiments with human mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (hMSCs). The data demonstrate that hMSCs can suppress immune responses to a variety of stimuli in immunocompetent mice by a range of different mechanisms that are similar to those employed by mouse MSCs. Therefore, further experiments with hMSCs in mice will make it possible to generate preclinical data that will improve both the efficacy and safety of the clinical trials with the cells that are now in progress.

Stanniocalcin-1 attenuates ischemic cardiac injury and response of differentiating monocytes/macrophages to inflammatory stimuli

Stanniocalcin-1 (STC-1) is a multifunctional glycoprotein with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Ischemic myocardial necrosis generates "danger" signals that perpetuate detrimental inflammatory reactions often involving monocyte recruitment and their subsequent differentiation into proinflammatory macrophages. Therefore, we evaluated the effects of recombinant STC-1 (rSTC-1) on monocyte phenotype and in a mouse model of myocardial infarction. Using an established protocol to differentiate human monocytes into macrophages, we demonstrated that rSTC-1 did not alter morphology of the differentiated cells, toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 expression, or expression of the myeloid cell marker CD11b. However, rSTC-1 treatment before differentiation attenuated the rise in the expression of CD14, a TLR4 coreceptor and pathogen sensor that propagates innate immune responses, and suppressed levels of inflammatory cytokines produced by the differentiated cells in response to the CD14-TLR4 ligand lipopolysaccharide. Moreover, rSTC-1 treatment reduced CD14 expression in monocytes stimulated with endogenous danger signals. Interestingly, the effects of rSTC-1 on CD14 expression were not reproduced by a superoxide dismutase mimetic. In mice with induced myocardial infarcts, intravenous administration of rSTC-1 decreased CD14 expression in the heart as well as levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha, C-X-C motif ligand 2, interleukin 1 beta, and myeloperoxidase. It also suppressed the formation of scar tissue while enhancing cardiac function. The data suggests that one of the beneficial effects of STC-1 might be attributed to suppression of CD14 on recruited monocytes and macrophages that limits their inflammatory response. STC-1 may be a promising therapy to protect the heart and other tissues from ischemic injury.

Weight management for adolescents with intellectual and developmental disabilities: Rationale and design for an 18month randomized trial

Adolescents with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) are an underserved group in need of weight management. However, information regarding effective weight management for this group is limited, and is based primarily on results from small, non-powered, non-randomized trials that were not conducted in accordance with current weight management guidelines. Additionally, the comparative effectiveness of emerging dietary approaches, such as portion-controlled meals (PCMs) or program delivery strategies such as video chat using tablet computers have not been evaluated. Therefore, we will conduct an 18month trial to compare weight loss (6months) and maintenance (7-18months) in 123 overweight/obese adolescents with mild to moderate IDD, and a parent, randomized to a weight management intervention delivered remotely using FaceTime™ on an iPad using either a conventional meal plan diet (RD/CD) or a Stop Light diet enhanced with PCMs (RD/eSLD), or conventional diet delivered during face-to-face home visits (FTF/CD). This design will provide an adequately powered comparison of both diet (CD vs. eSLD) and delivery strategy (FTF vs. RD). Exploratory analyses will examine the influence of behavioral session attendance, compliance with recommendations for diet (energy intake), physical activity (min/day), self-monitoring of diet and physical activity, medications, and parental variables including diet quality, physical activity, baseline weight, weight change, and beliefs and attitudes regarding diet and physical activity on both weight loss and maintenance. We will also complete a cost and contingent valuation analysis to compare costs between RD and FTF delivery.

Mechanisms of mesenchymal stem/stromal cell function

The past decade has seen an explosion of research directed toward better understanding of the mechanisms of mesenchymal stem/stromal cell (MSC) function during rescue and repair of injured organs and tissues. In addition to delineating cell–cell signaling and molecular controls for MSC differentiation, the field has made particular progress in defining several other mechanisms through which administered MSCs can promote tissue rescue/repair. These include: 1) paracrine activity that involves secretion of proteins/peptides and hormones; 2) transfer of mitochondria by way of tunneling nanotubes or microvesicles; and 3) transfer of exosomes or microvesicles containing RNA and other molecules. Improved understanding of MSC function holds great promise for the application of cell therapy and also for the development of powerful cell-derived therapeutics for regenerative medicine. Focusing on these three mechanisms, we discuss MSC-mediated effects on immune cell responses, cell survival, and fibrosis and review recent progress with MSC-based or MSC-derived therapeutics.

Platelet immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) and hemITAM signaling and vascular integrity in inflammation and development

Platelets are essential for maintaining hemostasis following mechanical injury to the vasculature. Besides this established function, novel roles of platelets are becoming increasingly recognized, which are critical in non-injury settings to maintain vascular barrier integrity. For example, during embryogenesis platelets act to support the proper separation of blood and lymphatic vessels. This role continues beyond birth, where platelets prevent leakage of blood into the lymphatic vessel network. During the course of inflammation, platelets are necessary to prevent local hemorrhage due to neutrophil diapedesis and disruption of endothelial cell-cell junctions. Surprisingly, platelets also work to secure tumor-associated blood vessels, inhibiting excessive vessel permeability and intra-tumor hemorrhaging. Interestingly, many of these novel platelet functions depend on immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) signaling but not on signaling via G protein-coupled receptors, which plays a crucial role in platelet plug formation at sites of mechanical injury. Murine platelets express two ITAM-containing receptors: the Fc receptor γ-chain (FcRγ), which functionally associates with the collagen receptor GPVI, and the C-type lectin-like 2 (CLEC-2) receptor, a hemITAM receptor for the mucin-type glycoprotein podoplanin. Human platelets express an additional ITAM receptor, FcγRIIA. These receptors share common downstream effectors, including Syk, SLP-76 and PLCγ2. Here we will review the recent literature that highlights a critical role for platelet GPVI/FcRγ and CLEC-2 in vascular integrity during development and inflammation in mice and discuss the relevance to human disease.

Scalable Production of a Multifunctional Protein (TSG-6) That Aggregates with Itself and the CHO Cells That Synthesize It

TNF-α stimulated gene/protein 6 (TNFAIP6/TSG-6) is a multifunctional protein that has a number of potential therapeutic applications. Experiments and clinical trials with TSG-6, however, have been limited by the technical difficulties of producing the recombinant protein. We prepared stable clones of CHO cells that expressed recombinant human TSG-6 (rhTSG-6) as a secreted glycoprotein. Paradoxically, both cell number and protein production decreased dramatically when the clones were expanded. The decreases occurred because the protein aggregated the synthesizing CHO cells by binding to the brush border of hyaluronan that is found around many cultured cells. In addition, the rhTSG-6 readily self-aggregated. To address these problems, we added to the medium an inhibitor of hyaluronan synthesis and heparin to compete with the binding of TSG-6 to hyaluronan. Also, we optimized the composition of the culture medium, and transferred the CHO cells from a spinner culture system to a bioreactor that controlled pH and thereby decreased pH-dependent binding properties of the protein. With these and other improvements in the culture conditions, we obtained 57.0 mg ± 9.16 S.D. of rhTSG-6 in 5 or 6 liter of medium. The rhTSG-6 accounted for 18.0% ± 3.76 S.D. of the total protein in the medium. We then purified the protein with a Ni-chelate column that bound the His tag engineered into the C-terminus of the protein followed by an anion exchange column. The yield of the purified monomeric rhTSG-6 was 4.1 mg to 5.6 mg per liter of culture medium. After intravenous injection into mice, the protein had a longer plasma half-life than commercially available rhTSG-6 isolated from a mammalian cell lysate, apparently because it was recovered as a secreted glycoprotein. The bioactivity of the rhTSG-6 in suppressing inflammation was demonstrated in a murine model.

Pre-activated human mesenchymal stromal cells in combination with doxorubicin synergistically enhance tumor-suppressive activity in mice

BACKGROUND AIMS

Previously, we showed that human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSCs) were activated to express tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) upon TNF-α stimulation, induced cell death in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) MDA-MB-231 cells (MDA), and RNA released from apoptotic MDA further increased TRAIL expression in hMSCs. This feed-forward stimulation increased apoptosis in MDA cells. Here, we tested whether TRAIL-expressing hMSCs, in combination with a sub-toxic-dose of a chemotherapy drug doxorubicin, would overcome TRAIL resistance and create synergistic effects on targeting metastatic TNBC.

METHODS

To optimize conditions for the combination treatment, we (i) selected an optimal condition to activate hMSCs for TRAIL expression, (ii) selected an optimal dose of doxorubicin treatment, (iii) examined underlying mechanisms in vitro and (iv) tested the efficacy of the optimized conditions in a xenograft mouse model of human breast cancer lung metastasis.

RESULTS

The results showed that DNA fragments from apoptotic MDA triggered hMSCs to increase further TRAIL expression in an absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2)-dependent manner, and thus higher TRAIL-expressing hMSCs stimulated with synthetic DNA, poly(deoxyadenylic-deoxythymidylic) acid [poly(dA:dT)], more effectively suppressed tumor progression in vivo. Furthermore, activated hMSCs increased apoptosis in MDA cells when combined with a sub-toxic dose of doxorubicin, which was mediated by up-regulating TRAIL and Fas-related pathways. When we combined the optimized conditions, pre-activated hMSCs with poly (dA:dT) synergistically reduced tumor burden even with minimal doxorubicin treatment in a xenograft mouse model of human breast cancer lung metastasis.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that the treatment of hMSCs with a sub-toxic dose of doxorubicin can overcome TRAIL resistance and be a potential novel therapy for TNBC metastasis treatment.

Abstract 201: The combination treatment of TNF-α and poly (dA:dT) preactivated hMSCs with doxorubicin enhances antitumorigenic activity

Our recent study showed that human mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (hMSCs) were activated to express TRAIL by exposure to TNF-α. These TRAIL expressing hMSCs effectively induced apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 (MDA) cells in vitro and in vivo. TRAIL was further up-regulated by RNA released by dead MDA cells in a TLR3-dependent manner. Here, we show that the further increase of TRAIL in hMSCs was also mediated by feed-forward stimulation of AIM2 or IFIH1 by DNA and RNA released from dead MDA cells. Poly(dA:dT), a synthetic ligand for AIM2, most effectively activated hMSCs to express TRAIL and increased the killing efficacy of hMSCs in MDA cells compared to TNF-α or poly(I:C), a synthetic ligand for TLR3 or IFIH1. Furthermore, weekly infusions of hMSCs pre-activated with TNF-α and poly(dA:dT) effectively inhibited the progression of lung tumor formation in mice, compared to TNF-α pre-activated hMSCs. Such anti-tumorigenic effect of hMSCs upon activation with TNF-α and poly(dA:dT) was enhanced when combined with chemotherapeutic drug, doxorubicin and thereby, this combination treatment significantly reduced the size of tumor burden in mice compared to TNF-α pre-activated hMSC treatment. These results suggest that treatment of pre-activated hMSCs combined with doxorubicin enhances their tumor-suppressive properties and may provide a potential novel therapy for cancer treatment.

Citation Format: Nara Yoon, Min Sung Park, Grant Peltier, John C. Reneau, Darwin J. Prockop, Darwin J. Prockop, Ryang Hwa Lee. The combination treatment of TNF-α and poly (dA:dT) preactivated hMSCs with doxorubicin enhances antitumorigenic activity. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 105th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2014 Apr 5-9; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2014;74(19 Suppl):Abstract nr 201. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2014-201

TSG-6 protects corneal endothelium from transcorneal cryoinjury in rabbits

PURPOSE

To investigate the effect of an anti-inflammatory protein, TNF-α stimulated gene/protein (TSG)-6 and an antiapoptotic protein, stanniocalcin (STC)-1 on corneal endothelium in rabbits with transcorneal cryoinjury.

METHODS

Transcorneal freezing (-80°C) was applied to rabbit corneas for 30 seconds. Immediately post injury, either TSG-6 (10 μg/100 μL), STC-1 (10 μg/100 μL), or the same volume of balanced salt solution (BSS) was injected into the anterior chamber. Each eye was examined for corneal opacity, corneal thickness, endothelial cell density, and endothelial hexagonality every 2 to 6 hours for 48 hours post injury. The concentrations of myeloperoxidase (MPO) and IL-1β were measured in the aqueous humor every 6 hours. At 48 hours post injury, each cornea was assayed for TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and MPO, and histologically evaluated with alizarin red-trypan blue staining, hematoxylin-eosin staining, and immunostaining for neutrophils.

RESULTS

Tumor necrosis factor-α stimulated gene/protein-6 significantly decreased the development of corneal opacity and edema after cryoinjury compared with STC-1 or BSS. The corneal endothelial cell density and hexagonality were markedly preserved by TSG-6. The mRNA levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in the cornea and the protein levels of MPO and IL-1β in the aqueous humor and cornea were significantly lower in TSG-6-treated eyes than BSS-treated controls. Similarly, the expression of fibroblast growth factor-2 was reduced by TSG-6 treatment. Histologic evaluation demonstrated that neutrophil infiltration of the cornea was decreased in TSG-6-treated eyes.

CONCLUSIONS

Tumor necrosis factor-α stimulated gene/protein-6 protected corneal endothelial cells from transcorneal cryoinjury through suppression of inflammation.

TSG-6 produced by hMSCs delays the onset of autoimmune diabetes by suppressing Th1 development and enhancing tolerogenicity

Genetic and immunological screening for type 1 diabetes has led to the possibility of preventing disease in susceptible individuals. Here, we show that human mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (hMSCs) and tumor necrosis factor-α-stimulated gene 6 (TSG-6), a protein produced by hMSCs in response to signals from injured tissues, delayed the onset of spontaneous autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice by inhibiting insulitis and augmenting regulatory T cells (Tregs) within the pancreas. Importantly, hMSCs with a knockdown of tsg-6 were ineffective at delaying insulitis and the onset of diabetes in mice. TSG-6 inhibited the activation of both T cells and antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in a CD44-dependent manner. Moreover, multiple treatments of TSG-6 rendered APCs more tolerogenic, capable of enhancing Treg generation and delaying diabetes in an adoptive transfer model. Therefore, these results could provide the basis for a novel therapy for the prevention of type 1 diabetes.

Concerning the time dependence of the decay rate of 137Cs

The decay rates of eight nuclides ((85)Kr, (90)Sr, (108)Ag, (133)Ba, (137)Cs, (152)Eu, (154)Eu, and (226)Ra) were monitored by the standards group at the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), Braunschweig, Germany, over the time frame June 1999 to November 2008. We find that the PTB measurements of the decay rate of (137)Cs show no evidence of an annual oscillation, in agreement with the recent report by Bellotti et al. However, power spectrum analysis of PTB measurements of a (133)Ba standard, measured in the same detector system, does show such evidence. This result is consistent with our finding that different nuclides have different sensitivities to whatever external influences are responsible for the observed periodic variations.

Adenosine trisphosphate appears to act via different receptors in terminals versus somata of the hypothalamic neurohypophysial system

ATP-induced ionic currents were investigated in isolated terminals and somata of the hypothalamic neurohypophysial system (HNS). Both terminals and somata showed inward rectification of the ATP-induced currents and reversal near 0 mV. In terminals, ATP dose-dependently evoked an inactivating, inward current. However, in hypothalamic somata, ATP evoked a very slowly inactivating, inward current with a higher density, and different dose dependence (EC(50) of 50 μm in somata versus 9.6 μm in terminals). The ATP-induced currents, in both the HNS terminals and somata, were highly and reversibly inhibited by suramin, suggesting the involvement of a purinergic receptor (P2XR). However, the suramin inhibition was significantly different in the two HNS compartments (IC(50) of 3.6 μm in somata versus 11.6 μm in terminals). Also, both HNS compartments show significantly different responses to the purinergic receptor agonists: ATP-γ-S and benzoyl-benzoyl-ATP. Finally, there was an initial desensitisation to ATP upon successive stimulations in the terminals, which was not observed in the somata. These differences in EC(50) , inactivation, desensitisation and agonist sensitivity in terminals versus somata indicate that different P2X receptors mediate the responses in these two compartments of HNS neurones. Previous work has revealed mRNA transcripts for multiple purinergic receptors in micropunches of the hypothalamus. In the HNS terminals, the P2X purinergic receptor types P2X2, 3, 4 and 7 (but not 6) have been shown to exist in AVP terminals. Immonohistochemistry now indicates that P2X4R is only present in AVP terminals and that the P2X7R is found in both AVP and oxytocin terminals and somata. We speculate that these differences in receptor types reflects the specific function of endogenous ATP in the terminals versus somata of these central nervous system neurones.

Therapeutic factors secreted by mesenchymal stromal cells and tissue repair

Systemic administration of MSCs resulted in remarkable functional improvements in injured tissues without either long-term engraftment or differentiation in many clinical and experimental situations. Emerging evidence suggest that most of the beneficial effects of MSCs could be explained by secretion of soluble factors that have multiple effects including modulation of inflammatory and immune reactions, protection from cell death, and stimulation of endogenous progenitor cells. In this review, we focus on the therapeutic factors that account for the beneficial effects of MSCs in animal models of human diseases.

Identification of the HSPB4/TLR2/NF-κB axis in macrophage as a therapeutic target for sterile inflammation of the cornea

Sterile inflammation underlies many diseases of the cornea including serious chemical burns and the common dry eye syndrome. In search for therapeutic targets for corneal inflammation, we defined the kinetics of neutrophil infiltration in a model of sterile injury to the cornea and identified molecular and cellular mechanisms triggering inflammatory responses. Neutrophil infiltration occurred in two phases: a small initial phase (Phase I) that began within 15 min after injury, and a larger second phase (Phase II) that peaked at 24–48 h. Temporal analysis suggested that the neuropeptide secretoneurin initiated Phase I without involvement of resident macrophages. Phase II was initiated by the small heat shock protein HSPB4 that was released from injured keratocytes and that activated resident macrophages via the TLR2/NF-κB pathway. The Phase II inflammation was responsible for vision-threatening opacity and was markedly suppressed by different means of inhibition of the HSPB4/TLR2/NF-κB axis: in mice lacking HSPB4 or TLR2, by antibodies to HSPB4 or by TNF-α stimulated gene/protein 6 that CD44-dependently inhibits the TLR2/NF-κB pathway. Therefore, our data identified the HSPB4/TLR2/NF-κB axis in macrophages as an effective target for therapy of corneal inflammation.

Action at a distance: systemically administered adult stem/progenitor cells (MSCs) reduce inflammatory damage to the cornea without engraftment and primarily by secretion of TNF-α stimulated gene/protein 6

Previous reports demonstrated that the deleterious effects of chemical injury to the cornea were ameliorated by local or systemic administration of adult stem/progenitor cells from bone marrow referred to as mesenchymal stem or stromal cells (MSCs). However, the mechanisms for the beneficial effects of MSCs on the injured cornea were not clarified. Herein, we demonstrated that human MSCs (hMSCs) were effective in reducing corneal opacity and inflammation without engraftment after either intraperitoneal (i.p.) or intravenous (i.v.) administration following chemical injury to the rat cornea. A quantitative assay for human mRNA for glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) demonstrated that less than 10 hMSCs were present in the corneas of rats 1-day and 3 days after i.v. or i.p. administration of 1 × 10(7) hMSCs. In vitro experiments using a transwell coculture system demonstrated that chemical injury to corneal epithelial cells activated hMSCs to secrete the multipotent anti-inflammatory protein TNF-α stimulated gene/protein 6 (TSG-6). In vivo, the effects of i.v. injection of hMSCs were largely abrogated by knockdown of TSG-6. Also, the effects of hMSCs were essentially duplicated by either i.v. or topical administration of TSG-6. Therefore, the results demonstrated that systemically administered hMSCs reduce inflammatory damage to the cornea without engraftment and primarily by secretion of the anti-inflammatory protein TSG-6 in response to injury signals from the cornea.

Associating changes in output behavior with changes in parameter values in spiking and bursting neuron models

Several recent studies have demonstrated that neuronal models allow multiple parameter value solutions for a given output. In the face of this variability of parameter values, what can be learned about neural function through parameter value differences? Here, in two different models, we examine this question by attempting to reconstruct the source of model output changes based on simple statistical analyses of parameter distributions generated by automated searches. We conclude that changes to parameter values or their associated distributions do not reliably reflect the specific mechanisms responsible for a given change in output.

Anti-inflammatory protein TSG-6 reduces inflammatory damage to the cornea following chemical and mechanical injury

Previous reports demonstrated that adult stem/progenitor cells from bone marrow (multipotent mesenchymal stem cells; MSCs) can repair injured tissues with little evidence of engraftment or differentiation. In exploring this phenomenon, our group has recently discovered that the therapeutic benefits of MSCs are in part explained by the cells being activated by signals from injured tissues to express an anti-inflammatory protein TNF-α-stimulated gene/protein 6 (TSG-6). Therefore, we elected to test the hypothesis that TSG-6 would have therapeutic effects in inflammatory but noninfectious diseases of the corneal surface. We produced a chemical and mechanical injury of the cornea in rats by brief application of 100% ethanol followed by mechanical debridement of corneal and limbal epithelium. Recombinant human TSG-6 or PBS solution was then injected into the anterior chamber of the eye. TSG-6 markedly decreased corneal opacity, neovascularization, and neutrophil infiltration. The levels of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and matrix metalloproteinases were also decreased. The data indicated that TSG-6, a therapeutic protein produced by MSCs in response to injury signals, can protect the corneal surface from the excessive inflammatory response following injury.

Intravenous hMSCs improve myocardial infarction in mice because cells embolized in lung are activated to secrete the anti-inflammatory protein TSG-6

Quantitative assays for human DNA and mRNA were used to examine the paradox that intravenously (i.v.) infused human multipotent stromal cells (hMSCs) can enhance tissue repair without significant engraftment. After 2 x 10(6) hMSCs were i.v. infused into mice, most of the cells were trapped as emboli in lung. The cells in lung disappeared with a half-life of about 24 hr, but <1000 cells appeared in six other tissues. The hMSCs in lung upregulated expression of multiple genes, with a large increase in the anti-inflammatory protein TSG-6. After myocardial infarction, i.v. hMSCs, but not hMSCs transduced with TSG-6 siRNA, decreased inflammatory responses, reduced infarct size, and improved cardiac function. I.v. administration of recombinant TSG-6 also reduced inflammatory responses and reduced infarct size. The results suggest that improvements in animal models and patients after i.v. infusions of MSCs are at least in part explained by activation of MSCs to secrete TSG-6.

Development and characterization of in vivo flexible electrodes compatible with large tissue displacements

Electrical activity is the ultimate functional measure of neuronal tissue and recording that activity remains a key technical challenge in neuroscience. The mechanical mismatch between rigid electrodes and compliant brain tissue is a critical limitation in applications where movement is an inherent component. An electrode that permits recording of neural activity, while minimizing tissue disruption, is beneficial for applications that encompass both normal physiological movements and those which require consistent recording during large tissue displacements. In order to test the extreme of this range of movement, flexible electrodes were developed to record activity during and immediately following cortical impact in the rat. Photolithography techniques were used to fabricate flexible electrodes that were readily insertable into the brain using a parylene C base and gold conduction lines and contact pads, permitting custom geometry. We found that this electrode configuration retained mechanical and electrical integrity following both durability studies and large movements within the cortex. This novel flexible electrode configuration provides a novel platform for experimentally examining neuronal activity during a range of brain movements.

Human albumin preserves islet mass and function better than whole serum during pretransplantation islet culture

OBJECTIVE

Human islet transplant protocols frequently include a brief period of islet culture before transplantation. Some investigators have suggested that medium supplementation with human serum might quench collagenase activity and provide better culture conditions when compared with human albumin. We studied the effect of whole serum on islet count, islet equivalence, insulin secretion, and DNA content in human islets.

METHODS

Adult human islets isolated from a single pancreas with purity >50% were cultured in identical 150 islet equivalent samples at 37 degrees C using CMRL 1066-based islet medium (Mediatech) supplemented with either 0.5% human albumin or 10% human AB serum. Prior to culture and after 3 days, islets were assessed in vitro using dithizone staining (n = 4), insulin release after static glucose stimulation (n = 8), and DNA content (n = 8).

RESULTS

After 3 days, islet mass (defined by the number of islets and islet equivalents counted after dithizone staining) was better preserved in islets cultured in 0.5% human albumin. Although the stimulation index and total DNA content were similar between groups, islets cultured in human albumin demonstrated greater absolute insulin secretion (p = .02) and insulin secretion per cell (p = .02).

CONCLUSIONS

When used to supplement CMRL 1066-based islet culture medium, human albumin preserves islet mass and secretory capacity better than whole human serum. Human serum offers no advantage in islet preservation or function.

Multipotent stromal cells from human marrow home to and promote repair of pancreatic islets and renal glomeruli in diabetic NOD/scid mice

We tested the hypothesis that multipotent stromal cells from human bone marrow (hMSCs) can provide a potential therapy for human diabetes mellitus. Severe but nonlethal hyperglycemia was produced in NOD/scid mice with daily low doses of streptozotocin on days 1-4, and hMSCs were delivered via intracardiac infusion on days 10 and 17. The hMSCs lowered blood glucose levels in the diabetic mice on day 32 relative to untreated controls (18.34 mM +/- 1.12 SE vs. 27.78 mM +/- 2.45 SE, P = 0.0019). ELISAs demonstrated that blood levels of mouse insulin were higher in the hMSC-treated as compared with untreated diabetic mice, but human insulin was not detected. PCR assays detected human Alu sequences in DNA in pancreas and kidney on day 17 or 32 but not in other tissues, except heart, into which the cells were infused. In the hMSC-treated diabetic mice, there was an increase in pancreatic islets and beta cells producing mouse insulin. Rare islets contained human cells that colabeled for human insulin or PDX-1. Most of the beta cells in the islets were mouse cells that expressed mouse insulin. In kidneys of hMSC-treated diabetic mice, human cells were found in the glomeruli. There was a decrease in mesangial thickening and a decrease in macrophage infiltration. A few of the human cells appeared to differentiate into glomerular endothelial cells. Therefore, the results raised the possibility that hMSCs may be useful in enhancing insulin secretion and perhaps improving the renal lesions that develop in patients with diabetes mellitus.

The prevalence of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy in a primarily Latina Los Angeles population

OBJECTIVE

To establish the prevalence of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP) in a primarily Latina population in the United States.

STUDY DESIGN

Over a period of 16 months, a convenience sample of subjects admitted to labor and delivery in the third trimester was enrolled. Each subject completed a questionnaire rating their severity of pruritus on a numeric scale of 1 to 10. Serum was analyzed via radioimmunoassay for total bile acid concentration. ICP was defined as pruritus score >4 and a total serum bile acid concentration of >or=20 micromol/l. Ethnicity was determined from hospital record demographic data.

RESULTS

All invited participants enrolled in the study. Three hundred and forty subjects were enrolled. Three hundred and sixteen subjects (93%) were identified as Latina. The serum bile acid concentration range for the entire study population was 1 to 580 micromol/l with a mean of 10.4+/-34.9 micromol/l. Twenty-four (7.1%) subjects had a serum bile acid concentration >or=20 micromol/l. A pruritus score >4 was found in 19.7% (67/340). Of the 24 subjects with a bile acid concentration >or=20 micromol/l, 19 also had a pruritus score >4. Thus, the prevalence of ICP in this population was 5.6% (19/340). In subjects with ICP, the mean serum bile acid concentration was 89.5+/-124.0 micromol/l. When controlling for confounders, women with ICP were associated with higher rates of chorioamnionitis (P=0.043) and their fetuses had higher rates of thick meconium (P=0.053).

CONCLUSIONS

The overall prevalence of ICP in this population was 5.6%, 10 to 100 times higher than previously reported data from the United States. Larger studies of perinatal morbidity examining the diagnostic criteria of cholestasis need to be conducted.

Essential role of the persistent sodium current in spike initiation during slowly rising inputs in mouse spinal neurones

Spinal motoneurons, like many neurons, respond with repetitive spiking to sustained inputs. The afterhyperpolarization (AHP) that follows each spike, however, decays relatively slowly in motoneurons. The slow depolarization during this decay should allow sodium (Na+) channel inactivation to keep up with its activation and thus should prevent initiation of the next spike. We hypothesized that the persistent component of the total Na+ current provides the mechanism that generates a rate of rise sufficiently rapid to generate a spike. In large cultured spinal neurons, presumed to be primarily motoneurons, inhibition of persistent sodium current (NaP) by the drug riluzole at low concentrations resulted in a loss of repetitive firing. However, cells remained fully capable of producing spikes to transient inputs. These effects of riluzole were not due to insufficient depolarization, enhancement of the AHP, or sustained Na+ channel inactivation. To further test this hypothesis, computer simulations were performed with a kinetic Na+ channel model that provided greater independent control of NaP relative to transient Na+ current (NaT) than that provided by riluzole administration. The model was tuned to generate substantial NaP and exhibited good repetitive firing to slowly rising inputs. When NaP was sharply reduced without significantly altering NaT, the model reproduced the effects of riluzole administration, inducing failure of repetitive firing but allowing single spikes in response to sharp transients. These results strongly support the essential role of NaP in spike initiation to slow inputs in spinal neurons. NaP may play a fundamental role in determining how a neuron responds to sustained inputs.

A subset of human rapidly self-renewing marrow stromal cells preferentially engraft in mice

Controversies have arisen as to whether adult stem cells or progenitor cells from bone marrow can engraft into nonhematopoietic tissues in vivo. To resolve some of the controversies, we developed a highly sensitive polymerase chain reaction-based single nucleotide polymorphism (PCR-SNP) assay for competitive engraftment of mixtures of stem/progenitor cells. We used the assay to follow engraftment in immunodeficient mice of subpopulations of the stem/progenitor cells from human bone marrow referred to as either mesenchymal stem cells or marrow stromal cells (MSCs). The engraftment into adult mice without induced tissue injury was low and variable, but there was preferential engraftment of a subpopulation of rapidly self-renewing MSCs (RS-MSCs) compared with a subpopulation of slowly renewing MSCs (SR-MSCs). After intravenous infusion, there was a tendency for the cells to engraft into the hippocampal region that was previously designated a "vascular niche." Migration assays suggested that preferential engraftment of RS-MSCs was in part explained by their expression of CXCR4 and CX3R1, the receptors for SDF-1 and fractalkine.

Roles of NF-κB and Bcl-2 in Two Differential Modes of Cell Death of Mouse Cortical Collecting Duct Cells

Recent data have implicated nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) and Bcl-2 in the regulation of apoptotic and necrotic cell death in various cells. However, mechanisms of their effects on cell death of renal epithelial cells are not clear. First, we investigated the effect of specific inhibition of NF-kappaB and overexpression of Bcl-2 on necrotic cell death induced by hydrogen peroxide or cisplatin in renal collecting duct cells. M-1 cells, which were derived from outer cortical collecting duct, were stably transfected with the non-phosphorylatable mutant of inhibitory-kappaBalpha (I-kappaBalpha) and Bcl-2. Overexpression of I-kappaBalpha and Bcl-2 did not affect cisplatin-induced necrotic cell death, but overexpression of I-kappaBalpha significantly decreased H2O2-induced cell death. Regarding apoptotic cell death induced by cisplatin, serum deprivation and contact inhibition was increased by overexpression of I-kappaBalpha, whereas overexpression of bcl-2 inhibited the apoptotic cell death. I-kappaBalpha overexpression increased Bax expression and decreased cIAP-1 and -2 expression compared to vector-transfected cells, but did not alter SAPK/JNK activity in the presence or absence of cisplatin. NF-kappaB activity was significantly higher in bcl-2-overexpressing cells than in control cells. These data show that activation of NF-kappaB mediates H2O2-induced necrotic injury, but inhibits apoptotic cell death in renal collecting duct cells, and that Bcl-2 selectively protects apoptotic cell death in M-1 cells.

Characterization and expression analysis of mesenchymal stem cells from human bone marrow and adipose tissue

Human mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), that have been reported to be present in bone marrow, adipose tissues, dermis, muscles and peripheral blood, have the potential to differentiate along different lineages including those forming bone, cartilage, fat, muscle and neuron. This differentiation potential makes MSC excellent candidates for cell-based tissue engineering. In this study, we have examined phenotypes and gene expression profile of the human adipose tissue-derived stromal cells (ATSC) in the undifferentiated states, and compared with that of bone marrow stromal cells (BMSC). ATSC were enzymatically released from adipose tissues from adult human donors and were expanded in monolayer with serial passages at confluence. BMSC were harvested from the metaphysis of adult human femur. Flowcytometric analysis showed that ATSC have a marker expression that is similar to that of BMSC. ATSC expressed CD29, CD44, CD90, CD105 and were absent for HLA-DR and c-kit expression. Under appropriate culture conditions, MSC were induced to differentiate to the osteoblast, adipocyte, and chondrogenic lineages. ATSC were superior to BMSC in respect to maintenance of proliferating ability, and microarray analysis of gene expression revealed differentially expressed genes between ATSC and BMSC. The proliferating ability and differentiation potential of ATSC were variable according to the culture condition. The similarities of the phenotypes and the gene expression profiles between ATSC and BMSC could have broad implications for human tissue engineering.

Influence of active dendritic currents on input-output processing in spinal motoneurons in vivo

The extensive dendritic tree of the adult spinal motoneuron generates a powerful persistent inward current (PIC). We investigated how this dendritic PIC influenced conversion of synaptic input to rhythmic firing. A linearly increasing, predominantly excitatory synaptic input was generated in triceps ankle extensor motoneurons by slow stretch (duration: 2-10 s) of the Achilles tendon in the decerebrate cat preparation. The firing pattern evoked by stretch was measured by injecting a steady current to depolarize the cell to threshold for firing. The effective synaptic current (I(N), the net synaptic current reaching the soma of the cell) evoked by stretch was measured during voltage clamp. Hyperpolarized holding potentials were used to minimize the activation of the dendritic PIC and thus estimate stretch-evoked I(N) for a passive dendritic tree (I(N,PASS)). Depolarized holding potentials that approximated the average membrane potential during rhythmic firing allowed strong activation of the dendritic PIC and thus resulted in marked enhancement of the total stretch-evoked I(N) (I(N,TOT)). The net effect of the dendritic PIC on the generation of rhythmic firing was assessed by plotting stretch-evoked firing (strong PIC activation) versus stretch-evoked I(N,PASS) (minimal PIC activation). The gain of this input-output function for the neuron (I-O(N)) was found to be ~2.7 times as high as for the standard injected frequency current (F-I) function in low-input conductance neurons. However, about halfway through the stretch, firing rate tended to become constant, resulting in a sharp saturation in I-O(N) that was not present in F-I. In addition, the gain of I-O(N) decreased sharply with increasing input conductance, resulting in much lower stretch-evoked firing rates in high-input conductance cells. All three of these phenomena (high initial gain, saturation, and differences in low- and high-input conductance cells) were also readily apparent in the differences between stretch-evoked I(N,TOT) and I(N, PASS) and thus could be accounted for by the activation of the dendritic PIC. As a result, stretch-evoked I(N,TOT) and F-I provided an accurate prediction of the overall change in stretch-evoked firing. However, in about half of the low-input conductance cells, the rate of rise of firing in response to stretch was not smoothly graded but instead consisted of a rapid surge. Stretch-evoked I(N,TOT) was always smoothly graded. This suggests that although stretch-evoked I(N,TOT) can be used to predict the overall change in firing, prediction of the dynamics of firing may be less accurate.

Effects of peripheral benzodiazepine receptor ligands on proliferation and differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells

The peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR) has been known to have many functions such as a role in cell proliferation, cell differentiation, steroidogenesis, calcium flow, cellular respiration, cellular immunity, malignancy, and apoptosis. However, the presence of PBR has not been examined in mesenchymal stem cells. In this study, we demonstrated the expression of PBR in human bone marrow stromal cells (hBMSCs) and human adipose stromal cells (hATSCs) by RT-PCR and immunocytochemistry. To determine the roles of PBR in cellular functions of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs), effects of diazepam, PK11195, and Ro5-4864 were examined. Adipose differentiation of hMSCs was decreased by high concentration of PBR ligands (50 microM), whereas it was increased by low concentrations of PBR ligands (<10 microM). PBR ligands showed a biphasic effect on glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) activity. High concentration of PBR ligands (from 25 to 75 microM) inhibited proliferation of hMSCs. However, clonazepam, which does not have an affinity to PBR, did not affect adipose differentiation and proliferation of hMSCs. The PBR ligands did not induce cell death in hMSCs. PK11195 (50 microM) and Ro5-5864 (50 microM) induced cell cycle arrest in the G(2)/M phase. These results indicate that PBR ligands play roles in adipose differentiation and proliferation of hMSCs.

Expression of aquaporin-5 and its regulation in skeletal muscle cells

The aquaporins constitute a family of homologous intrinsic membrane proteins that function as highly selective water channels and are highly expressed in tissues where rapid water movement across the cell membrane is required. Molecular mechanism of water transport through the plasma membrane of skeletal muscle is still not clear. This study was designed to identify aquaporin subtypes and their expression regulation in C2C12 cells, a mouse myoblastic cell line. RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis revealed that C2C12 cells express AQP5. AQP5 expression was increased by induction of C2C12 differentiation. Exposure of C2C12 cells to hypertonic solutions induced an increase in AQP5 expression and p38 kinase activation. However, a p38 kinase inhibitor failed to inhibit hyperosmolar induction of AQP5 expression in C2C12 cells. These data indicate that skeletal muscle cells express AQP5 protein and its expression is regulated by differentiation and hypertonic stress.

Nitric oxide in the healing wound: a time-course study

INTRODUCTION

We studied the time course of nitric oxide expression in the healing wound and the cell populations responsible for its synthesis.

METHODS

Twenty four Lewis rats underwent subcutaneous implantation of polyvinyl alcohol sponges. Rats were sacrificed in groups of three on days 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 14, and 35 after wounding. The conversion of 3H-labeled arginine to 3H-labeled citrulline, with or without N(G)-L-monomethyl-arginine (L-NMMA) in harvested sponges, was measured. Nitrate/nitrite (NOx) in plasma and wound fluid was quantified by Greiss reaction. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) gene expression was determined by Northern analysis and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Inducible NOS was identified in specific wound cell populations by dual-label flow cytometry.

RESULTS

Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity peaked at 24 h after wounding (37.7 +/- 0.9 micromol citrulline per milligram sponge), with a steady decline thereafter. Percentage inhibition of NOS activity by l-NMMA was highest on days 1-7 (70-80%). This declined to 50% by day 10 and to 25% by days 14-35. The iNOS gene expression paralleled NOS biochemical activity. RT-PCR confirmed low-level expression up to 10 days after wounding. Plasma NOx levels remained within a narrow range of 22.6 +/- 1.3 to 29.3 +/- 1.5 microM throughout the postwounding period, while corresponding levels in wound fluid (microM) increased steadily from 27 +/- 3.8 on day 1 to 107.2 +/- 10.0 on day 14. Inducible NOS expression was detectable by fluorescence-activated cell sorting in wound macrophages on days 1 and 3 after wounding.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest maximal NOS activity early in cutaneous wound healing, with sustained production up to 10 days after wounding. NOS biochemical activity was paralleled by iNOS gene expression. Plasma NOx remained constant, while wound fluid NOx increased steadily to peak at day 14. Wound macrophages appear to be a source of nitric oxide production in the early phase of wound healing.

Cisplatin-induced apoptosis by translocation of endogenous Bax in mouse collecting duct cells

cis-platinum(II) (cis-diammine dichloroplatinum; cisplatin) is a potent antitumor compound that is widely used for the treatment of many malignancies. An important side-effect of cisplatin is nephrotoxicity, which results from injury to renal tubular epithelial cells and can be manifested as either acute renal failure or a chronic syndrome characterized by renal electrolyte wasting. Recently, apoptosis has been recognized as an important mechanism of cell death mediating the antitumor effect of cisplatin. This study was undertaken to examine the mechanisms of cell death induced by cisplatin in M-1 cells, which were derived from the outer cortical collecting duct cells of SV40 transgenic mice. Treatment of M-1 cells with high concentrations of cisplatin (0.5 and 1 mM) for 2 hr led to necrotic cell death, whereas a 24-hr treatment with 5-20 microM cisplatin led to apoptosis. Antioxidants protected against cisplatin-induced necrosis, but not apoptosis, indicating that reactive oxygen species play a role in mediating necrosis but not apoptosis induced by cisplatin and that the mechanism of cell death induced by cisplatin is concentration dependent. The low concentrations of cisplatin, which induced apoptosis in M-1 cells, did not affect the expression levels of Bcl-2-related proteins and did not activate c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (SAPK/JNK). Cisplatin induced the translocation of endogenous Bax from the cytosolic to the membrane fractions and, subsequently, the release of cytochrome c. Overexpression of Bcl-2 blocked cisplatin-induced apoptosis and Bax translocation. These observations suggest that the subcellular redistribution of Bax is a critical event in the apoptosis induced by cisplatin.