1
|
Abstract
COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) is a major incurable global health burden and will become the third largest cause of death in the world by 2020. It is currently believed that an exaggerated inflammatory response to inhaled irritants, in particular cigarette smoke, causes progressive airflow limitation. This inflammation, where macrophages, neutrophils and T-cells are prominent, leads to oxidative stress, emphysema, small airways fibrosis and mucus hypersecretion. The mechanisms and mediators that drive the induction and progression of chronic inflammation, emphysema and altered lung function are poorly understood. Current treatments have limited efficacy in inhibiting chronic inflammation, do not reverse the pathology of disease and fail to modify the factors that initiate and drive the long-term progression of disease. Therefore there is a clear need for new therapies that can prevent the induction and progression of COPD. Animal modelling systems that accurately reflect disease pathophysiology continue to be essential to the development of new therapies. The present review highlights some of the mouse models used to define the cellular, molecular and pathological consequences of cigarette smoke exposure and whether they can be used to predict the efficacy of new therapeutics for COPD.
Collapse
Key Words
- acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (aecopd)
- chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (copd)
- emphysema
- inflammation
- skeletal muscle wasting
- smoking
- aecopd, acute exacerbations of copd
- bal, bronchoalveolar lavage
- balf, bal fluid
- copd, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
- gm-csf, granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor
- gold, global initiative on chronic obstructive lung disease
- gpx, glutathione peroxidase
- hdac, histone deacetylation
- il, interleukin
- ltb4, leukotriene b4
- mapk, mitogen-activated protein kinase
- mcp-1, monocyte chemotactic protein-1
- mmp, matrix metalloproteinase
- ne, neutrophil elastase
- nf-κb, nuclear factor κb
- nrf2, nuclear erythroid-related factor 2
- o2•−, superoxide radical
- onoo−, peroxynitrite
- pde, phosphodiesterase
- pi3k, phosphoinositide 3-kinase
- ros, reactive oxygen species
- rv, rhinovirus
- slpi, secretory leucocyte protease inhibitor
- sod, superoxide dismutase
- tgf-β, transforming growth factor-β
- timp, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases
- tnf-α, tumour necrosis factor-α
- v/q, ventilation/perfusion
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ross Vlahos
- *Lung Health Research Centre, Department of Pharmacology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Steven Bozinovski
- *Lung Health Research Centre, Department of Pharmacology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Biondi C, Das D, Howell M, Islam A, Bikoff E, Hill C, Robertson E. Mice develop normally in the absence of Smad4 nucleocytoplasmic shuttling. Biochem J 2007; 404:235-45. [PMID: 17300215 PMCID: PMC1868808 DOI: 10.1042/bj20061830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2006] [Revised: 02/08/2007] [Accepted: 02/14/2007] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Smad4 in partnership with R-Smads (receptor-regulated Smads) activates TGF-beta (transforming growth factor-beta)-dependent signalling pathways essential for early mouse development. Smad4 null embryos die shortly after implantation due to severe defects in cell proliferation and visceral endoderm differentiation. In the basal state, Smad4 undergoes continuous shuttling between the cytoplasm and the nucleus due to the combined activities of an N-terminal NLS (nuclear localization signal) and an NES (nuclear export signal) located in its linker region. Cell culture experiments suggest that Smad4 nucleocytoplasmic shuttling plays an important role in TGF-beta signalling. In the present study we have investigated the role of Smad4 shuttling in vivo using gene targeting to engineer two independent mutations designed to eliminate Smad4 nuclear export. As predicted this results in increased levels of Smad4 in the nucleus of homozygous ES cells (embryonic stem cells) and primary keratinocytes, in the presence or absence of ligand. Neither mutation affects Smad4 expression levels nor its ability to mediate transcriptional activation in homozygous cell lines. Remarkably mouse mutants lacking the Smad4 NES develop normally. Smad4 NES mutants carrying one copy of a Smad4 null allele also fail to display developmental defects. The present study clearly demonstrates that Smad4 nucleocytoplasmic shuttling is not required for embryonic development or tissue homoeostasis in normal, healthy adult mice.
Collapse
Key Words
- embryonic
- gene targetting
- nuclear export
- nucleocytoplasmic shuttling
- smad4
- transforming growth factor-β signal
- bmp, bone morphogenetic proteins
- crm1, chromosomal region maintenance 1
- d.p.c., days post-coitum
- es cell, embryonic stem cell
- fbs, foetal bovine serum
- gdf, growth and differentiation factor
- lmb, leptomycin b
- mef, murine embryonic fibroblast
- mh domain, mad homology domain
- nes, nuclear export signal
- nls, nuclear localization signal
- rpa, ribonuclease protection assay
- r-smad, receptor-regulated smad
- snon, ski-related novel protein n
- tgf-β, transforming growth factor-β
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christine A. Biondi
- *The Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, U.K
| | - Debipriya Das
- †Laboratory of Developmental Signalling, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, 44 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London WC2A 3PX, U.K
| | - Michael Howell
- †Laboratory of Developmental Signalling, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, 44 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London WC2A 3PX, U.K
| | - Ayesha Islam
- *The Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, U.K
| | - Elizabeth K. Bikoff
- *The Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, U.K
| | - Caroline S. Hill
- †Laboratory of Developmental Signalling, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, 44 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London WC2A 3PX, U.K
| | - Elizabeth J. Robertson
- *The Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, U.K
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Lu D, Chen J, Hai T. The regulation of ATF3 gene expression by mitogen-activated protein kinases. Biochem J 2007; 401:559-67. [PMID: 17014422 PMCID: PMC1820813 DOI: 10.1042/bj20061081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2006] [Revised: 09/28/2006] [Accepted: 10/03/2006] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
ATF3 (activating transcription factor 3) gene encodes a member of the ATF/CREB (cAMP-response-element-binding protein) family of transcription factors. Its expression is induced by a wide range of signals, including stress signals and signals that promote cell proliferation and motility. Thus the ATF3 gene can be characterized as an 'adaptive response' gene for the cells to cope with extra- and/or intra-cellular changes. In the present study, we demonstrate that the p38 signalling pathway is involved in the induction of ATF3 by stress signals. Ectopic expression of CA (constitutively active) MKK6 [MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) kinase 6], a kinase upstream of p38, indicated that activation of the p38 pathway is sufficient to induce the expression of the ATF3 gene. Inhibition of the pathway indicated that the p38 pathway is necessary for various signals to induce ATF3, including anisomycin, IL-1beta (interleukin 1beta), TNFalpha (tumour necrosis factor alpha) and H2O2. Analysis of the endogenous ATF3 gene indicates that the regulation is at least in part at the transcription level. Specifically, CREB, a transcription factor known to be phosphorylated by p38, plays a role in this induction. Interestingly, the ERK (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase) and JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase)/SAPK (stress-activated protein kinase) signalling pathways are neither necessary nor sufficient to induce ATF3 in the anisomycin stress paradigm. Furthermore, analysis of caspase 3 activation indicated that knocking down ATF3 reduced the ability of MKK6(CA) to exert its pro-apoptotic effect. Taken together, our results indicate that a major signalling pathway, the p38 pathway, plays a critical role in the induction of ATF3 by stress signals, and that ATF3 is functionally important to mediate the pro-apoptotic effects of p38.
Collapse
Key Words
- activating transcription factor 3 (atf3)
- mitogen activated protein kinase (mapk)
- mapk kinase (mkk)
- p38
- stress kinase
- stress response
- atf, activating transcription factor
- c/ebp, ccaat/enhancer-binding protein
- ca, constitutively active
- chop10, c/ebp-homologous protein 10
- cre, camp-response element
- creb, cre-binding protein
- dmem, dulbecco's modified eagle's medium
- dn, dominant negative
- dtt, dithiothreitol
- erk, extracellular-signal-regulated kinase
- fbs, fetal bovine serum
- gadd153, growth-arrest and dna-damage-inducible protein 153
- β-gal, β-galactosidase
- gapdh, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
- gst, glutathione s-transferase
- ha, haemagglutinin
- hek-293 cells, human embryonic kidney 293 cells
- il-1β, interleukin 1β
- ip–kinase, immunoprecipitation coupled with kinase
- jnk, c-jun n-terminal kinase
- mapk, mitogen-activated protein kinase
- mef, mouse embryonic fibroblast
- mek1, mapk/erk kinase 1
- mkk, mapk kinase
- nf-κb, nuclear factor κb
- rt, reverse transcriptase
- sapk, stress-activated protein kinase
- shrna, small-hairpin rna
- teto, tet operator
- tgf-β, transforming growth factor-β
- tnfα, tumour necrosis factor α
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dan Lu
- The Ohio State Biochemistry Program, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, and Center for Molecular Neurobiology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, U.S.A
| | - Jingchun Chen
- The Ohio State Biochemistry Program, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, and Center for Molecular Neurobiology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, U.S.A
| | - Tsonwin Hai
- The Ohio State Biochemistry Program, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, and Center for Molecular Neurobiology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, U.S.A
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Wang G, Long J, Matsuura I, He D, Liu F. The Smad3 linker region contains a transcriptional activation domain. Biochem J 2005; 386:29-34. [PMID: 15588252 PMCID: PMC1134763 DOI: 10.1042/bj20041820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2004] [Revised: 12/01/2004] [Accepted: 12/10/2004] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta)/Smads regulate a wide variety of biological responses through transcriptional regulation of target genes. Smad3 plays a key role in TGF-beta/Smad-mediated transcriptional responses. Here, we show that the proline-rich linker region of Smad3 contains a transcriptional activation domain. When the linker region is fused to a heterologous DNA-binding domain, it activates transcription. We show that the linker region physically interacts with p300. The adenovirus E1a protein, which binds to p300, inhibits the transcriptional activity of the linker region, and overexpression of p300 can rescue the linker-mediated transcriptional activation. In contrast, an adenovirus E1a mutant, which cannot bind to p300, does not inhibit the linker-mediated transcription. The native Smad3 protein lacking the linker region is unable to mediate TGF-beta transcriptional activation responses, although it can be phosphorylated by the TGF-beta receptor at the C-terminal tail and has a significantly increased ability to form a heteromeric complex with Smad4. We show further that the linker region and the C-terminal domain of Smad3 synergize for transcriptional activation in the presence of TGF-beta. Thus our findings uncover an important function of the Smad3 linker region in Smad-mediated transcriptional control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guannan Wang
- *Center for Advanced Biotechnology and Medicine, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 679 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854, U.S.A
- †Susan Lehman Cullman Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Chemical Biology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 164 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, U.S.A
- ‡The Cancer Institute of New Jersey, 195 Little Albany Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08903, U.S.A
- §Graduate Program in Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, U.S.A
| | - Jianyin Long
- *Center for Advanced Biotechnology and Medicine, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 679 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854, U.S.A
- †Susan Lehman Cullman Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Chemical Biology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 164 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, U.S.A
- ‡The Cancer Institute of New Jersey, 195 Little Albany Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08903, U.S.A
| | - Isao Matsuura
- *Center for Advanced Biotechnology and Medicine, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 679 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854, U.S.A
- †Susan Lehman Cullman Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Chemical Biology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 164 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, U.S.A
- ‡The Cancer Institute of New Jersey, 195 Little Albany Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08903, U.S.A
| | - Dongming He
- *Center for Advanced Biotechnology and Medicine, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 679 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854, U.S.A
- †Susan Lehman Cullman Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Chemical Biology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 164 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, U.S.A
- ‡The Cancer Institute of New Jersey, 195 Little Albany Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08903, U.S.A
| | - Fang Liu
- †Susan Lehman Cullman Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Chemical Biology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 164 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, U.S.A
- ‡The Cancer Institute of New Jersey, 195 Little Albany Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08903, U.S.A
- §Graduate Program in Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, U.S.A
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Piek E, Van Dinther M, Parks WT, Sallee JM, Böttinger EP, Roberts AB, Ten Dijke P. RLP, a novel Ras-like protein, is an immediate-early transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) target gene that negatively regulates transcriptional activity induced by TGF-beta. Biochem J 2004; 383:187-99. [PMID: 15239668 PMCID: PMC1134058 DOI: 10.1042/bj20040774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2004] [Revised: 07/05/2004] [Accepted: 07/08/2004] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
We have described previously the use of microarray technology to identify novel target genes of TGF-beta (transforming growth factor-beta) signalling in mouse embryo fibroblasts deficient in Smad2 or Smad3 [Yang, Piek, Zavadil, Liang, Xie, Heyer, Pavlidis, Kucherlapati, Roberts and Böttinger (2003) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100, 10269-10274]. Among the TGF-beta target genes identified, a novel gene with sequence homology to members of the Ras superfamily was identified, which we have designated as RLP (Ras-like protein). RLP is a Smad3-dependent immediate-early TGF-beta target gene, its expression being induced within 45 min. Bone morphogenetic proteins also induce expression of RLP, whereas epidermal growth factor and phorbol ester PMA suppress TGF-beta-induced expression of RLP. Northern-blot analysis revealed that RLP was strongly expressed in heart, brain and kidney, and below the detection level in spleen and skeletal muscles. At the protein level, RLP is approx. 30% homologous with members of the Ras superfamily, particularly in domains characteristic for small GTPases. However, compared with prototypic Ras, RLP contains a modified P-loop, lacks the consensus G2 loop and the C-terminal prenylation site and harbours amino acid substitutions at positions that render prototypic Ras oncogenic. However, RLP does not have transforming activity, does not affect phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase and is unable to bind GTP or GDP. RLP was found to associate with certain subtypes of the TGF-beta receptor family, raising the possibility that RLP plays a role in TGF-beta signal transduction. Although RLP did not interact with Smads and did not affect TGF-beta receptor-induced Smad2 phosphorylation, it inhibited TGF-beta-induced transcriptional reporter activation, suggesting that it is a novel negative regulator of TGF-beta signalling.
Collapse
Key Words
- gtpase
- ras
- sorting nexin
- transcriptional regulation
- transforming growth factor-β
- bmp, bone morphogenetic protein
- chx, cycloheximide
- dmem, dulbecco's modified eagle's medium
- egf, epidermal growth factor
- egfr, egf receptor
- erk, extracellular-signal-regulated kinase
- fast-1, forkhead activin signal transducer-1
- fbs, fetal bovine serum
- gap, gtpase-activating protein
- gst, glutathione s-transferase
- ha, haemagglutinin
- jnk, c-jun n-terminal kinase
- mapk, mitogen-activated protein kinase
- mef, mouse embryo fibroblast
- moi, multiplicity of infection
- pdgfrβ, platelet-derived growth factor receptor β
- rlp, ras-like protein
- snx, sorting nexin
- tgf-β, transforming growth factor-β
- tβr, tgf-β receptor
- utr, untranslated region
- wt, wild-type
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ester Piek
- Division of Cellular Biochemistry, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Murwantoko, Yano M, Ueta Y, Murasaki A, Kanda H, Oka C, Kawaichi M. Binding of proteins to the PDZ domain regulates proteolytic activity of HtrA1 serine protease. Biochem J 2004; 381:895-904. [PMID: 15101818 PMCID: PMC1133901 DOI: 10.1042/bj20040435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2004] [Revised: 04/17/2004] [Accepted: 04/22/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
HtrA1, a member of the mammalian HtrA (high temperature requirement A) serine protease family, has a highly conserved protease domain followed by a PDZ domain. Accumulating evidence has indicated that PDZ domains regulate protease activity of HtrA proteins. We searched for binding partners of the PDZ domain of mouse HtrA1 by yeast two-hybrid screening, and isolated proteins that were recognized by the HtrA1 PDZ domain through their C-terminal ends with a core consensus Phi-X-Phi-[V/L/F/A]-COOH sequence (where Phi is a hydrophobic/non-polar amino acid). C-propeptides of fibrillar collagens were most frequently isolated. Type III procollagen alpha1 C-propeptide, which was used as a model protein, was digested by HtrA1. HtrA1 cleavage of the collagen C-propeptide was enhanced by reductive denaturation of the C-propeptide and partly inhibited by removal of the C-terminal four amino acids from the C-propeptide, suggesting that the substrate recognition was facilitated by the binding of the free C-terminal ends of substrates to the PDZ domain of HtrA1. The synthetic oligopeptide (GM130Pep) that fitted the consensus recognition sequence bound to HtrA1 with a high affinity (K(d)=6.0 nM). GM130Pep stimulated HtrA1 protease activity 3- to 4-fold, but did not efficiently stimulate the activity of an HtrA1 mutant lacking the PDZ domain, supporting the notion that the PDZ domain enhances protease activity upon ligand binding. The peptide derived from Type III collagen alpha1 C-propeptide specifically stimulated protease activity of HtrA1, but did not stimulate nor significantly bind to HtrA2, suggesting that the collagen C-propeptide is a specific physiological regulator of HtrA1.
Collapse
Key Words
- c-propeptide
- collagen
- htra1
- htra2/omi
- pdz domain
- serine protease
- 3-at, 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole
- cast, caz-associated structural protein
- cdyl, chromodomain protein, y chromosome-like
- col1a1, col2a1 and col3a1
- types i, ii and iii procollagen α1 respectively
- coxva, cytochrome c oxidase subunit va
- -c-pro, -c-propeptide
- dtt, dithiothreitol
- f171d, phe171→asp
- gm130, golgi auto-antigen golgin, subfamily a,2
- htra, high temperature requirement a
- lrp9, low-density-lipoprotein-receptor-related protein 9
- ni-nta, ni2+-nitrilotriacetate
- omp, outer-membrane porin
- par6b, partitioning defective 6 homologue β
- spr, surface plasmon resonance
- ssra, small stable rna
- tgf-β, transforming growth factor-β
- thlx, triple helical region
- trx, thioredoxin, tsp, tail-specific protease
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Murwantoko
- Division of Gene Function in Animals, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 891605 Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0101, Japan
| | - Masato Yano
- Division of Gene Function in Animals, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 891605 Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0101, Japan
| | - Yoshifumi Ueta
- Division of Gene Function in Animals, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 891605 Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0101, Japan
| | - Ai Murasaki
- Division of Gene Function in Animals, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 891605 Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0101, Japan
| | - Hidenobu Kanda
- Division of Gene Function in Animals, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 891605 Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0101, Japan
| | - Chio Oka
- Division of Gene Function in Animals, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 891605 Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0101, Japan
| | - Masashi Kawaichi
- Division of Gene Function in Animals, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 891605 Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0101, Japan
| |
Collapse
|