A comprehensive review on the production and enhancement techniques of gaseous biofuels and their applications in IC engines with special reference to the associated performance and emission characteristics

The increasing global demand for energy, coupled with environmental concerns associated with fossil fuels, has led to the exploration of alternative fuel sources. Gaseous biofuels, derived from organic matter, have gained attention due to their renewable nature and clean combustion characteristics. The paper extensively explores production pathways for gaseous biofuels, including biogas, syngas, and hydrogen, providing insightful discussions on various sources and processes. The energy content, physical, and chemical properties of gaseous biofuels have been analysed, highlighting their potential as viable alternatives to conventional fuels. Distinctive properties of biogas, producer gas, and hydrogen that impact combustion characteristics and engine efficiency in IC engines are underscored. Furthermore, the review systematically reviews enhancement techniques for gaseous biofuels, encompassing strategies to augment quality, purity, and combustion efficiency. Various methods, ranging from substrate pretreatment for biogas to membrane separation for hydrogen, illustrate effective means of enhancing fuel performance. Rigorous examination of performance parameters such as brake thermal efficiency, specific fuel consumption and emissions characteristics such as NOx, CO, CO2, HC of gaseous biofuels in dual-fuel mode emphasizes efficiency and environmental impact, offering valuable insights into their feasibility as engine fuels. The findings of this review will serve as a valuable resource for researchers, engineers, and policymakers involved in alternative fuels and sustainable transportation, while also highlighting the need for further research and development to fully unlock the potential of gaseous biofuels in IC engines.

Role of energy transition in easing energy security risk and decreasing CO2 emissions: Disaggregated level evidence from the USA by quantile-based models

Consistent with the increasing environmental interest, the clean energy transition is highly critical to achieving decarbonization targets. Also, energy security has become an important topic under the shadow of the energy crisis,. Accordingly, countries have been trying to stimulate clean energy use to preserve the environment and ensure energy security. So, considering the leading role of economic size and volume of energy use, the study examines the USA to define whether energy transition helps decrease energy security risk (ESR) and curb CO2 emissions. So, the study applies a disaggregated level analysis by performing quantile-based models for the period from 2001/Q1 through 2022/Q4. The results demonstrate that (i) the energy transition index decreases environmental ESR at higher quantiles and reliability ESR at lower and middle quantiles, whereas it is not beneficial in declining economic and geopolitical ESR; (ii) energy transition curbs CO2 emissions in building and transport sectors at lower quantiles, whereas it does not help decrease CO2 emissions in industrial and power sectors; (iii) energy transition is mostly ineffective on ESR, whereas it is highly effective in curbing CO2 emissions in all sectors except for transport across various quantiles as time passes; (iv) the results differ according to the aggregated and disaggregated levels; (v) the results are consistent across main and alternative models. Hence, the study highlights the dominant effect of energy transition in curbing sectoral CO2 emissions rather than easing ESR. Accordingly, the study discusses various policy implications for the USA.

The synergy effect of energy security and carbon-haze collaborative management: From the perspective of biased technological progress

It is important to ensure energy security and achieve carbon-haze collaborative management for sustainable development. Reducing imported energy dependence is necessary to maintain energy security, while its impact on environmental quality remains unclear. From the perspective of biased technological progress, this paper estimates the level of biased technological progress towards self-sufficient energy by a heterogeneous stochastic frontier analysis (SFA) function, and then empirically examines whether self-sufficient energy biased technological progress has a dampening effect on haze pollution and carbon emissions. It is found that: (1) Self-sufficient energy biased technological progress can effectively reduce haze pollution and carbon emissions, achieving a synergistic effect between energy security and carbon-haze collaborative management. (2) "Efficiency enhancement" and "quality improvement" are the essential mechanisms for the synergistic effect. (3) Environmental regulation, abundant resource and technology endowments can enhance the haze reduction effect. And the lower dependence on foreign trade and stable global economic policy environment are more conducive to achieving carbon-haze collaborative control. (4) In the Eastern and Western regions, self-sufficient energy biased technology can be sped up to alleviate haze pollution. The findings can enrich the research exploring pollution control from the perspective of biased technological progress, and provide policy recommendations for promoting high-quality development.

Scenario analysis of the socioeconomic impacts of achieving zero-carbon energy by 2030

This study uses scenario analysis to assess the socioeconomic impacts of achieving zero-carbon energy by 2030. Three scenarios are developed: 1) business as usual; 2) accelerated deployment of renewable energy and electric vehicles; and 3) scenario 2 plus comprehensive energy efficiency improvements. Quantitative models are used to evaluate the impacts on employment, productivity, consumer costs, inequality and energy security under each scenario. The results show that scenario 3, with the most ambitious decarbonization and efficiency measures, can generate the most jobs (2.1 million more than business as usual) and the lowest consumer costs (12% reduction). However, it may also lead to a small productivity loss (1.2% lower than business as usual) due to higher costs of new technologies. Income and health inequality are projected to decrease across all scenarios due to improved energy access and reduced fuel poverty. Energy security is expected to improve significantly in scenarios 2 and 3 due to reduced oil dependence. This study provides an analytical framework to assess the integrated socioeconomic impacts of zero-carbon transitions under uncertainty. The scenarios and findings can inform policymaking by highlighting the opportunities and challenges around the low-carbon transition, enabling decision makers to maximize benefits and minimize negative consequences.

Navigating geopolitical crises for energy security: Evaluating optimal subsidy policies via a Markov switching DSGE model

This paper aims to provide insights on the design of optimal subsidy policies to enhance energy security amidst energy disruptions triggered by geopolitical conflicts. We introduce a novel Markov switching dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (MS-DSGE) model to address the limitations of existing integrated assessment models in environmental evaluation. These models often fail to adequately consider the environmental and economic impacts of geopolitical conflicts and do not prioritize energy security sufficiently in policymaking. Our application of the MS-DSGE model to the Russia-Ukraine conflict reveals significant decreases in output, social welfare, and energy consumption during disruptions. The mere anticipation of an energy crisis influences household behaviors, leading to a reduction in energy, output, and consumption volatility, while concurrently increasing volatility in social welfare. We show that an optimal subsidy policy should be contingent upon productivity levels, energy imports, and the economy's responsiveness to economic shocks. Moreover, the policy should also be adaptable to prevailing economic conditions and the likelihood of an upcoming crisis.

Does the short-selling mechanism improve energy security? Evidence from China

Reducing carbon emissions and improving energy efficiency are essential to respond to global climate change actively. However, improving energy security under resource and environmental constraints is the key for China to achieve high-quality and sustainable development. Thus, using the panel data at the enterprises and regional levels in China from 2013 to 2020, this research develops an energy security index to study the impact of the short-selling mechanism on energy security. The results show that China's energy security is generally on the rise under the short-selling mechanism. However, it has different degrees of impact on energy security in different energy structures, supply chains, and environments. In addition, China's energy security has a regional spillover effect under the short-selling mechanism's capital pressure and supervision governance. This paper also finds that short-selling can alleviate the supply chain's bullwhip effect and risk effect. Finally, the short-selling mechanism complements the micro-influence mechanism of energy security, and short-selling positively impacts China's energy security.

Evaluating climate Change's impact on hydroelectricity in the Zambezi river basin

This study investigates the effects of climate change on energy security in Africa, specifically focusing on the Upper and Lower Zambezi Basin. Data from the Kariba River basin sub-catchments, annual reports, the Climate Data Store, and Teal Tool Earth's country-by-country climate data were analysed through quantitative and qualitative data analysis techniques. The Mann-Kendal Trend Analysis was used to analyse time series and test the significance of changes to the climate. The historical climate and hydrological data analysis showed evidence of a slight increase in average rainfall amounts in the Zambezi River Basin but with high rainfall variability in some areas. Despite droughts increasing in frequency, there is a general increase in hydrological annual average water flow in the Zambezi River at two of the three sample sites. The increased water flow through the region could be attributed to population growth-induced land clearance and the degradation of wetlands in Angola's highlands. Although there is an increase in hydrological water flow into Kariba, there are water shortages for hydroelectricity generation due to increased generation capacity, resulting in increased demand for more water than in previous years. The unsustainable water abstraction to meet growing energy demands contributes to low water levels in the lake. The study recommends energy diversification and new hydroelectricity where the potential exists in the basin to reduce over-reliance on Lake Kariba with care not to disrupt the basin's hydrology and other economic activities. The study results provide insight into the potential effects of climate change on energy security in Africa.

Turkey's quest to become a regional energy hub: Challenges and opportunities

Despite its relatively modest domestic energy resources, Turkey plays a central role in the global geopolitics of energy. Situated between energy-rich areas of the Middle East and energy-consuming Europe, it is no surprise that Turkey has become a crucial transit route for fossil fuels, especially natural gas. Furthermore, in recent decades, Turkey's leadership has pursued an ambitious plan to transform the country into a regional energy hub. This vision encompasses Turkey as a place where energy resources are not only transited but also sold and bought by international sellers and buyers. The study offers a historical overview of major transboundary oil and natural gas energy projects in Turkey, including both successful and failed endeavors and those in prospect. It delves into Turkey's aspirations to establish itself as a regional energy trade spot, a crucial component of its foreign policy agenda aimed at bolstering its influence on the regional and global stage. The paper also assesses the strengths and weaknesses of Turkey's ambition to become a regional energy nexus and its feasibility. The study highlights Turkey's potentially significant role in enhancing energy security for Europe, especially in the wake of the Russia-Ukraine conflict and the European Union's efforts to reduce its dependence on energy from Russia.

The 2022 Russia invasion on Ukraine: The biofuel energy security challenge on Ukraine and some related countries

Europe, United States and other countries make moves to compensate for the loss of Ukraine's exports by diverting crops meant for biofuels into food production and to relax some of the biofuels mandates due to the challenges of 2022 Russian invasion on Ukraine (RIU). Ukraine as a leading exporter of cereals and oil crops in the world has suffered reduction in exports of grain products since the inception of the invasion. This work critically evaluates the immediate and remote potential effects of the RIU on Ukraine's biofuel capacity and potentials, energy strategies and policies, direct impacts of the war on Ukraine and Russia and other countries' biofuels policies were evaluated. Ukraine is found to be a very important big player on global biofuels energy security and policies. It was observed that there are more significant impacts of the war on Ukraine biofuel industry than that of Russia due to very low priority on the development of Liquid biofuels (LBs) in Russia. Recommendations based on the concepts of national energy security and independence were elucidated. Post invasion-strategies such as development of framework for management of post-war waste, ensuring strict adherence to EU biofuels sustainable directives, and implementation of Bioplus-project for Ukraine government were underpinned. This article provides useful information, guidelines and directives that would enable Ukraine government and other countries facing energy insecurity and political crises to restore energy independence and national economy.

Is geopolitics a new risk to environmental policy in the European union?

Geopolitical risks and environmental policy have become increasingly important in the European Union (EU), which is committed to tackling climate change and protecting the environment. However, geopolitical risks can undermine its environmental policy objectives. Thus, the study evaluates the relationship between geopolitical risks and environmental policy in nineteen EU countries from 1994 to 2020 through panel bootstrap Granger causality. The results show that geopolitical risks significantly influence environmental policy in Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Luxembourg, and Romania. On the other hand, the findings reveal that environmental policy causes geopolitical risks only in Latvia, while there is no relationship in the remaining countries. Therefore, policymakers must develop resilience to geopolitical risks, promote renewable energy, strengthen environmental regulations, and address social and economic implications to reduce environmental policy vulnerability to geopolitical risks.

A new paradigm of water, food, and energy nexus

In recent decades, global forecasts show that the demands for freshwater, energy, and food have been affected by population growth, economic development, international trade, and increasing urbanization and food diversity. Moreover, cultural changes and other phenomena have adversely affected the water, energy, and food (WEF) resources demand. Consequently, climate change adverse impact, which is an undesirable phenomenon, will be increased at a staggering rate. Numerous studies have emphasized that the lack of integrated and systematic management strategies threaten these indispensable resources' ability to meet growing demand. In many countries, the security of WEF resources, which is related to each other, has become three non-traditional security challenges that overshadow these communities' development. Before realizing the importance of interactions between these three vital resources, the management strategies were typically used for one source, which was completely independent of the other two. Since these strategies did not consider the interactions between the three systems, the applied strategies' results were sometimes contradictory. Also, due to the lack of attention to these three sectors' vital connections, the competition level among these systems has been increased. Therefore, in recent years, the study of the complex interactions and connections between these resources has led to the emergence of a new term called WEF nexus in the scientific communities. Most studies about the WEF nexus have only described the current situation or, ideally, analyzed several predetermined scenarios. However, the adopted approach should be able to analyze different scenarios and be efficient and robust enough to develop a variety of strategies and utilize them for macro-policies. In this study, after reviewing the complex interactions between the WEF systems, it was tried to introduce a novel paradigm for the WEF nexus, which concentrates on expanding the possible space of WEF nexus.

How environmental protection activities and industrial revolution contributes in the nexus of energy security and environmental sustainability?

The booming fintech industry seeks to revolutionize traditional financial practices, introducing new business models and innovative applications to enhance financial services. However, the widespread adoption of fintech may lead to increased energy consumption, posing environmental challenges. Comprehensive research is essential to understand the impact of fintech on economies, financial culture, and the environment, facilitating informed decision-making to foster sustainable growth in the sector. Therefore, the present research will explore how the fintech industry, green finance, and energy efficiency play their role in energy security and the achievement of a sustainable environment. The current study used data from 2000 to 2020 by employing Fourier autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL), fully modified least squares (FMOLS), and dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) econometric techniques to explore how the industrial revolution, environmental protection activities, and energy efficiency affect energy security and the environment across European countries. According to the findings, the fintech sector encourages the use of eco-friendly and energy-efficient technology, which assists in lowering carbon emissions and boosting energy security and efficiency. The outcomes of energy efficiency show a negative relationship with carbon emissions but a considerably positive relationship with energy security. This research shows that green financing has a favorable influence on energy security, and in European nations, green financing drives the majority of investments made for environmental conservation.

The impact of energy security on environmental degradation: new evidence from developing countries

This study investigates the energy security and income roles in testing environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) for developing countries from 1990 to 2019. The panel quantile regression approaches are employed to examine the relationship between the variables, considering that income and energy security effects on carbon emissions may vary across distributions. Findings revealed that the EKC hypothesis was inconsistent at low and high quantiles when estimating energy availability, affordability, and acceptability. The validity of inverted U-shaped EKC is supported at high quantiles for energy affordability and accessibility in developing countries. However, given the energy accessibility and acceptability, the EKC hypothesis becomes invalid in developing countries. Notably, developing countries have yet to progress toward achieving energy security as a switch component to low carbon emissions. This study contributes to the literature by revealing the effect of availability, accessibility, affordability, and acceptability of energy security on carbon dioxide emissions (CO2). Thus, it suggests implications for improving environmental quality in developing countries by enhancing energy security. Diversifying energy sources with nuclear, renewable, and developing technologies reduces dependence risks on a single source while improving efficiency through technology and demand management lowers carbon emissions and strengthens energy security. Beyond energy security, this study emphasises sustainable urban planning to promote compact development, effective transportation, and green infrastructure to reduce energy use and improve environmental sustainability, ultimately reducing carbon emissions.

Legal responses to energy security and sustainability in Nigeria's power sector amidst fossil fuel disruptions and low carbon energy transition

Fundamentally, energy could be refer to as the cornerstone for progress of most nations, as a lack of unswerving energy sources perpetuates poverty and impedes economic development. In Nigeria, there exists an abundance of low-carbon energy resources that hold immense potential for fostering sustainable growth. Regrettably, Nigeria has yet to fully harness these resources to drive its economic expansion and bolster its power sector. This study undertakes a thorough exploration of the untapped capacity of low-carbon energy bases in the country, with the aim of ensuring a consistent and dependable electricity supply. The research methodology employed in this study encompasses both empirical and doctrinal legal research approaches, drawing upon a wide range of primary and secondary sources, including authoritative energy law textbooks and peer-reviewed journals. In order to gain valuable insights into achieving a stable electricity supply in Nigeria, a meticulous comparative legal analysis of low-carbon energy practices was conducted, focusing on the experiences of China, Spain, Germany, and Nigeria. By applying legal theories and empirical procedures, the study estimated carbon emissions using the auto-regressive distributed lag model. The data exploited in this study were acquired from the World Bank's World Development Indicator (WDI, 2021), a renowned public domain repository of economic development data encompassing numerous countries worldwide. The findings of this study demystify the positive association between electricity consumption and substantial fluctuations in CO2 emissions, as demonstrated by both short-run and long-run model estimations. Significantly, the presence of hydroelectric power sources emerged as a pivotal factor in curbing carbon emissions. Moreover, the study's error correction model findings unveil a noteworthy mechanism of systemic convergence when confronted with external shocks. To facilitate the adoption of low-carbon energy sources, the study proposes a hybrid model that combines various approaches, while underscoring the urgent need for reforming Nigeria's energy laws to address environmental concerns and promote security and sustainability. The practical implications and policy applications of this research highlight its potential to provide policymakers in Nigeria and beyond with invaluable insights for formulating effective measures aimed at reducing carbon emissions arising from electricity generation and consumption.

Scrutinizing interlinkages between digitalization, economic complexity, green technologies, green energy consumption and CO2 emission by quantile spillovers in Vietnam

We use quantile vector autoregression (QVAR) to identify the connection between six variables related to digitalization (proxied by a number of Internet users and mobile cellular subscriptions), green technology development, green energy consumption, carbon dioxide emissions, and economic complexity index from 1996 to 2019 in Vietnam. The dynamic connectedness of the system is 62% and 14% in the short and long term, respectively. Their connectedness is intense for highly positive and negative quantiles (over 80% quantile). In contrast, economic complexity transmits shocks in the short term and manifests itself even more in the long term. Green technology development is the central receiver of short- and long-term shocks. Besides, digitalization captured by a number of Internet users has switched from shock transmitters to shock receivers in the short term. Other metrics like mobile cellular subscriptions, green energy consumption, and CO2 emissions are mainly shock-receiver-driven. In the short term, there was volatility, especially from 2009 to 2013, due to unprecedented events like destructive changes in political, economic, and financial issues in the globe. Our findings are critical for economists and policymakers in promoting a country's digitalization, green technology performance, and green energy on the path toward sustainable development.

Electricity system security in Jordan: A response for arab uprising

Jordan energy sector is characterized by the high dependency on imported energy and high growth rate of energy demands. The location of Jordan in a conflict hot spot makes the energy security of high interest for the Jordanian policy maker. This article investigates the impact of regional conflicts on Jordanian energy sector and tracks the development of electricity system security before and after the first wave of Arab uprising and the turmoil associated with it. An electricity sector security framework consisting of eleven indices is built based on Stirling four properties of energy security, which are durability, stability, robustness and resilience. The framework is used to compare the security of the system in 2018 with 2010. This article argues that the development in the security during the study period is a response of the Arab uprising based on authoritarian learning phenomena. The results are validated by comparing the expected generation costs and CO₂ emissions based on actual development with development scenarios found in literature. A forecasting model is reproduced for this purpose. The results of the forecasting model support the conclusion reached by the security framework. This is due to the responsive policies followed by the Jordanian government and the grants given by Gulf countries to enhance Jordan's stability. It was concluded that even a specific conflict can have negative impacts on the energy sector in a neighboring country in short terms, it can have positive impacts in medium and long term if a rational and sustainable response plan is adopted.

The significance of clean energy development for China's energy security from 2010 to 2019

Energy security is a matter of economic security and national security. This paper examines the influencing mechanism of clean energy on China's energy security from 2010 to 2019, by using the entropy method and spatial econometric model. The results show that (1) from 2010 to 2019, China's energy security index shows an overall decreasing trend. The western region has the highest energy security index, followed by the central, northeastern, and eastern regions; (2) there is an inverted u-shaped relationship between clean energy and energy security; (3) in the short term, clean energy will have a negative effect on industrial structure upgrading. But with the expansion of its scale, clean energy development will promote the industrial structure upgrading, and then improve energy security; and (4) the development of clean energy has a positive effect on the adjustment of energy structure.

The role of energy security and economic complexity in renewable energy development: evidence from G7 countries

The development of renewable energy is receiving more attention as a result of environmental degradation and energy instability. Despite a large literature on the nexus between energy security, economic complexity, and energy consumption, there are few attempts to analyze the impact of energy security and economic complexity on renewable energy. This paper examines the heterogeneous impacts of energy security and economic complexity on renewable energy in G7 countries from 1980 to 2017. The estimated results obtained from quantile regression show that energy insecurity is a driving force of renewable sources although its impact is heterogeneous across the distribution of renewables. In contrast, economic complexity hampers the development of renewable energy with the size of impact decreasing as the renewable energy sector progresses. In addition, we find that income positively affects renewable energy while the role of trade openness varies across the distribution of renewable energy variable. These findings lead to valuable policy implications for G7 countries to develop renewable energy.

Energy security: the role of shale technology

Sustainable energy systems are sensitive to the countries' energy portfolio decisions, shaping geopolitics and contributing to the global energy security (ES). Accordingly, this paper applies the "Markov regime-switching" method to explore the impact of "the North American shale technology" (NAST) on behavioral regimes of the US energy security measurements (ESM), e.g., diversity of primary energy demand ([Formula: see text]), net energy import dependence ([Formula: see text]), non-fossil fuel resource portfolio ([Formula: see text]), and crude oil import dependency ([Formula: see text]). The findings confirm time-varying and asymmetric behavior of the US ESM before and after the NAST. Specifically, the overall interaction of substitution effect and scale effect of NAST strengthens the US energy systems through [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], and [Formula: see text], while [Formula: see text] leads to higher risks of the US energy supply security. Consequently, the shale reserves development, diversification of primary energy demand and import supply, and advanced energy transport and trading policies, are suggested to overcome the barriers in achieving (i) availability, (ii) accessibility, (iii) affordability, and (iv) acceptability aspects of ES and vulnerability reduction of the US energy systems in respect of risk and resilience.

Designing an energy security index with a sustainable development approach for energy-exporting countries using fuzzy BWM method

Energy-exporting countries have always been isolated when it comes to energy security since according to the traditional definition of energy security, it is believed that there are no energy security-associated problems in these countries. Over the recent years, exporting countries have encountered the issue of single-product economy on a much larger scale, due to large oil revenues; they are facing more and more problems in the field of energy security every day. In this regard, the present paper primarily identified the challenges and factors affecting energy security and sustainable development related to energy in these countries. Afterwards, this information was employed for the construction of a composite index to measure the energy security and sustainability in these countries using the fuzzy BWM method. This composite index was utilized for a period of 14 years in five energy-exporting countries, namely Iran, Iraq, Russia, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela. The results obtained herein were fully consistent with the process of the changes in energy security in the mentioned countries and indicated the weaknesses and obstacles of these countries in the field of oil and oil economy. The results of a 14-year evaluation of the composite index show that Saudi Arabia, followed by Russia, Iran, Iraq, and Venezuela, displays the best performance in the field of energy security and sustainability and has an ascending trend and significant progress in the index value. Although Russia is in second place, it represents a descending trend. Iran, which is in third place on the slope of changes, has a falling but gentler trend. Iraq has a rising trend in the index value despite being in fourth place. The lowest level of energy security belongs to Venezuela with a sharp descending trend and naturally the worst performance in the field of energy security and sustainability. Examining these obstacles, it was observed that the economic-technological issues were a heavier burden than the social and environmental ones. In the economic-technological sector, oil-free per capita GDP, the share of non-energy exports in total exports, and the share of investment in the energy sector in total investment were the biggest obstacles, indicating the urgent need to change macro policies, exit the single-product economy, and adopt policies to increase the value added and reduce the sale of raw energy.

Energy simulation modeling for water-energy-food nexus system: a systematic review

Since essential nexus variables were not considered in the energy subsystem, this study focused on the role of energy in the Water, Energy, and Food nexus (WEF nexus) system. The energy subsystem interacts with water and food on the supply and demand sides. The WEF nexus-based energy model has not been reviewed recently. This study provides a systematic review of 459 articles regarding energy simulation modeling issues relating to the WEF nexus system. The keyword ("energy" AND "simulation" AND "nexus") as well as "water" OR "food" OR "climate" OR "land" OR "carbon" OR "environment" is used for searching WEF nexus documents for energy simulation. The review highlighted that the energy subsystem is modeled online (One-way) and offline (Two-way), and the energy simulation struggles to represent its system boundary with the water and food subsystems in different spatial scales (household to global). The energy subsystem of the WEF nexus did not address return flow from cooling towers and crop energy consumption comprehensively. In the research, the supply and demand section of the energy subsystem demonstrated that a comprehensive simulation model for energy can be developed using the nexus system approach. The energy subsystem's supply, primarily power plants, interacts with the water subsystem, and the energy generation policy is based on water use. The WEF nexus system assesses renewable energy effects to reduce tradeoffs. In addition, energy demand is related to energy consumption, so the energy consumption for each crop can be calculated and explained the appropriate cultivation pattern based on it.

How do beliefs and attitudes of people influence energy conservation behavior in Pakistan?

Policymakers in developing countries like Pakistan mostly ignore the behavioral aspects of climate change mitigation, whereas literature is also deficient in advocating evidence-based mitigation strategies. This study aims to analyze the impact of personality traits, social norms, and attitudes on energy conservation behavior. Face-to-face interviews of 361 households are conducted in the capital city of Pakistan using random sampling. According to the characteristics of the data, the ordered logistic regression model is applied. The results reveal that education and gender do not contribute significantly toward energy conservation. In contrast, the behavior is more influenced by convenient lifestyle, the number of vehicles, distance of residence from the workplace, income, perception of energy security, and availability of transport. Furthermore, knowledge about sustainability and age is also critical to influencing energy conservation behavior. Therefore, the study recommends using different mediums to enhance the knowledge base of households about energy conservation and environmental sustainability, aligning the urban planning in view of location choices and use of public transport.

The dynamic analysis of renewable energy's contribution to the dimensions of sustainable development and energy security

In sustainable development, energy is critical in human activities and shapes a sustainable future. Thus, it is an unignorable element in human development. This paper analyzes the contributions of renewable energy sources (RES)'s to the economic, environmental, and social dimensions of sustainable development. Moreover, we add energy security as a possible fourth dimension into the analysis. For the sample size, we limit the countries members of the OECD and run generalized methods of moments for the period from 1995 to 2015. This method can produce efficient estimators under the problems of endogeneity, omitted-variable bias, measurement errors, and heteroscedastic residuals. According to the results, RES has a small reducing effect (-.007%) on output in the Cobb-Douglas production function for the economic dimension. We found that RES has a positive contribution to the environmental dimension and abates the level of carbon emission (-.093%). RES also confirms the inverted-U shape of environmental Kuznets curve. In the social dimension, RES improves human development and a 1% increase in RES consumption causes to .0045% increase in human development. In the last contribution, RES has a positive effect on sustainable energy supply security in the context of electricity generation (.032%). Although the effects of RES on the environment, social, and energy security are significant, they are limited. These limitations point to barriers that can be overcome over time. Our conclusions recommend that these effects might flourish with technical developments and political support in the long run. Furthermore, public awareness, rising income level, and economies of scale are also beneficial in this process. As a result, RES might be an excellent source for a sustainable future and development. Especially, RES might have remarkable contributions to the 7th, 11th, 12th, and 13th goals of sustainable development.

Impacts of digitalization on energy security: evidence from European countries

We are the first to empirically analyze the nexus of digital transformation and energy security (ES). This paper utilizes six indicators to reflect three aspects of ES, including acceptability, develop-ability, and sustainability. Applying the panel-corrected standard errors (PCSEs) and the feasible generalized least square estimates (FGLS) model to the international sample of 27 European countries over 2015 to 2019, this research reveals exciting findings. First, a promotion in digital transformation causes a significantly positive effect on the acceptability and sustainability of ES but a negative impact on develop-ability of ES. Second, the ES positively affects the digital transformation, especially the digital transformation in the business and public sectors. Third, results obtained from the dynamic fixed effects (DFEs) estimator for the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) method suggest that setting ES goals toward reducing energy consumption and pollution emission promotes the digital transformation process in the business sector of countries in the short run, while the promotion of renewable energy consumption helps countries enhance the digitalization process in the long run. Notably, digitalization is beneficial for sustainable economic development, reflected by a rise in non-fossil and renewable energy consumption and a diminish in CO2 emission, especially in the long run. Fourth, there is a nonlinear effect of the online transaction and digital public services on the acceptability, develop-ability, and sustainability of ES. In a similar spirit, the digital transformation is also accelerated more quickly if the efficiency of the energy system reaches a certain point.

Conserving a sustainable urban environment through energy security and project management practices

Construction has been highlighted as one sector that could reduce its effect on the environment by implementing more sustainable methodologies. However, there are many different challenges preventing sustainable construction practice, and despite existing research providing advice for carbon emission reduction, these practices are being somewhat neglected. The purpose of this research is to investigate the challenges surrounding sustainable construction practice and the current knowledge on energy security and project management practices that can aid climate change mitigation. The design methodology of this study involves a thorough literature review of existing knowledge on the subject matter followed by primary research. The survey conducted collected quantitative data of 160 valid responses via an online closed ended questionnaire using snowball sampling methods from the construction and engineering professionals working in the UK construction industry. The study found that most participants agree with the encouragement of sustainable construction practices, but are generally unsure about what they can do. Factors such as government involvement and organisation culture have some significance but will rely on further research in order to assess specific influencing variables. The study contributes to existing research on factors surrounding project management and identifies and plethora of areas of improvement, that can be formed into a holistic approach to the current construction industry practice.

Are digital business and digital public services a driver for better energy security? Evidence from a European sample

This paper empirically analyses the impacts of the digital transformation process in the business and public sectors on energy security (ES). We employ 8 indicators to represent four aspects of energy security, including availability, acceptability, develop-ability, and sustainability. Digital businesses development is captured by e-Commerce (including e-Commerce sales, e-Commerce turnover, e-Commerce web sales) and e-Business (including customer relation management (CRM) usage and cloud usage). Digital public services development is reflected by business mobility and key enablers. Different econometric techniques are utilized in a database of 24 European Union countries from 2011 to 2019. Our estimation results demonstrate that digital businesses play a critical role in improving the acceptability and develop-ability of energy security, while digitalization in public services supports achieving energy sustainability goals. The use of modern digital technology such as big data, cloud computing is extremely important to ensure the security of the energy system, especially the availability of energy. For further discussion on the role of digital public services, we reveal a nonlinear association between digitalization in the public sector and energy intensity and energy consumption, suggesting the acceptability and develop-ability of energy security can be enhanced if the digital transformation process achieves a certain level.

A system dynamics approach to pollution remediation and mitigation based on increasing the share of renewable resources

This study explores the role of renewable energy (RE) penetration in Malaysia's energy security (ES) and its implications for the country's target of 20% capacity in the energy mix by 2025. Renewable energy (RE) is a critical driver of long-term energy security. In 2018, the share of renewable energy in Malaysia's energy mix was 9%, falling far short of the national target of 20% penetration by 2025. This study employs a system dynamics approach to investigate the relationship between RE penetration and correlated indicators from energy security (ES) dimensions: energy availability, environmental sustainability, and socio-economics. The causal relationships between the three-dimensional indicators of ES have been established using causal and stock and flow logic. Simulated results show that energy consumption has increased sharply, while energy efficiency and economic growth have only increased by a small margin with an increase in RE from 2015 to 2020. The energy intensity is expected to rise slightly by the end of the fifth year. As a result, the overall impact is positive for Malaysia's environmental sustainability while reducing its reliance on energy imports and meeting national economic growth demands.

Evaluating an economic application of renewable generated hydrogen: A way forward for green economic performance and policy measures

Energy security and environmental measurements are incomplete without renewable energy; therefore, there is a dire need to explore new energy sources. Hence, this study aimed to measure the wind power potential to generate renewable hydrogen (H2), including its production and supply cost. This study used first-order engineering model and net present value to measure the levelized cost of wind-generated renewable hydrogen by using the data source of the Pakistan Meteorological Department and State Bank of Pakistan. Results showed that the use of surplus wind and renewable hydrogen energy for green economic production is suggested as an innovative project option for large-scale hydrogen use. The key annual running expenses for hydrogen are electricity and storage costs, which have a significant impact on the costs of renewable hydrogen. The results also indicated that the project can potentially cut carbon dioxide (CO2) pollution by 139 million metric tons and raise revenue for wind power plants by US$2998.52 million. The renewable electrolyzer plants avoided CO2 at a rate of US$24.9-36.9/ton under baseload service, relative to US$44.3/ton for the benchmark. However, in the more practical mid-load situation, these plants have significant benefits. Further, the wind-generated renewable hydrogen delivers 6-11% larger annual rate of return than the standard CO2 catch plant due to their capacity to remain running and supply hydrogen to the consumer through periods of plentiful wind and heat. Also, the measured levelized output cost of hydrogen (LCOH) was US$6.22/kgH2, and for the PEC system, it was US$8.43/kgH2. Finally, it is a mutually agreed consensus among environmental scientists that the integration of renewable energy is the way forward to increase energy security and environmental performance by ensuring uninterrupted clean and green energy. This application has the potential to address Pakistan's urgent issues of large-scale surplus wind- and solar-generated energy, as well as rising energy demand.

The US role in securing the European Union's near-term natural gas supply

The European Union's plan to phase out Russian natural gas imports by 2027 rests partly on increasing near-term imports of US liquefied natural gas. This will require a coordinated policy response that includes securing supplies from major exporters, global diplomacy, expanding import capacity, and alignment with Europe's climate goals.

Pretreatment of extruded Napier grass byhydrothermal process with dilute sulfuric acid and fermentation using a cellulose-hydrolyzing and xylose-assimilating yeast for ethanol production

One of the potential bioresources for bioethanol production is Napier grass, considering its high cellulose and hemicellulose content. However, the cost of pretreatment hinders the bioethanol produced from being economical. This study examines the effect of hydrothermal process with dilute acid on extruded Napier grass, followed by enzymatic saccharification prior to simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SScF). Extrusion facilitated lignin removal by 30.2 % prior to dilute acid steam explosion. Optimum pretreatment condition was obtained by using 3% sulfuric acid, and 30-min retention time of steam explosion at 190 °C. Ethanol yield of 0.26 g ethanol/g biomass (60.5% fermentation efficiency) was attained by short-term liquefaction and fermentation using a cellulose-hydrolyzing and xylose-assimilating Saccharomyces cerevisiae NBRC1440/B-EC3-X ΔPHO13, despite the presence of inhibitors. This proposed method not only reduced over-degradation of cellulose and hemicellulose, but also eliminated detoxification process and reduced cellulase loading.

Environmental energy security in the MENA region - an aggregated composite index

Energy security is a multi-dimensional concept that is gaining a growing interest worldwide for studying the sustainability of a given energy sector. The level of energy security has been always quantified and evaluated by focusing on economic and technical dimensions, and modest importance was attributed to social and environmental aspects. Moreover, countries of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region were always under-reported in the literature pertaining to energy security issues. This study strives to evaluate energy security in this region through the establishment of an original Environmental Energy Security Index (EESI) in order to cover different dimensions of security of energy supply within these counties. A total of nine sub-indicators were selected based on the current policies and orientations in the region. These indicators were normalized, weighted, and aggregated for each country of the MENA region between 2008 and 2017. According to the assessment objectives, results showed that on average Yemen holds the highest EESI score of 5.319 followed by Morocco 4.304 and Algeria 4.087. On the other hands, Bahrain is ranked last 1.610 preceded by UAE 2.249 and Qatar 2.461. Some key proposals were suggested including investment in local resources, diversification of the energy mix, reduction of energy imports, and use of energy-efficient technologies.

Assessing energy efficiency in the Asia-Pacific region and the mediating role of environmental pollution: evidence from a super-efficiency model with a weighting preference scheme

The demand for primary energy resources has increased significantly due to the rapid growth of the global economy and increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Therefore, improving energy efficiency levels is essential for global energy, energy security, and environmental sustainability. In the context of the Asia-Pacific region, the study of energy efficiency among different countries can play a role in better energy utilization. These countries also provide a policy for the Asia-Pacific region to improve its energy utilization. This study's primary focus is to investigate the optimal efficiency score of 15 areas of the Asia-Pacific region, and the analysis is based on super-efficiency (radical) and super slacks-based measure (SBM) data in a nonparametric DEA model. Three areas in the Asia-Pacific are selected for energy efficiency measures: South Asia, East Asia, and Australasia. The results suggest that Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, Singapore, New Zealand, the Philippines, Japan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam obtain the most efficient score of 1 in both DEA models throughout the study period. Australia and Sri Lanka receive a low score during all study periods, while Hong Kong does not have data for all study years. The results of the study will help improve energy performance, cost-effectiveness, and environmental sustainability, increasing the competitiveness and scalability of efficient energy sources.

COVID-19 impacts on household energy & food security in a Kenyan informal settlement: The need for integrated approaches to the SDGs

This longitudinal study presents the joint effects of a COVID-19 community lockdown on household energy and food security in an informal settlement in Nairobi, Kenya. Randomly administered surveys were completed from December 2019-March 2020 before community lockdown (n = 474) and repeated in April 2020 during lockdown (n = 194). Nearly universal (95%) income decline occurred during the lockdown and led to 88% of households reporting food insecurity. During lockdown, a quarter of households (n = 17) using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), a cleaner cooking fuel typically available in pre-set quantities (e.g. 6 kg cylinders), switched to polluting cooking fuels (kerosene, wood), which could be purchased in smaller amounts or gathered for free. Household size increases during lockdown also led to participants' altering their cooking fuel, and changing their cooking behaviors and foods consumed. Further, households more likely to switch away from LPG had lower consumption prior to lockdown and had suffered greater income loss, compared with households that continued to use LPG. Thus, inequities in clean cooking fuel access may have been exacerbated by COVID-19 lockdown. These findings demonstrate the complex relationship between household demographics, financial strain, diet and cooking patterns, and present the opportunity for a food-energy nexus approach to address multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): achieving zero hunger (SDG 2) and universal affordable, modern and clean energy access (SDG 7) by 2030. Ensuring that LPG is affordable, accessible and meets the dietary and cooking needs of families should be a policy priority for helping improve food and energy security among the urban poor.

COVID-19 impacts on household energy & food security in a Kenyan informal settlement: The need for integrated approaches to the SDGs

This longitudinal study presents the joint effects of a COVID-19 community lockdown on household energy and food security in an informal settlement in Nairobi, Kenya. Randomly administered surveys were completed from December 2019-March 2020 before community lockdown (n = 474) and repeated in April 2020 during lockdown (n = 194). Nearly universal (95%) income decline occurred during the lockdown and led to 88% of households reporting food insecurity. During lockdown, a quarter of households (n = 17) using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), a cleaner cooking fuel typically available in pre-set quantities (e.g. 6 kg cylinders), switched to polluting cooking fuels (kerosene, wood), which could be purchased in smaller amounts or gathered for free. Household size increases during lockdown also led to participants' altering their cooking fuel, and changing their cooking behaviors and foods consumed. Further, households more likely to switch away from LPG had lower consumption prior to lockdown and had suffered greater income loss, compared with households that continued to use LPG. Thus, inequities in clean cooking fuel access may have been exacerbated by COVID-19 lockdown. These findings demonstrate the complex relationship between household demographics, financial strain, diet and cooking patterns, and present the opportunity for a food-energy nexus approach to address multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): achieving zero hunger (SDG 2) and universal affordable, modern and clean energy access (SDG 7) by 2030. Ensuring that LPG is affordable, accessible and meets the dietary and cooking needs of families should be a policy priority for helping improve food and energy security among the urban poor.

COVID-19 and energy: Influence mechanisms and research methodologies

Considering the important role of energy in modern society, it is imperative to study the current situation and future development of energy under the influence of COVID-19. This paper identifies the current research hotspots, proposes future research directions accordingly, and summarizes the methodologies via a bibliometric analysis. Five research hotspots include COVID-19 and the changes of energy consumption, COVID-19 and the fluctuation of the energy market, COVID-19 and the development of renewable energy, COVID-19 and climate impacts caused by energy consumption, and COVID-19 and the energy policy. According to the influence mechanism of COVID-19 on each hotspot, the pandemic has exerted short-term influencs on energy consumption, energy price, and air pollution. Meanwhile, the pandemic could have a far-reaching impact on the renewable energy sector, climate, and energy policy. In addition, the main methodologies are reviewed, revealing that regression analysis and scenario analysis are commonly used as the quantitative and qualitative methods, respectively. Moreover, given the nonlinear relations between the pandemic and energy, an artificial neural networks model is used to enhance the prediction efficiency of energy demand and price. Finally, policy implications for obtaining clean, low-carbon, safe, and efficient energy in the context of COVID-19 are proposed.

Economics of Biofuel Production: A Case of Sorghum and Pearl Millet in India

Reduction of fossil fuels at an alarming rate has attracted increasing attention to blending biofuels worldwide. India's energy demand is expected to grow at an annual rate of 4-5 times over the next couple of decades. With self-sufficiency levels in crude oil becoming a distant dream, there is growing interest to look out for alternative fuels and the biofuels are an important option for policy makers in India. In this context, this paper reviews the experiences in India in the last two decades with respect to biofuel cultivation and its impact on land use, environment, and the livelihoods of rural communities. The objective of this paper is to assess the economics of biofuel production using Sorghum and Pearl millet feedstocks in India using a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) approach. Baseline study was conducted during the year 2013 in the Madhya Pradesh state of India covering five districts and 333 sample farmers to understand the farmers perception about the various issues related to the production of biofuels using Indian staple food crops Sorghum and Pearl millet. Empirical data from the multi-locational trials conducted during the years 2014-2015 and 2015-2016 in farmers' fields was used to conduct the LCA analysis. Sorghum and Pearl millet feedstocks which are rain-fed crops are considered for bioethanol production with different pretreatment methods. Net Energy Ratio (NER), Net Energy Balance (NEB), Net Carbon Balance (NCB), and % Carbon reduction were some of the key parameters used for analysis and the results are evaluated based on the environmental impacts through the Life Cycle Assessment at 5% blending. Findings reveal that, dilute alkali pretreatment process is most energy intensive due to consumption of alkali consumption. Whereas dilute acid pretreatment has higher conversion efficiency than the other pretreatment processes which is due to higher glucan and xylan conversion efficiencies.The study concludes that Sorghum feedstock is more energy intensive than Pearl millet feedstock due to higher water requirement and yield. Biofuels, either conventional or advanced, should not been couraged without a comprehensive outlook on the overall impact that will ultimately have on the society, environment, or on the countries' energy security. Efforts should be made toward encouragement of research and development in the field as well as in formulating a comprehensive and effective biofuel policy for India.

Mongol dream beyond fossil fuels: Prosperity of greenification

The current world situation under the coronavirus epidemic puts pressure on the commodity-based economy and signals the need to seek other options for diversifying export products while strengthening regional cooperation. Over the last four months of the epidemic period, Mongolia has temporarily suspended commodity transport to China which takes over 60% of total exports. Moreover, the fossil fuel market is in a critical situation, not only because of the current epidemic but also because the modern world has been gradually moving towards greener development. Today, we face two additional problems: strengthening the economic stability of the country and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. This article analyses how renewable energy export could stabilize and support the country's macroeconomic situation. The article proposes using green energy to diversify export options as soon as possible. This research work focused on the Northeast Asian Super Grid Initiative and Gobitec project by reviewing renewable energy impacts in environmental, economic, and social circumstances.

Does tradeoff between financial and social indicators matters in environmental consideration: evidence from G7 region

The study tries to discover the impact of financial and social indicators' growth towards environmental considerations to understand the drivers of economic growth and carbon dioxide emissions change in G7 countries. The DEA-like composite index has been used to examine the tradeoff between financial and social indicator matters in environmental consideration by using a multi-objective goal programming approach. The data from 2008 to 2018 is collected from G-7 countries. The results from the DEA-like composite index reveals that there is a mixed condition of environmental sustainability in G-7 countries where the USA is performing better and Japan is performing worse among the set of other countries. The further result shows that the energy and fiscal indicators help to decrease the dangerous gas emissions. Divergent to that, the human and financial index positively contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Fostering sustainable development is essential to successfully reduce emissions, meet established objectives, and ensure steady development. The study provides valuable information for policymakers.

Managerial policy and economic analysis of wind-generated renewable hydrogen for light-duty vehicles: Green solution of energy crises

The unconventional energy sources like hydrogen energy have tremendous potential of filling the gap between economic growth and clean energy consumption. A little intention has been made in this regard in the developing economies like Pakistan. This study develops a fusibility analysis to highlight the potential of hydrogen energy source in Pakistan. For this purpose, this study used a hybrid mathematical model that combines the range of wind speed with the log law to push wind power's potential to generate wind hydrogen in Pakistan. The study results indicate that Pakistan has an excellent source to generate hydrogen energy through wind power stations. According to the outcomes, Nooriabad can produce 303.66 million RE/kWh per year through wind energy sources. According to the results, the rest of the seven wind generation sites also can generate enough hydrogen energy. This study also concluded that hydrogen energy has enough sources to meet the demand for light-duty vehicles in Pakistan.

Managerial policy and economic analysis of wind-generated renewable hydrogen for light-duty vehicles: Green solution of energy crises

The unconventional energy sources like hydrogen energy have tremendous potential of filling the gap between economic growth and clean energy consumption. A little intention has been made in this regard in the developing economies like Pakistan. This study develops a fusibility analysis to highlight the potential of hydrogen energy source in Pakistan. For this purpose, this study used a hybrid mathematical model that combines the range of wind speed with the log law to push wind power's potential to generate wind hydrogen in Pakistan. The study results indicate that Pakistan has an excellent source to generate hydrogen energy through wind power stations. According to the outcomes, Nooriabad can produce 303.66 million RE/kWh per year through wind energy sources. According to the results, the rest of the seven wind generation sites also can generate enough hydrogen energy. This study also concluded that hydrogen energy has enough sources to meet the demand for light-duty vehicles in Pakistan.

Assessing energy security in Africa based on multi-dimensional approach of principal composite analysis

The concept of energy security has become an increasingly challenging issue in Africa, forcing energy-deficient countries to forge mutual partnerships with energy sufficient countries to access it for their domestic consumption. This study formulates a composite index of energy security in Africa as well as evaluates its impacts and trends using a sample of 28 countries on the continent, during the 2000-2018 period by using a principal composite factor analysis (PCA), with the series of 13 variables. Further interpretation was carried out using these tests: Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett's test of sphericity, Pearson correlation test, and Cronbach's alpha test. The key results show a trend of energy insecurity among the countries studied, as energy imports loads high in most countries as well as per capita emission, together with fossil fuel source consumption correlating high. These results validate the stark reality on the African continent. The inference from the results of the anaylsis conclude that the principal component analysis (PCA) results of the energy index were considered fit and reliable for the analysis, with the most important Cronbach's alpha test coefficient of 0.8797, far above the standard 0.6 model reliability level. Based on this study, the paper proffers there should be increased intra-regional trading of energy among the various power pools on the continent and increased regional renewable energy investments as well as investment in energy infrastructure, measures to reduce electricity system losses, environmental sustainability, and the adoption of energy in efficiency on the continent.

Does natural gas fuel civil war? Rethinking energy security, international relations, and fossil-fuel conflict

This article advances theoretical and empirical knowledge at the nexus of energy politics and conflict intervention by analyzing the complex dynamics connecting energy resources, civil war, and outside state support of rebel groups. It focuses on the role of global energy supply competition in states' decision to support armed groups that are involved in conflicts in other states. Further, this study enhances the extant research that focuses primarily on the resource wealth of conflict-ridden states by analyzing the effect of the interveners' resource wealth on their sponsorship of foreign non-state armed groups. This study identifies two causal paths linking energy resources, specifically natural gas, to state support of rebels by building on outside state supporters' motives for: (1) competition over supply to global markets; and (2) secure access to resources and supply routes. The empirical section includes a large-N analysis on original data covering 454 rebel groups and their state supporters and a detailed case study of the Russian intervention in Crimea and Eastern Ukraine.

Establishing and comparing energy security trends in resource-rich exporting nations (Russia and the Caspian Sea region)

In the international arena, it is often the case that in countries which largely depend on foreign resources, energy security, and its key components i.e. security of energy supply, environment, technology, geopolitical and economic factors, is a subject of concern. However, due to the abundance of fossil fuel resources in resource-rich exporting nations, there is a lack of understanding of the risks around energy security and accordingly often a policy vacuum. Conceptualising energy security from different geopolitical vantage points will allow future concerns around energy supply security, climate change, and regional economic crises to be evaluated. By using policy documents and developing a time series approach and normalized z-scores for a range of comparable metrics this article compares the energy security performance in six Caspian Sea countries individually and collectively. The article results show that Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan made significant progress in energy security since 1990, while energy security indicators in Russia, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan regressed. Iran has a leading position in energy security performance, while Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan have the lowest level of the energy security indicators compare to other region countries. This article both contributes a replicable definition of energy security that can be undertaken for other global regions, and begins to incorporate diversification and renewables development to enhance domestic energy security assessment.

An empirical analysis of the non-linear impacts of ICT-trade openness on renewable energy transition, energy efficiency, clean cooking fuel access and environmental sustainability in South Asia

Energy security and environmental sustainability have become an integral policy agenda worldwide whereby the global economic growth policies are being restructured to ensure the reliability of energy supply and safeguard environmental well-being as well. However, technological inefficiency is one of the major hindrances in attaining these over-arching goals. Hence, this paper probed into the non-linear impacts of ICT trade on the prospects of undergoing renewable energy transition, improving energy use efficiencies, enhancing access to cleaner cooking fuels, and mitigating carbon dioxide emissions across selected South Asian economies: Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Maldives. The results from the econometric analyses reveal that ICT trade directly increases renewable energy consumption, enhances renewable energy shares, reduces intensity of energy use, facilitates adoption of cleaner cooking fuels, and reduces carbon-dioxide emissions. Moreover, ICT trade also indirectly mitigates carbon-dioxide emissions through boosting renewable energy consumption levels, improving energy efficiencies, and enhancing cleaner cooking fuel access. Hence, these results, in a nutshell, portray the significance of reducing the barriers to ICT trade with respect to ensuring energy security and environmental sustainability across South Asia. Therefore, it is ideal for the government to gradually lessen the trade barriers to boost the volumes of cross-border flows of green ICT commodities. Besides, it is also recommended to attract foreign direct investments for the potential development of the respective ICT sectors of the South Asian economies.

A systematic analysis of Water-Energy-Food security nexus: A South Asian case study

Most South Asian countries have challenges in ensuring water, energy, and food (WEF) security, which are often interacting positively or negatively. To address these challenges, the nexus approach provides a framework to identify the interactions of the WEF sectors as an integrated system. However, most nexus studies only qualitatively discuss the interactions between these sectors. This study conducts a systematic analysis of the WEF security nexus in South Asia by using open data sources at the country scale. We analyze interactions between the WEF sectors statistically, defining positive and negative correlations between the WEF security indicators as synergies and trade-offs, respectively. By creating networks of the synergies and trade-offs, we further identify most positively and negatively influencing indicators in the WEF security nexus. We observe a larger share of trade-offs than synergies within the water and energy sectors and a larger share of synergies than trade-offs among the WEF sectors for South Asia. However, these observations vary across the South Asian countries. Our analysis highlights that strategies on promoting sustainable energy and discouraging fossil fuel use could have overall positive effects on the WEF security nexus in the countries. This study provides evidence for considering the WEF security nexus as an integrated system rather than just a combination of three different sectors or securities.

Regional energy security performance evaluation in China using MTGS and SPA-TOPSIS

As the world's largest energy production and demand country, China's energy security is a hot issue concerned by the whole society. Most existing research focused on China's energy security performance from the point of view of the country. But, as a huge geographical country, provinces energy security performance varies hugely in different regions. So, this paper aims at evaluating Chinese provinces energy security, analyzing reasons and providing policy implications. Firstly, a comprehensive evaluation criteria system, including four dimensions: energy supply, energy using, energy economy and energy environment, is proposed. The criteria consist of 14 indicators. Secondly, Mahalanobis-Taguchi Gram-Schmidt is presented to obtain criteria weights, which not only considers subjective and objective information, but also eliminates the overlap information in criteria. Thirdly, considering that TOPSIS method ignores the correlation between the two distances (alternatives to ideal and to negative ideal), an improved TOPSIS model with set pair analysis is proposed to assess the China's regional energy security performance from 2013 to 2017. From the results, 30 provinces' energy security performance improves in general, but there is still a huge gap among different regions. The north reaches of yellow river and northwest regions are the most energy-secure, while the northeast and central regions are least energy-secure. SHAANXI, INNERMONGOLIA and SHANXI are always top three in the ranking, while the energy security performance of NINGXIA is the lowest.

Energy security performance: A dataset on the member countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States, 2000-2014

This paper presents a rich collection of data used to construct an energy security performance index of the eight countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Namely, the index covers Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Russia, Tajikistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan. The data include results of Z-score normalization of 12 distinct indicators, constituting a total of 4 dimensions of energy security performance. These dimensions are the following: energy availability (oil import dependence, coal import dependence, natural gas import dependence), energy affordability (access to electricity, pump price for gasoline, pump price for diesel fuel), energy and economic efficiency (renewable energy consumption, GDP per unit of energy use, electric power consumption), and environmental stewardship (CO₂, N₂O, and SO₂ emissions). Z-scores are calculated for 2000 and 2014, which allows to evaluate energy security performance of the CIS countries in each dimension and in total over the period of 14 years.

The Energy Mix Concentration Index (EMCI): Methodological considerations for implementation

The Energy Mix Concentration Index (EMCI) is a quantitative indicator of concentration of the energy mix based upon the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index. We use the EMCI to compare the evolution of the diversification (versus concentration) of energy mixes in the long-term in order to reveal the transformations of the energy structures which determine energy transitions. In this methodological paper we make explicit how to aggregate the energy sources in order to calculate the EMCI, including questions of detail such us the level of aggregation and the transformation of primary electricity to add it up to total consumption. We present alternative figures that illustrate some additional aspects of the relation of the EMCI to total consumption, consumption per capita and energy annual growth. We also show the sensitivity of the indicator to alternative specifications (with and without pre-modern energy sources) and alternative data sets, proving its robustness. •Indicate how to aggregate energy carriers in the calculation of a quantitative index of concentration of the energy mix.•Compare alternative specifications (with or without pre-modern energy carriers).•EMCI focus on the major energy sources in the energy systems.

Updating energy security and environmental policy: Energy security theories revisited

The energy security theories are based on the premises of sufficient and reliable supply of fossil fuels at affordable prices in centralized supply systems. Policy-makers and company chief executives develop energy security strategies based on the energy security theories and definitions that dominate in the research and policy discourse. It is therefore of utmost importance that scientists revisit these theories in line with the latest changes in the energy industry: the rapid advancement of renewables and smart grid, decentralization of energy systems, new environmental and climate challenges. The study examines the classic energy security concepts (neorealism, neoliberalism, constructivism and international political economy) and assesses if energy technology changes are taken into consideration. This is done through integrative literature review, comparative analysis, identification of 'international relations' and 'energy' research discourse with the use of big data, and case studies of Germany, China, and Russia. The paper offers suggestions for revision of energy security concepts through integration of future technology considerations.

Energy security impacts of a severe drought on the future Finnish energy system

Finland updated its Energy and Climate Strategy in late 2016 with the aim of increasing the share of renewable energy sources, increasing energy self-sufficiency and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Concurrently, the issue of generation adequacy has grown more topical, especially since the record-high demand peak in Finland in January 2016. This paper analyses the Finnish energy system in years 2020 and 2030 by using the EnergyPLAN simulation tool to model whether different energy policy scenarios result in a plausible generation inadequacy. Moreover, as the Nordic energy system is so heavily dependent on hydropower production, we model and analyse the impacts of a severe drought on the Finnish energy system. We simulate hydropower availability according to the weather of the worst drought of the last century (in 1939-1942) with Finnish Environment Institute's Watershed Simulation and Forecasting System and we analyse the indirect impacts via reduced availability of electricity imports based on recent realised dry periods. Moreover, we analyse the environmental impacts of hydropower production during the drought and peak demand period and the impacts of climate change on generation adequacy in Finland. The results show that the scenarios of the new Energy and Climate Strategy result in an improved generation adequacy comparing to the current situation. However, a severe drought similar to that experienced in 1940s could cause a serious energy security threat.