Outcomes, complications and risk factors following fluoroscopically guided transcondylar screw placement for humeral intracondylar fissure

OBJECTIVES

To describe the surgical technique and complications for fluoroscopically guided transcondylar screw placement for humeral intracondylar fissure in dogs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A retrospective review was undertaken of cases from two hospitals where identical surgical technique was employed. Factors were analysed for any association with postoperative complications.

RESULTS

Sixty-two dogs (82 elbows) were reviewed for which the postoperative complication rate was 45%; a total of 15% of cases required revision surgery. Complications were more likely in cases operated on earlier in the case series and with increasing dog bodyweight. Both increasing surgical time and being a neutered female were protective against postoperative complications.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Fluoroscopically guided transcondylar screw placement for humeral intracondylar fissure is associated with a high postoperative complication rate (45%) with 15% of cases requiring revision surgery.

Analysis of risk factors for dermatitis and cellulitis in turkeys using abattoir post mortem data

1. Cellulitis and dermatitis are often seen in turkeys at slaughter and are, in many cases, reasons for rejection at meat inspection. Using the results of meat inspections and information about the housing conditions of the animals may provide information on causative factors in the development of cellulitis and dermatitis. 2. A census of two years of turkey production in a company including both fattening farms and an abattoir in the north of England was used to study the relationship between the prevalence of cellulitis/dermatitis and mechanical versus natural ventilation in the poultry house, litter type (long straw, short straw and wood shavings) and stocking density. 3. The overall prevalence of cellulitis and dermatitis in this population was 0.12 %, which was extremely low compared to reports in the literature. In mechanically ventilated houses, the odds of developing cellulitis and/or dermatitis was significantly higher than in naturally ventilated houses (Odds Ratio 3.18). Long straw had a protective effect compared to wood shavings (Odds Ratio 0.18). 4. The study showed that using slaughter data can be helpful in studying on-farm risk factors for disease development.

Survey of husbandry and health on UK commercial dairy goat farms

Published research relevant to the UK dairy goat industry is scarce. Current practices and concerns within the UK dairy goat industry must be better understood if research is to have optimal value. A postal survey was conducted of the farmer membership of the Milking Goat Association as a first step in addressing gaps in knowledge. Questions were asked about husbandry practices, farmer observations of their goats and their priorities for further research. Seventy-three per cent of Milking Goat Association members responded, representing 38 per cent of commercial dairy goat farms and 53 per cent of the commercial dairy goat population in England and Wales. Findings were comprehensive and showed extensive variation in farm practices. Farmers reported pneumonia and scours (diarrhoea) as the most prevalent illnesses of their kids. Pneumonia, diarrhoea, failure to conceive and poor growth were the most prevalent observations of youngstock. Overly fat body condition, assisted kidding, failure to conceive and difficulty drying off were the most prevalent observations of adult milking goats. Farmers' top priorities for further research were kid health (79.5 per cent of farmers), Johne's disease (69.5 per cent of farmers), tuberculosis (59 per cent of farmers) and nutrition (47.7 per cent of farmers).

Lameness assessment with automatic monitoring of activity in commercial broiler flocks

The possibility of using automatic recordings of broiler chicken activity in commercial flocks to assess the birds΄ walking ability (lameness) was investigated. Data were collected from 5 commercial broiler farms in 4 European countries, using 16 flocks and 33 assessment occasions. Lameness was assessed using established gait scoring methods (Kestin et al., 1992; Welfare Quality®, 2009) and took place at 3, 4, and 5 wk of age. Gait score (GS) was used to assess the birds' walking ability, and automatic recordings of bird activity were collected using the eYeNamic™ camera system before, during, and after an assessor walked through the house. The variables used to predict the level of GS extracted from the camera system were: baseline activity, time from assessor leaving the house to resumption of baseline activity, average activity over that period, and Δ Amplitude (difference between highest activity peak after assessor left the house and baseline level). Age (<0.001) and Δ Amplitude (P = 0.0002) were significantly related to GS, with the gait getting poorer with increased age and Δ Amplitude decreasing with declining walking ability. Both measures are thus included in a predictive equation. The results demonstrate a potential method using image analysis techniques to realize an automated assessment of the level of lameness in commercial broiler flocks. This could be of use in future animal welfare assessment schemes.

Internal roosting location is associated with differential use of the outdoor range by free-range laying hens

1. In commercial free-range systems for laying hens, popholes to the outdoor range are often installed on one side of the house only. In multi-tier systems, it is possible that some individuals fail to access the range due to internal barriers to movement. 2. Five commercial multi-tier flocks from different units were studied. For each flock, two different colour markers were used to distinguish 200 birds roosting near the popholes (NP-Roost) and 200 birds roosting far from the popholes (FP-Roost) at night. The following day, counts of marked birds on the range and inside the house were performed. 3. Significantly more NP-Roost birds were observed in all areas of the outdoor range than FP-Roost birds the next day. Distance of FP area from the popholes was very strongly positively correlated with effect size in the adjacent range area. 4. Additionally, in the indoor area far from the popholes (FP) more FP-Roost birds were observed the next day than NP-Roost birds. In the indoor area near to the popholes (NP) more NP-Roost birds were observed the next day than FP-Roost birds. 5. These results suggest that roosting location is associated with differential range use when popholes are only available on one side of the shed as birds that roosted far from the popholes used the range less.

Factors affecting ranging behaviour in young and adult laying hens

1. A study was conducted to investigate the effect of environment on ranging in 33 flocks reared with (16) or without (17) range access. Ranging was observed at 8, 16 and 35 weeks. Information on house layout, weather conditions and range characteristics was used to create models predicting the percentage of the flock out on the range and the percentage of ranging birds observed away from the house. 2. Three flocks had range access at 8 weeks. The percentage of birds ranging averaged 28%, with 22% of these ranging away from the house. For the 13 flocks with range access at 16 weeks, the percentage of pullets on the range was 12%, with 29% of these ranging away from the house. At 35 weeks, all flocks had range access and the average percentage of birds out on the range was 13%, with 42% of these ranging away from the house. 3. The percentage of birds seen using the range was higher with reduced flock size and stocking density, increased pop hole availability (cm/bird) and light intensity inside the house. More birds ranged on cooler days and on farms located in areas with fewer days of rain per year and lower average rainfall. The percentage of birds ranging varied with season and was lowest in May. More birds ranged away from the house when cover and more artificial structures were present on the range. The proportion of ranging birds located away from the house increased with lower outdoor humidity levels, higher air pressure, and on warmer days. Lastly, birds ranged away from the house more as they got older.

Infrared thermometry for lesion monitoring in cattle lameness

Infrared thermometry is a non-invasive tool shown to be useful in detecting claw abnormalities in cattle at an individual and herd level. This study used the technology to monitor foot temperature and investigate the association with lesion presence over time. A 990 cow dairy herd was enrolled and followed for six months, with data collection fortnightly, lesions were identified by examination of any cow with a mobility score >2, using the 0-3 scale. Two level, multilevel analysis of the association between ambient temperature and foot temperature found that the former was a significant predictor of the latter (coefficient estimate (se)=0.277 (0.02)). Actual foot temperatures were calculated by adjusting for this covariate to allow monitoring over time. Presence of a lesion was also found to be a significant predictor of foot temperature (coefficient estimate (se)=0.623 (0.19)), when added to the model, furthermore some lesion types, claw horn and multiple lesions, were found to be associated with differential foot temperatures. When monitoring lesions over time, the mean adjusted foot temperature was highest at the point of lesion identification. A marked drop in temperature then followed after the lesion was trimmed, with the lowest mean temperature recorded six weeks after treatment, significantly different from the point of lesion identification (P=0.003). This temperature was also lower than the six weeks prior to diagnosis of the lesion, suggesting inflammation was present for at least six weeks prior to the behavioural sign of lameness was seen.

User's acceptability of OvuSense: a novel vaginal temperature sensor for prediction of the fertile period

Measuring changes in core body temperature provides a valid method to detect ovulation and increase fertility. 'OvuSense' is a novel vaginal sensor that can predict the fertility window by recording and analysing the changes in intravaginal temperature records. This study aimed to determine patients 'acceptability and satisfaction after using OvuSense'. We approached 13 women to complete a patient satisfaction survey after using OvuSense in a prospective, longitudinal, comparative study, to test its validity and accuracy in detecting ovulation over a minimum period of three cycles. All 13 women agreed to participate in this survey. The majority of the participants found the usage of the reader to be very easy; 76.9% of the women said it was extremely comfortable to use the device during the night and 76.9% found the idea of using the intravaginal reader to be very convenient. Overall, 69.2% of women were extremely satisfied using the device. The idea of detecting intravaginal core body temperature changes appears to be highly acceptable by women.

The effect of stocking density in transit on the carcass quality and welfare of slaughter pigs: 2. Results from the analysis of blood and meat samples

In a trial involving 2496 pigs, the influences on blood profile and pork quality of stocking densities ranging from 201 to 321kg m(-2) were examined. The pigs came from four different farms and were killed in 16 weekly batches. They were transported for on average 3hr and held in lairage for 1hr. Higher stocking densities resulted in more physical stress to the pigs based on the activity of the enzyme CPK in the blood. Stocking density did not apparently affect psychological stress and high densities did not result in dehydration. The colour, water holding capacity and instrumentally-determined texture of the pork from the carcasses of the pigs were not affected by stocking density. The experimental design and precision of the measurements were sufficient to detect numerous differences in blood profile and pork quality between pigs from the four source farms. These differences probably related to different degrees of stress-susceptibility. The results suggest that the highest stocking density examined (321kg m(-2)) is unacceptable for the transport of pigs. The second highest density (281kg m(-2)) produced relatively little evidence of an adverse effect on the welfare of pigs. It may be scientifically acceptable for short journeys (≤3hr) but not for longer ones where pigs need more space to lie down.

Acute phase response to Mycoplasma haemofelis and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' infection in FIV-infected and non-FIV-infected cats

The pathogenicity of Haemoplasma spp. in cats varies with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' (CMhm) causing subclinical infection while Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf) often induces haemolytic anaemia. The aims of this study were to characterise the acute phase response (APR) of the cat to experimental infection with Mhf or CMhm, and to determine whether chronic feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection influences this response. The acute phase proteins serum amyloid A (SAA), haptoglobin (Hp) and α-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP) concentrations were measured pre-infection and every 7-14 days up to day 100 post-infection (pi) in cats infected with either Mhf or CMhm. Half of each group of cats (6/12) were chronically and subclinically infected with FIV. Marbofloxacin treatment was given on days 16-44 pi to half of the Mhf-infected cats, and on days 49-77 pi to half of the CMhm-infected cats. FIV-infected animals had significantly lower AGP concentrations, and significantly greater Hp concentrations than non-FIV-infected cats when infected with CMhm and Mhf, respectively. Both CMhm and Mhf infection were associated with significant increases in SAA concentrations, while AGP concentrations were only significantly increased by Mhf infection. Mhf-infected cats had significantly greater SAA concentrations than CMhm-infected animals. Both Mhf and CMhm infections were associated with an APR, with Mhf infection inducing a greater response. Chronic FIV infection appeared to modify the APR, which varied with the infecting Haemoplasma species.

Levels of mortality in hens by end of lay on farm and in transit to slaughter in Great Britain

The average mortality for end of lay hens dead on arrival (DOA) was 0.27 per cent (median 0.15 per cent) in a survey of 13.3 million hens transported during 2009. A statistical model of the data indicated main risk factors for DOA to be slaughter plant, distance travelled and external air temperature, with longer journeys and low external air temperatures increasing the risk. Other highly significant risk factors (P<0.001) related to the condition of the birds on farm, where an increased risk of DOA was positively associated with poor feather cover, lower body weight, cumulative mortality of the flock and poor health (indicated by a high proportion of the load rejected at the plant for traumatic injury and disease state). However, the data indicate that by taking risk factors into consideration it is possible to transport hens up to 960 km with low losses in temperate conditions. Mean levels of on-farm mortality, during the laying period, for a total of 1486 flocks were significantly lower in cages (5.39 per cent) than in barn (8.55 per cent), free-range (9.52 per cent) or organic flocks (8.68 per cent) according to producer records a median of seven days before depopulation, with considerable variation between flocks in all systems.

Pop hole use by hens with different keel fracture status monitored throughout the laying period

The aim of this work was to study the effect of keel fractures on the extent to which free-range hens access the range through pop holes. Over two consecutive laying periods (two production years) a total of 1100 individual birds from one half of a house, divided into four separated flocks, were caught at 25, 35, 45, 55 and 65 weeks, palpated to assess the prevalence and severity of keel fractures and tagged with RFID transponders. Their use of pop holes was subsequently monitored in some cases from week 25 to end of lay at 68 to 70 weeks. At regular intervals (every 10 weeks), the tagged birds were re-caught to assess changes in keel fracture prevalence and severity. The average percentage of birds with fractured keels at 25, 35, 45, 55, 65 and at end of lay (68 to 70 weeks of age) was 5.5, 25.5, 49, 63, 66.5 and 78.5, respectively, across both production years. The effect of keel score on pop hole use was modelled statistically, adjusting for weather conditions and age of the birds. There were significant effects of most of the weather variables recorded, as well as age of the bird, on use of pop holes and also a significant effect of keel score. Higher keel scores resulted in a reduction in pop hole use. A significant statistical interaction between keel score and ambient temperature revealed an accelerated reduction in use as the temperature decreased and keel score increased. It is concluded that the occurrence of keel fractures may affect the birds' ability or willingness to utilise the outdoor range provided by free-range housing systems, thereby reducing the potential welfare advantages of this type of housing.

Achieving consensus on current and future priorities for farmed fish welfare: a case study from the UK

The welfare of farmed fish has attracted attention in recent years, which has resulted in notable changes within the aquaculture industry. However, a lack of communication between stakeholders and opposing ethical views are perceived as barriers to achieving consensus on how to improve farmed fish welfare. To address these issues, we developed an interactive approach that could be used during stakeholder meetings to (1) improve communication between different stakeholder groups, (2) build consensus on priorities for farmed fish welfare and (3) establish mechanisms to address welfare priorities. We then applied this approach during a meeting of stakeholders to identify current and future priorities for farmed fish welfare in the UK. During the meeting in the UK, stakeholders initially identified 32 areas that they felt were in need of development for future improvements in farmed fish welfare. These were further refined via peer review and discussion to the seven most important "priority" areas. Establishing a "better understanding of what good fish welfare is" emerged as the highest priority area for farmed fish welfare. The second highest priority area was "the need for welfare monitoring and documentation systems", with mortality recording proposed as an example. The other five priority areas were "[improved understanding of] the role of genetic selection in producing fish suited to the farming environment", "a need for integration and application of behavioural and physiological measures", "the need for a more liberal regime in Europe for introducing new medicines", "a need to address the issues of training existing and new workers within the industry", and "ensuring best practise in aquaculture is followed by individual businesses". Feedback from attendees, and the meeting outputs, indicated that the approach had been successful in improving communication between stakeholders and in achieving consensus on the priorities for farmed fish welfare. The approach therefore proved highly beneficial for future improvements in fish welfare in the UK.

Head-only electrical stunning of poultry using a waterbath: a feasibility study

1. The objective of this work was to investigate the feasibility of head only waterbath stunning as a means of generating immediate and long lasting unconsciousness while preventing wing flapping and avoiding carcass damage. 2. EEG measurements showed that immersion of the heads of the broilers for one second in a waterbath containing water of conductivity 2 x 5 mS/cm and a 50 Hz electric field of 10 V/cm resulted in immediate unconsciousness, and that increasing the electric field strength extended the duration of unconsciousness. 3. The passage of a 25-30 mA alternating current of frequency 2000 Hz through the broilers' bodies suppressed the wing flapping that followed a stun. 4. When the body current and electric field were applied simultaneously, wing flapping was prevented and EEG signals were suppressed for over 30 seconds indicating that the immediate unconsciousness lasted long enough to facilitate humane slaughter.

Influence of housing system and design on bone strength and keel bone fractures in laying hens

The main objectives of the study were to provide an accurate assessment of current levels of old breaks in end-of-lay hens housed in a variety of system designs and identify the important risk factors. Sixty-seven flocks housed in eight broad subcategories were assessed at the end of the production period. Within each flock, the presence of keel fractures was determined and the tibia, humerus and keel bones dissected for measurement of breaking strength. For each house, variations in internal design and perching provision were categorised and the effective heights of the differing structures recorded. All systems were associated with alarmingly high levels of keel damage although variation in mean prevalence between systems was evident with flocks housed in furnished cages having the lowest prevalence (36 per cent) despite also having significantly weaker bones and flocks housed in all systems equipped with multilevel perches showing the highest levels of damage (over 80 per cent) and the highest severity scores.

Continuous monitoring of pop hole usage by commercially housed free-range hens throughout the production cycle

Free-range laying hens are able to move between the indoor house and range through exits termed pop holes. The aim of this study was to examine the proportion of the flock that used the pop holes and to identify patterns of movement throughout the flock cycle. Four flocks of free-range hens each of 1500 birds were studied. Ten per cent of each flock were tagged with RFID (radio-frequency identification) transponders and their pop hole activity studied throughout the production cycle. Within two weeks of tagging at 25, 35, 45, 55 and 65 weeks of age, approximately 80 per cent of the tagged birds were seen in the pop holes and 50 per cent of the tagged birds were seen on 80 per cent of the days available to them after tagging. Within the flock, subpopulations of birds could be identified: those that never ventured to the pop holes (approximately 8 per cent), those that used the pop holes very infrequently (approximately 8 per cent), those that sat in the pop holes (approximately 4 per cent), and those that used the pop holes frequently (approximately 80 per cent). There was an effect of age of the birds, time of day and daily mean temperature on pop hole usage. Additional factors affecting activity on particular days were wind speed, rainfall and hours of sunshine. The findings show that a significant proportion of the flock accesses the pop holes on a regular basis with only a very small proportion preferring to stay in the house.

Factors affecting the mortality of pigs being transported to slaughter

A multilevel logistic regression model was used to identify and quantify the effects of factors affecting the mortality of pigs being transported to slaughter under commercial conditions. A survey of 739 journeys to 37 slaughterhouses in five eu countries was carried out, and information potentially related to the welfare and mortality of the pigs and the number of injuries were recorded. The average temperature during the journey, its duration, the average loading time per pig, the recorded injuries, fasting before transport, and the interaction between fasting and journey duration were used in the final model. The average mortality was 0.11 per cent and the average proportion of injured pigs was 0.36 per cent, and these figures were significantly correlated (P<0.001). In 29 per cent of the journeys the pigs were not fasted before being loaded, which doubled the risk of mortality irrespective of whether the pigs were injured or not. The risk of mortality increased with average temperature. In journeys with fasted pigs that did not have any recorded injury, average temperature was more important than the duration of the journey. The risk of mortality increased as the average time taken to load them decreased, and the risk was highest when the pigs were not fasted and when injuries were recorded. Other factors such as the country, loading density, availability of drinking water and type of ventilation did not affect the risk of mortality.

Effects of well-boat transportation on the muscle pH and onset of rigor mortis in Atlantic salmon

During the transport of salmon (Salmo salar), in a well-boat, 10 fish were sampled at each of six stages: in cages after crowding at the farm (stage 1), in the well-boat after loading (stage 2), in the well-boat after eight hours transport and before unloading (stage 3), in the resting cages immediately after finishing unloading (stage 4), after 24 hours resting in cages, (stage 5) and in the processing plant after pumping from the resting cages (stage 6). The water in the well-boat was at ambient temperature with recirculation to the sea. At each stage the fish were stunned percussively and bled by gill cutting. Immediately after death, and then every three hours for 18 hours, the muscle pH and rigor index of the fish were measured. At successive stages the initial muscle pH of the fish decreased, except for a slight gain in stage 5, after they had been rested for 24 hours. The lowest initial muscle pH was observed at stage 6. The fishes' rigor index showed that rigor developed more quickly at each successive stage, except for a slight decrease in rate at stage 5, attributable to the recovery of muscle reserves.

The development, implementation and testing of a lameness control programme based on HACCP principles and designed for heifers on dairy farms

This paper describes the development and testing of a lameness control programme (LCP) for heifers on dairy farms. The LCP, which is based on the analysis of hazards and critical control points (HACCP), was tested via a randomised intervention study on 60 farms. Tangible hazards for each farm were identified, allotted to 11 categories of proximate hazard and scored on each farm to quantify the risks presented by each hazard. Feet were inspected for signs of claw horn disease and infection, such as digital dermatitis. Intervention was generally ineffective, primarily through failure to implement the LCP. However, retrospective analysis was able to demonstrate highly significant associations between risks attached to proximate hazards and probabilities of lameness and foot lesions, allowing the severity of these hazards to be ranked. The most significant proximate hazards of environmental origin were prolonged standing on concrete, standing in wet slurry and factors that cause claw trauma. The most severe proximate hazards however were those associated with failures of management, especially poor claw condition and inadequate foot care. Overall farm risks (OFR) were estimated by summing the products of the generic severity for proximate hazards with on-farm risks. Changes in OFR were significantly related to changes in outcome (lameness and lesions).

Multi-element survey of allotment produce and soil in the UK

In 2004, a survey of 12 metals was carried out in six rural and six urban allotment sites across the UK. A total of 215 samples of vegetables and 36 samples of soft fruit were analysed using ICP-MS, and 51 samples of soil using ICP-OES. On a fresh weight basis, Cu levels in produce ranged 0.119-2.271 mg kg(-1). The highest levels measured (in mg kg(-1)) were Pb 0.164 in a sample of blackcurrants, Cd 0.039 in spinach, Hg 0.003 in curly kale and As 0.025 in raspberries. The lowest concentrations for these metals were below the level of detection (LOD) in numerous samples. The majority of Pt samples were below LOD and all were under the limit of quantification (LOQ). The results of the survey showed that the concentrations of the metals in vegetables, fruit and soils were consistent with previous studies and, generally, at low levels.

Factors affecting bacterial counts during preparation of the hands for aseptic surgery

This study was designed to compare the efficacy of four hand preparation techniques in removing bacteria from the hands preoperatively. The effect of bacteriological swabbing itself on bacterial counts was also investigated. The numbers of bacteria obtained from the dominant and non-dominant hands were also determined. The techniques all used 4 per cent chlorhexidine gluconate, and consisted of rubbing for five minutes with one application of antiseptic; rubbing for five minutes with five applications of antiseptic; rubbing for one minute with one application of antiseptic; and scrubbing with a brush for five minutes with one application of antiseptic. The results showed that the four techniques were equally effective at removing bacteria. There was no significant difference in the bacterial counts obtained from the dominant and non-dominant hands. The wearing of gloves for up to 30 minutes after scrubbing had no effect on the bacterial counts. Swabbing itself significantly reduced the number of bacteria cultured from the hands.

Factors affecting the prevalence of foot pad dermatitis, hock burn and breast burn in broiler chicken

1. Standardised data on flock husbandry were recorded on 149 broiler farms during the 4 d prior to slaughter. 2. Birds were examined at the slaughterhouse for contact dermatitis lesions. Foot pad dermatitis score (FPDS) and hock burn score (HBS) were measured on five point scales. Carcase rejection data were also collected. 3. The mean percentage of birds in each flock with: moderate or severe foot lesions was 11.1% (range 0-71.5%); moderate or severe hock burn was 1.3% (range 0-33.3%); and, breast burn was 0.02%. 4. A general linear model was developed to examine factors associated with mean flock FPDS. Assuming a linear relationship, within the range of data collected and with all other factors remaining the same, every 1% increase in the proportion of Genotype A birds in the flock was associated with an increase in mean FPDS of 0.003, every one-point increase in litter score was associated with a 0.326 increase in mean FPDS and every one-point increase in flock mean HBS was associated with a 0.411 increase in mean FPDS. Flock mean FPDS was associated with feed supplier and was higher in winter. 5. The general linear model developed for flock mean HBS, found that every one-point increase in mean FPDS increased mean HBS by 0.090, every one-point increase in litter score increased HBS by 0.119 and, every 1% increase in small/emaciated birds decreased mean HBS by 0.333. Reduced HBS was also associated with increased final litter depth, younger slaughter age and an increased percentage of dietary wheat. For every 1% increase in Genotype A birds, a decrease in flock mean HBS of 0.003 would be expected. 6. An effect of hatchery was also identified.

An Immunohistochemical Assessment of the Cutaneous Immune Response to Louse Infestation in Cattle

Skin samples were taken from 10 experimental cattle exposed naturally, during a period extending over two winters, to Bovicola bovis and Solenoptes capillatus, five becoming infested and five being protected from infestation by repeated treatment with ectoparasiticides. Skin sections were examined histopathologically and immunohistochemically for expression of the immune cell markers CD3, CD4, CD8 and class II antigens of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Louse-infested cattle had a mixed infiltration of the superficial dermis and perifollicular regions with eosinophils and mononuclear cells. The skin of infested cattle differed from that of non-infested cattle in showing significantly more cells expressing CD3, CD4 and MHC class II (P<0.05). Many of the MHC class II(+) cells had dendritic morphology, suggesting active antigen presentation within the lesions. Louse infestations have previously been thought to produce a type 1 hypersensitivity response, mediated by Th2 lymphocytes. However, the increased number of lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells observed in the present study suggests that in chronic infestation there is activation of local cell-mediated (Th1) immunity.

Herd health planning: farmers' perceptions in relation to lameness and mastitis

Between December 2002 and December 2003, the herd health planning activities on 61 dairy farms in the uk were compared with several measures of lameness and mastitis. Lameness had been reported as a problem in 53 of the herds directly by the farm and in the other eight by the nominating local veterinary practice; 54 of the farms also reported having a mastitis problem. Fifty-three (87 per cent) of the farms had some form of written herd health plan, of which 21 (40 per cent) had been in place for 12 months or less. All the farms were recording mastitis in some way, although 38 (62 per cent) of the farmers did not review these records and only four retained the results of a comprehensive record review. Farms defined as having a high incidence of mastitis were more likely to be reviewing their health records, but farms defined as having a high prevalence of lameness in a sentinel group of early lactation heifers were less likely to be reviewing their health records.

Methods used in veterinary practice to maintain the temperature of intravenous fluids

To determine the methods used in veterinary practice to maintain the temperature of intravenous fluids, and the users' impression of their efficacy, data were collected from a survey of 150 veterinary practices. Of the 99 per cent of the practices that warmed intravenous fluids, the use of a heat retention bag cover was most popular and was considered most effective. In a laboratory experiment, four methods of maintaining the temperature of intravenous fluids were compared. The results showed that there was a significant loss of heat through the giving set. A heat retention cover was an effective device for maintaining the temperature of the prewarmed fluid in its bag. The use of ;hot hands' (a sealed surgical glove containing warmed water) was most effective in reducing heat loss from the delivered fluid, and was aided by prewarming the giving set.

Comparison of the effects of fan-assisted and natural ventilation of vehicles on the welfare of pigs being transported to slaughter

A total of 417 pigs with an estimated average liveweight of 91 kg were transported to slaughter in three journeys, carried out in late June, each consisting of a three-hour drive followed by a one-hour holding period at the slaughter plant before they were unloaded. The pigs were accommodated on the lower two decks of a three-deck articulated lorry, each deck having five equal-sized pens; half were kept in naturally ventilated pens and half in pens with fan-assisted ventilation. The pigs' body temperature was recorded as the temperature of the blood lost at exsanguination, and as the temperature of the inner surface of the ear measured by thermal imaging. The pigs carried on the upper deck were hotter than those carried on the lower deck, and the pigs carried at the front of the vehicle were hotter than those at the back. There were small differences between the temperatures of the pigs in the different pens, but overall the temperatures of the pigs kept in pens with fan-assisted ventilation were no lower than those of the pigs kept in pens with natural ventilation. The higher temperature of the pigs transported in the front of the vehicle was associated with significantly higher serum concentrations of cortisol and activities of creatine kinase, and a tendency to higher albumin concentrations and osmolality, suggesting that they may have been exposed to more physical and psychological stress, and were possibly slightly more dehydrated, than the pigs in the rearmost pens. The type of ventilation had no effect on the blood composition of the pigs.

Estimating the body temperature of groups of pigs by thermal imaging

Measurements on 28 pens of pigs containing 384 animals to be slaughtered at a commercial abattoir showed that the mean ear temperatures of the pigs in each pen, measured with a thermal imaging camera, were significantly correlated (r=0.71, P<0.001) with the mean temperature of the blood the pigs lost at exsanguination. In measurements on 220 pigs in 16 of the 28 pens, the mean activity of serum creatine kinase was positively correlated with the mean ear temperature (r=0.55, P<0.05) and the mean concentration of serum cortisol was positively correlated with the mean blood temperature (r=0.50, P<0.05), suggesting that the hotter pigs were suffering from a higher level of stress.

Multi-element survey of wild edible fungi and blackberries in the UK

A survey of 12 metals including lead (Pb), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As) and platinum (Pt) was carried out using ICP-MS in 34 samples of wild fungi and 48 samples of wild blackberries collected from sites across the UK. On a fresh weight basis (mg/kg) levels of Pb were in the range 0.003-5.990, Cu 0.596-34.800, Cd<0.001-19.6, Hg<0.001-4.150, As 0.001-0.972 and Pt (microg/kg) 0.006-0.200, with higher concentrations found in fungi than in blackberries. The results of the survey showed that the concentrations of the metals were consistent with previous studies, where available. Concentrations in wild fungi of Pt, tin (Sn), and titanium (Ti) were significantly higher at urban sites than at rural sites. Urban blackberries had significantly higher levels of Pb, Ti, and Cd than rural ones, but lower levels of manganese (Mn). Pb, Ti and Sn concentrations were significantly higher in blackberries sampled near main roads rather than in rural areas.

Postal survey of the population of South American camelids in the United Kingdom in 2000/01

The members of the two leading British camelid breeders associations were surveyed by means of a postal questionnaire between December 2000 and January 2001; 696 questionnaires were posted and 218 usable responses were returned. A total of 3520 camelids were recorded, of which 2719 (77.2 per cent) were alpacas (Lama pacos) and 726 (20.6 per cent) were llamas (Lama glama). Ninety-four per cent of the camelid herds were of one species, and 70 per cent of the animals were kept for more than one purpose. Camelids imported from South America were present on 45 per cent of the units surveyed. Husbandry procedures and preventive health measures were uniform; 92.2 per cent of the animals were kept on pasture all year round, 99 per cent were supplemented with hay and 97.7 per cent with concentrate feed; 88.1 per cent were vaccinated against clostridial disease with a multivalent vaccine licensed for sheep, and 96.3 per cent were treated periodically with anthelmintic drugs. During 2000, ill health, other than dermatological conditions, was reported by 24.3 of respondents, and 32 different conditions were described. Skin disease was reported by 51 per cent of breeders. Zinc deficiency was diagnosed presumptively as the cause of skin disease by 31.9 per cent of the respondents, and ectoparasitism by 26.4 per cent. Of those who treated a skin condition, 71.9 per cent reported an improvement, but less than half of them considered the improvement to have been permanent.

The response of pigs to being loaded or unloaded onto commercial animal transporters using three systems

Groups of pigs were subjected to three different systems of loading and unloading to and from commercial animal transporters. The systems under trial were: the use of a hydraulic tail-lift, a tail board ramp at an angle of 18 degrees and a modular system. The module was a container 2 m x 2.4 m x 1 m high into which the pigs were loaded. The module could then be lifted on and off the lorry with a fork lift truck. Non-invasive monitoring techniques were used to study the responses of the pigs. A subjective handling score, time taken to load and unload, skin temperature, heart rate and salivary cortisol were recorded. Loading and unloading were subjectively assessed as being easiest and quickest using the modular system, which also appeared to be less physically demanding for the animals, as evidenced by lower heart rate and a reduced maximum heart rate. However, with the modular system, elevated cortisol was found during the loading, unloading and resting periods. This could be interpreted as indicating that the pigs were unable to settle in the module and suffered some small degree of stress, which might become more of a problem during prolonged transport. Of the other two systems, there appeared to be little difference between the hydraulic tail-lift and the ramp.

Comparative study of the efficacy of eprinomectin versus ivermectin, and field efficacy of eprinomectin only, for the treatment of chorioptic mange in alpacas

The efficacy of eprinomectin versus ivermectin (Study 1: a single-centre, randomised, treatment-controlled, blinded field trial), and the field efficacy of eprinomectin (Study 2: a single-centre, open, un-controlled field trial) for the treatment of chorioptic infestation in naturally infested alpacas were assessed in two studies. Thirty alpacas, all positive for Chorioptes sp. mite, were randomly allocated to two treatment groups in Study 1. Group A received a single topical administration of a 0.5% formulation of eprinomectin at the dose rate of 500mug/kg. Group B received three subcutaneous administrations at 14 days interval of a 1% formulation of ivermectin at the dose rate of 400mug/kg. Response to treatment was assessed by periodic mite count, and skin lesions scored. In Study 2, one group of 19 alpacas received four administrations at weekly interval of topical eprinomectin at the dose rate of 500mug/kg, and response to treatment was monitored by mite counts. No localised or systemic side effects were observed in either trial. There was a statistically significant decrease in mite counts on day 7 (P<0.001) within treatment Groups A and B of Study 1, but mite counts increased again on day 14 and remained high for the duration of the trial in both treatment groups. On day 14 of Study 2, there was a statistically significant reduction in mite counts (P<0.008) and the mite counts remained very low throughout the remainder of the study. The eprinomectin protocol employed in Study 2, consisting of four weekly topical administrations at the dose rate of 500mug/kg of body weight, proved highly effective at reducing the Chorioptes mite burden in alpacas.

Measurements of the degree of development of rigor mortis as an indicator of stress in slaughtered pigs

The degree of development of rigor mortis in the carcases of slaughter pigs was assessed subjectively on a three-point scale 35 minutes after they were exsanguinated, and related to the levels of cortisol, lactate and creatine kinase in blood collected at exsanguination. Earlier rigor development was associated with higher concentrations of these stress indicators in the blood. This relationship suggests that the mean rigor score, and the frequency distribution of carcases that had or had not entered rigor, could be used as an index of the degree of stress to which the pigs had been subjected.