Toxicological effects of acute and repeated doses (180 days) of fruits from Malpighia emarginata (acerola) in rodents

Malpighia emarginata has a high amount of vitamin C with pharmacological or food preservation potential. However, despite its wide use and application possibilities its toxicity in repeated doses and for a long time (6 months) has not yet been studied. In this context, this study aimed to evaluate the acute toxicity and repeated doses from fruits of this plant. The extract was produced with the pulp (EMe) of the lyophilized fruit and submitted to chromatographic and spectroscopic analysis (HPLC and ESI-IT-MSn). In the acute test, the EMe was administered orally and parenterally to rodents (mice and rats) for 14 days, at a dose of 2000 mg/kg. Subsequently, the repeated dose toxicity test was administered orally for 180 days at doses of 50, 300 or 1000 mg/kg. The HPLC assay revealed a high concentration of vitamin C (16.3%), and spectroscopic analyses pointed to the presence of five other polyphenolic compounds. In the acute test, the plant extract showed no apparent toxicity or lethality in rodents. The LD50 was estimated to be greater than 2000 mg/kg and falls into category 5 (low toxicity). In the repeated dose assay, there was no evidence of toxicity, and no differences were observed in water intake, food, weight development, or behavior of the animals in relation to the vehicle group (water). However, hematological and biochemical evaluations pointed out some nonconformities in the levels of cholesterol, leukocytes, and neutrophils of the male rats, but overall, these results did not reveal significant toxicity. Therefore, the Level of Unobserved Adverse Effects (NOAEL) was 1000 mg/kg. Together, the results suggest that the extract obtained from the fruits of M. emarginata does not present representative toxicity in rodents.

Structural and functional integrity of endocrine pancreas post administration of Karwinskia humboldtiana fruit to Wistar rats: a possible therapeutic application for cancer of exocrine origin

AIMS

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma represents a therapeutic challenge due to the high toxicity of antineoplastic treatments and secondary effects of pancreatectomy. T-514, a toxin isolated from Karwinskia humboldtiana (Kh) has shown antineoplastic activity on cell lines. In acute intoxication with Kh, we reported apoptosis on the exocrine portion of pancreas. One of the mechanisms of antineoplastic agents is the induction of apoptosis, therefore our main objective was to evidence structural and functional integrity of the islets of Langerhans after the administration of Kh fruit in Wistar rats.

METHODS

TUNEL assay and immunolabelling against activated caspase-3 were used to detect apoptosis. Also, immunohistochemical tests were performed to search for glucagon and insulin. Serum amylase enzyme activity was also quantified as a molecular marker of pancreatic damage.

RESULTS

Evidence of toxicity on the exocrine portion, by positivity in the TUNEL assay and activated caspase-3, was found. On the contrary, the endocrine portion remained structurally and functionally intact, without apoptosis, and presenting positivity in the identification of glucagon and insulin.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrated that Kh fruit induces selective toxicity on the exocrine portion and establish a precedent to evaluate T-514 as a potential treatment against pancreatic adenocarcinoma without affecting the islets of Langerhans.

Compatibility with Semen Sojae Praeparatum attenuates hepatotoxicity of Gardeniae Fructus by regulating the microbiota, promoting butyrate production and activating antioxidant response

BACKGROUND

Herb-induced liver injury is a leading cause of drug-induced liver injury in China and its incidence is also increasing worldwide. Gardeniae Fructus (ZZ) has aroused wide concern for hepatotoxicity in recent decades. But when ZZ is administered in combination with Semen Sojae Praeparatum (DDC) to compose a herbal pair Zhizichi Decoction (ZZCD), lower hepatotoxicity is observed. The mechanism involved in the attenuated effect remains to be investigated.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

Our previous studies showed that DDC benefited host metabolism by regulating the gut microbiota and it reduced the exposure of major toxic components of ZZ. The present study was aimed to investigate how DDC attenuated hepatotoxicity of ZZ from the perspective of gut microbiota.

METHODS

Rats received ZZ and ZZCD treatment of different dosages and antibiotic treatment was applied to explore the involvement of gut microbiota. Biochemical assays and histopathological analysis were conducted to evaluate liver injury. Gut microbiota in caecal contents was profiled by 16S rRNA sequencing. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in caecal contents were measured by gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS). To verify the protective effect of butyrate, it was administered with genipin, the major hepatotoxic metabolite of ZZ, to rats and HepG2 cells. Plasma lipopolysaccharide (LPS) level and colon tissue section were used to evaluate gut permeability. Expression level of Nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-like 2 (Nrf2) was detected by immunohistochemistry in vitro and by western blot in vivo.

RESULTS

Our study showed that ZZCD displayed lower hepatotoxicity than ZZ at the same dosage. ZZ induced gut dysbiosis, significantly reducing Lactobacillus and Enterococcus levels and increasing the Parasutterella level. In combination with DDC, these alterations were reversed and beneficial genus including Akkermansia and Prevotella were significantly increased. Besides, butyrate production was diminished by ZZ but was restored when in combination with DDC. Butyrate showed detoxification on genipin-induced liver injury by promoting colon integrity and promoting Nrf2 activation. Besides, it protected genipin-induced hepatocyte damage by promoting Nrf2 activation.

CONCLUSION

DDC attenuates ZZ-induced liver injury by regulating the microbiota, promoting butyrate production and activating antioxidant response.

Study on the Metabolic Effects of Repeated Consumption of Canned Ackee

Ackee fruits (Blighia sapida), an important food source in some tropical countries, can be the cause of serious poisoning. Ackees contain hypoglycin A and methylenecyclopropylglycine. Experiments were undertaken by a volunteer to elucidate the metabolic details of poisoning. Rapid intestinal absorption of the toxins was followed by their slow degradation to methylenecyclopropylacetyl and methylenecyclopropylformyl conjugates. Impairment of the metabolism of branched chain amino acids and ß-oxidation of fatty acids was found. Reduced enzyme activities were observed for several days after ingestion. A defined dose of fruit material caused significantly higher concentrations of metabolites when consumed 24 h after a previous ingestion than when consumed only once. The accumulation of toxins, toxin metabolites, and products of the intermediate metabolism after repeated consumption may, at least partly, explain the high frequency of fatal cases observed during harvesting. No inhibition of enzymes that degrade long-chain acyl compounds was observed in the experiments.

Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and toxicology of the fruit of Tetradium ruticarpum: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The fruit of Tetradium ruticarpum (FTR) known as Tetradii fructus or Evodiae fructus (Wu-Zhu-Yu in Chinese) is a versatile herbal medicine which has been prescribed in Chinese herbal formulas and recognized in Japanese Kampo. FTR has been clinically used to treat various diseases such as headache, vomit, diarrhea, abdominal pain, dysmenorrhea and pelvic inflammation for thousands of years.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The present paper aimed to provide comprehensive information on the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, drug interaction and toxicology of FTR in order to build up a foundation on the mechanism of ethnopharmacological uses as well as to explore the trends and perspectives for further studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This review collected the literatures published prior to July 2020 on the phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and toxicity of FTR. All relevant information on FTR was gathered from worldwide accepted scientific search engines and databases, including Web of Science, PubMed, Elsevier, ACS, ResearchGate, Google Scholar, and Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Information was also obtained from local books, PhD. and MSc. Dissertations as well as from Pharmacopeias.

RESULTS

FTR has been used as an herbal medicine for centuries in East Asia. A total of 165 chemical compounds have been isolated so far and the main chemical compounds of FTR include alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, steroids, and phenylpropanoids. Crude extracts, processed products (medicinal slices) and pure components of FTR exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities such as antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-obesity, antioxidant, insecticide, regulating central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis, cardiovascular protection. Furthermore, bioactive components isolated from FTR can induce drug interaction and hepatic injury.

CONCLUSIONS

Therapeutic potential of FTR has been demonstrated with the pharmacological effects on cancer, inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, CNS, bacterial infection and obesity. Pharmacological and pharmacokinetic studies of FTR mostly focus on its main active alkaloids. Further in-depth studies on combined medication and processing approaches mechanisms, pharmacological and toxic effects not limited to the alkaloids, and toxic components of FTR should be designed.

Anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of the ethanol extract of Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. fruit

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. is a medicinal and edible plant belonging to family Palmae. The fruits of this plant were used in traditional folk medicine due to its analgesia and anti-inflammatory activities. This study aimed to investigate the analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties and the mechanism of the ethanol extract of A. pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. fruit (EAF) on different experimental models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to determine the chromatographic profile and to analyze the composition of EAF. In the acute toxicity test, all mice were orally administered EAF at a maximum dosage of 26 g/kg and were then monitored for 14 days. The potential analgesic activity of EAF was evaluated by using animal pain models, namely the acetic acid-induced writhing test and the hot plate test in mice. The underlying mechanisms of analgesia were determined by pretreating with naloxone, capsaicin and cinnamaldehyde to evaluate the involvement of the opioid system and transient receptor potential channels (TRP channels). The anti-inflammatory activity of EAF was evaluated by using the following inflammatory animal models: xylene-induced ear edema in mice and Complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced paw swelling in rats. EAF was orally administered at the doses of 1.625, 3.25 and 6.5 g/kg in mice and 1.125, 2.25 and 4.5 g/kg in rats. The underlying mechanism of the anti-inflammatory activity was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits and real time-PCR used to measure the expression levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Western blot analysis was used to determine the expression levels of proteins related to the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) signaling pathways in paw tissues.

RESULTS

Five compounds, namely (5-(hydroxymethyl) furan-2-yl) methanediol,4'-hydroxy-N-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzoyl)-3',5'-dimethoxybenzamide, (+)-lyonirenisol-3a-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, (-)-lyonirenisol-3a-O-β-glucopyranoside and liquiritin, were firstly identified from A. pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. fruit by HPLC-UV analysis. In the acute toxicity test, no treatment-related toxicological signs or mortality was observed in mice administered doses up to 26 g/kg. Bodyweight was not obviously different among the treatment groups and the vehicle group. EAF significantly inhibited the pain response induced by acetic acid and increased the latency time in the hot plate test in mice. The anti-nociception effect of EAF in the formalin test was not alleviated by pretreatment with naloxone. However, the nociception induced by injection with capsaicin and cinnamaldehyde was significantly reduced by EAF. Compared with vehicle treatment, EAF significantly inhibited the formation of xylene-induced ear edema and CFA adjuvant-induced paw swelling. EAF markedly inhibited the production of IL-1β, TNF-α, PGE₂ and IL-6 induced by CFA in paw tissues. Furthermore, the phosphorylation of IKKα, IKKβ, IκBα, p38, ERK1/2, and JNK and the nuclear translation of NF-κB p65 induced by CFA in paw tissues were significantly inhibited by EAF treatment compared with vehicle treatment.

CONCLUSION

For the first time, this study provides pharmacological evidence for the analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of EAF and the underlying mechanism, suggesting that EAF might be a potential candidate for reducing pain and inflammatory disorders.

[Discussion on safety of Xanthii Fructus and consideration on its rational use]

Xanthii Fructus is a traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of sinusitis and headache,rich in medicinal materials and is widely used for more than 1 800 years. Modern pharmacological studies have showed that Xanthii Fructus has anti-inflammatory,analgesic,anti-tumor,anti-bacterial,hypoglycemic,anti-allergic,immunomodulatory and other pharmacological effects,which can be commonly used in the treatment of diseases relating to immune abnormalities,such as rheumatoid arthritis,acute and chronic rhinitis,allergic rhinitis,and skin diseases,with a high medicinal value. Toxicological studies have shown that Xanthii Fructus poisoning can cause substantial damage to organs,such as the liver,kidney,and gastrointestinal tract,especially to liver. Because of the coexisting of its efficacy and toxicity,Xanthii Fructus often leads to a series of safety problems in the clinical application process. This study attempts to summarize its characteristics of adverse reactions,analyze the root cause of the toxicity of Xanthii Fructus from such aspects as processing,dose,course of treatment and eating by mistake,discuss the substance of its efficacy/toxicity from chemical compositions,and put forward exploratory thinking about how to promote its clinical rational application from the aspects such as strict processing,reasonable compatibility,medication information,contraindication,strict control of the dose,and course of treatment,so as to promote the safe and reasonable application of Xanthii Fructus.

Potentially Toxic Element Concentration in Fruits Collected from Markazi Province (Iran): A Probabilistic Health Risk Assessment

OBJECTIVE

This study was conducted to evaluate the concentration of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb) in fruit samples collected from Markazi Province, Iran. A probabilistic health risk assessment due to ingestion of PTEs through the consumption of these fruits was also conducted.

METHODS

The concentration of PTEs in 90 samples of five types of fruits (n = 3) collected from six geographic regions in Markazi Province was measured. The potential health risk was evaluated using a Monte Carlo simulation model.

RESULTS

A significant difference was observed in the concentration of PTEs between fruits as well as soil and water samples collected from different regions in Markazi Province. The order of PTE concentration in the soil and water samples was as follows: Pb > As > Hg > Cd. Furthermore, the highest level of transfer factor for Cd and Hg correlated with the grape. The estimated daily intake for adults and children was lower than the recommended tolerable daily intake.

CONCLUSION

The population in Markazi Province, Iran, is not at considerable noncarcinogenic or carcinogenic risk due to the ingestion of PTEs through the consumption of the examined fruits.

Evaluation of the anthelminthic potential of Duranta erecta L. (Verbenaceae) fruits used in Nigerian ethnomedicine as a vermifuge

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Duranta erecta L. fruits have been reported to have in vitro anthelminthic properties. People living in the tropical South-Eastern part of Nigeria use the plant in folk medicine for the treatment of malaria, abscesses and as a vermifuge. Although there are a few reports about its in vitro anthelminthic activity against different worm categories, scientific reports regarding its in vivo anthelminthic activity are limited.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study was designed with the aim of determining the potential of the plant as an anthelminthic and to verify the claims made by its local users.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Acute toxicity of the plant extract was determined using Lorke's method. Anthelminthic activity was investigated using adult male albino mice experimentally infected with Heligmosomoides bakeri infective L₃. Graded ascending doses of the plant extract and Albendazole respectively were orally administered to the mice in the infected groups. Corprological and haematological parameters were recorded within the study period. Twenty-eight (28) days post-infection, all infected mice were humanely sacrificed and the Post-Mortem Adult Worm Burden (WB) was estimated and recorded.

RESULTS

The results showed that the extract had an LD₅₀ greater than 5000 mg/kg BW and therefore was not acutely toxic for oral use. It also showed that the plant extract was unable to eliminate the faecal egg output or adult worms in the gastrointestinal tract of infected animals even at the high doses used in the study. This was in contrast to Albendazole which significantly (p < .05) reduced faecal egg counts and worm burdens by 71% and 92% respectively in treated mice. Following infection, there was anaemia in all infected groups seen from results of erythrocytic parameters. Treatment with the plant extract, regardless of the dose, was unable to effectively reverse the effect of parasite infection on erythrocytic parameters. However, treatment with Albendazole positively reversed the anaemia, restoring the mice to pre-infection values by the end of the experiment. The results showed significant (p < .05) increase in WBC counts across all groups following infection with the parasite. Treatment with the plant extract and Albendazole respectively, significantly (p < .05) reduced the WBC counts to near pre-infection values in most treatment groups.

CONCLUSION

As a result of the poor anthelminthic effects recorded in the study, it is therefore recommended that Duranta erecta L. fruits be explored for its other useful effects rather than as an anthelminthic.

The genotoxic effects of fruit extract of Crataegus oxyacantha (hawthorn) in mice

Crataegus oxyacantha L. (Rosaceae) is a medicinal plant with a long history of use in European, Chinese, and American. The majority of pharmacological activities associated with fruit extracts of C. oxyacantha L. are related to cardio-stimulant properties utilized in the treatment of atherosclerosis, hypertension with myocardic insufficiency, angina pectoris, cardiac rhythm alterations, and heart failure. Some other therapeutic uses for renal calculi, dyspnea, as well as a diuretic, sedative, and anxiolytic were also reported. Due to the beneficial potential of C. oxyacantha fruits extract but evidence in vitro of genetic toxicity, the aim of the present study was to examine the genotoxic potential of plant extract in vivo in mice. The extract was administered orally, daily by gavage at doses of 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg body weight for seven days. Data demonstrated that C. oxyacantha extract did not markedly induce DNA damage in leukocytes and bone marrow cells by the comet assay; however, the extract produced a significant rise in micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (PCE) at all tested doses in a non-dose dependent manner as evidenced by the micronucleus test. The PCE/normochromatic erythrocytes (NCE) ratio indicated no significant cytotoxicity. Under our experimental conditions, C. oxyacantha fruits extract exhibited weak clastogenic and/or aneugenic effects in bone marrow cells of male mice, confirming our previous in vitro findings that this plant extract induced genotoxicity suggesting that prolonged or high dose use needs to be undertaken with caution.

Quantification of Methylenecyclopropyl Compounds and Acyl Conjugates by UPLC-MS/MS in the Study of the Biochemical Effects of the Ingestion of Canned Ackee (Blighia sapida) and Lychee (Litchi chinensis)

Consumption of ackee (Blighia sapida) and lychee (Litchi chinensis) fruit has led to severe poisoning. Considering their expanded agricultural production, toxicological evaluation has become important. Therefore, the biochemical effects of eating 1 g/kg canned ackee, containing 99.2 μmol/kg hypoglycin A, and 5 g/kg canned lychee, containing 1.3 μmol/kg hypoglycin A, were quantified in a self-experiment. Using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry, hypoglycin A, methylenecyclopropylacetyl-glycine, and methylenecyclopropylformyl-glycine, as well as the respective carnitine conjugates, were found in urine after ingesting ackee. Hypoglycin A and its glycine derivative were also present in urine after eating lychee. Excretion of physiological acyl conjugates was significantly increased in the ackee experiment. Ingestion of ackee led to up to 15.1 nmol/L methylenecyclopropylacetyl-glycine and traces of methylenecyclopropylformyl-carnitine in the serum. These compounds were not found in the serum after eating lychee. Hypoglycin A accumulated in the serum in both experiments.

Microcystin accumulation and potential effects on antioxidant capacity of leaves and fruits of Capsicum annuum

Surface water, often used for irrigation purposes, may sometimes be contaminated with blooming cyanobacteria and thereby may contain their potent and harmful toxins. Cyanotoxins adversely affect many terrestrial plants, and accumulate in plant tissues that are subsequently ingested by humans. Studies were undertaken to (1) examine the bioaccumulation of microcystins (MCs) in leaves and fruits of pepper Capsicum annuum and (2) examine the potential effects of MCs on antioxidant capacity of these organs. Plants were irrigated with water containing MCs for a period of 3 mo. Data showed that MCs did not accumulate in leaves; however, in fruits the presence of the MC-LR (0.118 ng/mg dry weight) and dmMC-LR (0.077 ng/mg dry weight) was detected. The concentrations of MC-LR in fruit approached the acceptable guideline values and tolerable daily intake for this toxin. Lipid peroxidation levels and flavonoids content were significantly enhanced in both organs of treated plants, while total phenolic concentrations were not markedly variable between control and treated plants. Significant decrease in 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging capacity was noted for both organs. The levels of superoxide anion in fruits and hydroxyl radical in leaves were markedly reduced. Data suggest that exposure to MCs significantly reduced antioxidant capacity of experimental plants, indicating that MCs affected antioxidant systems in C. annuum.

Quantification of Toxins in Soapberry (Sapindaceae) Arils: Hypoglycin A and Methylenecyclopropylglycine

Methylenecyclopropylglycine (MCPG) and hypoglycin A (HGA) are naturally occurring amino acids found in some soapberry fruits. Fatalities have been reported worldwide as a result of HGA ingestion, and exposure to MCPG has been implicated recently in the Asian outbreaks of hypoglycemic encephalopathy. In response to an outbreak linked to soapberry ingestion, the authors developed the first method to simultaneously quantify MCPG and HGA in soapberry fruits from 1 to 10 000 ppm of both toxins in dried fruit aril. Further, this is the first report of HGA in litchi, longan, and mamoncillo arils. This method is presented to specifically address the laboratory needs of public-health investigators in the hypoglycemic encephalitis outbreaks linked to soapberry fruit ingestion.

[Study on efficacy and accompanying toxic and side effects of volatile oil of Evodia Fructus based on stomach cold syndrome model]

OBJECTIVE

To preliminarily study the effective dosage range and mechanism of the abirritation of volatile oil of Evodia Fructus on the stomach cold syndrome model in mice, and discuss the correlation between its accompanying toxicity and oxidative damage mechanism, in order to provide the experimental basis for explaining the efficacy-syndrome-toxicity correlation.

METHOD

The stomach cold-syndrome model in mice was induced by the classic hot plate test by orally administrating with different doses of volatile oil of Evodia Fructus, in order to observe its abirritation and companying toxic and side effects and detect serum ALT, AST, PGE2, NO, NOS, MDA, SOD, GSH, GSH-Px, BUN, CR and hepatic ALT, AST. The companying toxic symptoms in mice were recorded in toxic reaction integral table.

RESULT

Volatile oil of Evodia Fructus had an obvious analgesic effect at 30 min after the oral administration and reached the peak effect at 60 min, with certain "dose-effect" and "time-effect" relations, rises in serum and hepatic ALT and AST levels, serum PGE2, MDA, NO and NOS and hepatic indexes, decreases in SOD, GSH and GSH-Px and no notable change in BUN, CR levels and kidney weight/body ratio. Conclusion: The abirritation mechanism of volatile oil of Evodia Fructus was related to the inhibition of pain transmitter release, peroxidative damage and NO damage, which is accompanied by certain hepatotoxicity, mainly mainly oxidative damage, with a concurrent "dose-time-toxicity" relationship.

[Studies on coumarins from fruit of Cnidium monnieri and their cytotoxic activities]

This study is to study is to investigate the coumarins from Fruit of Cnidium monnieri and their cytotoxic activities. The constituents were separated by column chromatography, and their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic data analyses. The isolated compounds were evaluated for their cytoxic activities by MTT method. Eleven compounds were isolated and identified as osthole (1), bergaptan (2), xanthotoxol (3), xanthotoxin (4), imperatorin (5), isopimpinellin (6), osthenol (7), psoralen (8), 5,7-dimethoxycoumarin (9), oxypeucedaninhydrate (10), and swietenocoumarin F (11). Compounds 7, 9-11 were isolated from the Cnidium genus for the first time. Compounds 1,5,10 and 11 showed significant cytotoxic activities against L1210 cell lines at a concentration of 1 x 10(-5) mol x L(-1) with inhibitory rates of were 70.13, 63.10, 55.77, and 75.08% respectively.

Toxicity assessment of transgenic papaya ringspot virus of 823-2210 line papaya fruits

The transgenic papaya is a valuable strategy for creating plants resistant to papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) infection and increasing production. This study was further performed to evaluate the comparative toxicity effects of the newly developed transgenic line of the fruits of two backcross transgenic papaya lines (2210 and 823) and one hybrid line (823-2210) and compare to their parent non-transgenic (TN-2) counterparts. The stability analysis of coat protein (CP) of PRSV was investigated using the digestion stability assays in simulated gastric fluid (SGF), simulated intestinal fluid (SIF), and bile salts to detect the CP fragments. Results revealed that the CP fragments were rapidly hydrolyzed in SGF and were undetectable in organs and gastrointestinal contents in rats. For the genotoxicity, three in vitro assays were conducted and exhibited that non-transgenic and backcross transgenic papaya fruits were negative. Moreover, a repeated animal feeding study was conducted by feeding 2 g/kg of body weight (bw) of non-transgenic and backcross transgenic papaya fruits for 28 days in rats. There were no biological or toxicological significances between non-transgenic and backcross transgenic papaya fruits in rats. The results demonstrated that the backcross transgenic papaya fruit can be recognized as an equivalent substitution for traditional papaya in food safety.

Foodborne exposure to pesticides and methylmercury in the United Arab Emirates

As part of a comprehensive environmental health strategic planning project initiated by the government of Abu Dhabi, we assessed potential dietary exposure in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) to methylmercury (in seafood) and pesticides (in fruits and vegetables) above international guideline levels. We present results for the UAE population by age, gender, and body mass index. Our results show very low daily risks of exposure to pesticides in fruits and vegetables at levels exceeding WHO guidelines even under the conservative assumption that no pesticides are removed during washing and food preparation. Thus, exposure to pesticides on fruits and vegetables does not appear to be a major public health concern in the UAE. The chances of exposure to methylmercury in seafood are much higher; our model estimates a mean 1 in 5 daily risk of exceeding the FAO/WHO provisional tolerable weekly intake. However, great caution should be used in interpreting these results, as we analyzed only the risks and not the substantial benefits of fish consumption. In fact, previous studies have demonstrated that exposure to the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish can increase IQ in developing children, and it can substantially decrease the risk in adults of coronary heart disease and stroke. Further research is warranted to compare the risk of Me-Hg exposure from fish to the nutritional benefits of fish consumption in the UAE and to determine appropriate methods to communicate risk and benefit information to the UAE population.

Hepatotoxicity of kaurene glycosides from Xanthium strumarium L. fruits in mice

The fruit of Xanthium strumarium L. (Cang-Er-Zi) is a traditional Chinese medicine that is used in curing nasal diseases and headache according to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. However, clinical utilization of Xanthium strumarium is relatively limited because of its toxicity. The present investigation was carried out to evaluate the toxic effects on acute liver injury in mice of the two kaurene glycosides (atractyloside and carbxyatractyloside), which are main toxic constituents isolated from Fructus Xanthii on acute liver injury in mice. Histopathological examinations revealed that there were not obviously visible injury in lungs, heart, spleen, and the central nervous system in the mice by intraperitoneal injection of atractyloside (ATR, at the doses 50,125 and 200 mg/kg) and carbxyatractyloside (CATR, at the doses 50,100 and 150 mg/kg) for 5 days. However, it revealed extensive liver injuries compared with the normal group. In the determination of enzyme levels in serum, intraperitoneal injection of ATR and CATR resulted in significantly elevated serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), asparate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activities compared to controls. In the hepatic oxidative stress level, antioxidant-related enzyme activity assays showed that ATR and CATR administration significantly increased hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration, as well as decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) activities and glutathione (GSH) concentration, and this was in good agreement with the results of serum aminotransferase activity and histopathological examinations. Taken together, our results demonstrate that kaurene glycosides induce hepatotoxicity in mice by way of its induction of oxidative stress as lipid peroxidation in liver, which merited further studies. Therefore, these toxic constituents explain, at least in part, the hepatotoxicity of X. strumarium L. in traditional medicine.

Quantitative analysis of the neonicotinoid insecticides imidacloprid and thiamethoxam in fruit juices by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays

Rapid and sensitive ELISAs have been applied to analyze imidacloprid and thiamethoxam residues in apple, grape, orange, and peach juices after simple dilution of the samples without any extraction and cleanup. The matrix interference of the fruit juices was eliminated after 100-fold dilution, and the ELISAs gave method LODs of imidacloprid and thiamethoxam in fruit juices down to 20 and 5 ng/g, respectively. Average recoveries of imidacloprid and thiamethoxam from the spiked fruit juices were in the range of 92-115% and 87-118%, respectively. The CVs of the recoveries ranged from 3 to 19% and from 6 to 19% for imidacloprid and thiamethoxam, respectively. The ELISA results were comparable to those obtained by a reference HPLC/MS method using pesticide-spiked samples, with reasonable correlation coefficients between 0.89 and 0.93 and regression coefficients (slopes) between 0.75 and 0.94.

[Toxicological assessment on safety of water and 70% ethanolic extracts of nearly ripe fruit of Evodia rutaecarpa]

OBJECTIVE

To study the acute toxicity and mutagenic risk of the water extracts (ERWE) and 70% ethanol extracts (EREE) from the nearly ripe fruit of Evodia rutaecarpa, and provide experimental basis for safety evaluation of ones.

METHOD

The ERWE and EREE were prepared from the nearly ripe fruit of E. rutaecarpa by reflux extraction with H2O and 70% ethanol aqueous solution for three times, respectively. According to the terms from "technical standards for test & toxicological assessment of health food" issued by Healthy Ministry of PRC, acute toxicity, and Ames, mouse marrow cell micronucleus and mouse sperm aberration test were performed. Acute toxicity test of ERWE and EREE in mice was studied by the method of Horn to give the median lethal dose (LD50). Forty healthy Kunming strain male and female mice were used and their body weights ranged from 17-22 g. All of them were distributed randomly to 4 different dose groups which each had 10 mice. The ERWE or EREE was administered at the doses of 1.00, 2.15, 4.64 and 10.00 g x kg(-1), respectively, via intragastrical route. The number of animals poisoned and died in each group were noted daily for 7 consecutive days. The Ames test was carried out using the Salmonella typhimurium strain TA97, TA98, TA100 and TA102. In the sperm abnormalities test, 25 healthy adult male Kunming strain mice with a body weights ranged from 25-35 g were distributed randomly to 5 different groups (1 positive control, 1 negative control and 3 treated groups) which each had 5 mice. A single dose of 60 g x kg(-1) of cyclophosphamide was intragastrically administered to mice in a positive control group, and the mice in the negative control group were administered with the same volume of distilled water. In the treated groups, the ERWE or EREE was intragastrically administered at the doses of 1.25, 250 and 5.00 g x kg(-1), respectively, via the same route with the positive control group. The administration was carried out once daily for 5 consecutive days. The sperm suspension was prepared from caudal epididymis of male mice at 35th day after treatment with different doses of the extract. The suspension was stained with Eosin-Y and air-dried smears were prepared. One thousand sperms per animal were analysed for abnormal shapes and the rates of sperm aberration was calculated. In the mouse bone marrow micronucleus assay, 50 healthy adult male and female Kunming mice, weighing 25 to 30 g, were randomly assigned to five groups (1 positive control, 1 negative control and 3 treated groups) which each had 10 mice, five males and five females. The mice were intragastrically administered twice at intervals of 24 h with the ERWE or EREE at doses of 1.25, 2.50 and 5.00 g x kg(-1) in the positive control group. A single dose of 60 g x kg(-1) of cyclophosphamide in a positive control group and the same volume of distilled water in a negative control groups were intragastrically administered, respectively. Mouse bone marrow was obtained from 10 animals for each group at 6 h after the last dose administration. Smears were stained with Giemsa and analysed for the presence of mouse bone marrow micronucleus from 1 000 cells.

RESULT

The oral acute toxicity study in mice revealed that the LD50 of the both ERWE and EREE was more than 10.0 g x kg(-1). The mice with both the poisoned sign or died had not been observed after intragastrical administration of ERWE or EREE at the doses of 1.00, 2.15, 4.64 and 10.00 g x kg(-1). The results of genotoxicity tests were all negative, including Ames, mouse marrow cell micronucleus and mouse sperm aberration test. In the all assay in vivo, the mice showed a normally progressive increase in body weight from the start to the end of the experiment.

CONCLUSION

The oral LD50 of the ERWE and EREE in mice was more than 10.0 g x kg(-1) belonging to non-toxicity on the acute toxicity rating criteria. The both ERWE and EREE showed no genotoxicity in the experimental condition.

Mechanisms of star fruit-induced acute renal failure

We have previously discovered that star fruit can induce oliguric acute renal failure. To investigate the mechanisms of star fruit-associated acute oxalate nephropathy, the nephrotoxic effect of star fruit was examined in both cellular experiments and animal models. We evaluated renal function, pathological changes in kidney tissues and apoptotic effects using terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay in four groups of rats -- a control group (CG), fed with tap water (1); a star fruit group (SG), fed with star fruit juice naturally containing 0.2M oxalate (2); and oxalate groups (OxG), fed with 0.2M (3) or 0.4M (4) oxalate solution. The effects of both star fruit juice and oxalate on MDCK cells were also analyzed by flow cytometry. We found that the mean creatinine clearance was significantly lower in the SG, 0.2M OxG and 0.4M OxG. Dose-dependent apoptotic effects were evident from the TUNEL assay, and flow cytometry analysis of treated MDCK cells showed dose- and time-dependent effects. Our findings suggest that star fruit juice produces acute renal injury, not only through the obstructive effect of calcium oxalate crystals, but also by inducing apoptosis of renal epithelial cells, which may be caused by the levels of oxalate in the fruit.

REM sleep behavior disorder in patients with guadeloupean parkinsonism, a tauopathy

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To describe sleep characteristics and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder in patients with Guadeloupean atypical parkinsonism (Gd-PSP), a tauopathy resembling progressive supranuclear palsy that mainly affects the midbrain. It is possibly caused by the ingestion of sour sop (corossol), a tropical fruit containing acetogenins, which are mitochondrial poisons.

DESIGN

Sleep interview, motor and cognitive tests, and overnight videopolysomnography.

PATIENTS

Thirty-six age-, sex-, disease-duration- and disability-matched patients with Gd-PSP (n = 9), progressive supranuclear palsy (a tauopathy, n = 9), Parkinson disease (a synucleinopathy, n = 9) and controls (n = 9).

SETTINGS

Tertiary-care academic hospital.

RESULTS

REM sleep behavior disorder was found in 78% patients with Gd-PSP (43% of patients reported having this disorder several years before the onset of parkinsonism), 44% of patients with idiopathic Parkinson disease, 33% of patients with progressive supranuclear palsy, and no controls. The percentage of muscle activity during REM sleep was greater in patients with Gd-PSP than in controls (limb muscle activity, 8.3%+/-8.7% vs 0.1%+/- 0.2%; chin muscle activity, 24.3%+/- 23.7% vs 0.7%+/-2.0%) but similar to that of other patient groups. The latency and percentage of REM sleep were similar in patients with Gd-PSP, patients with Parkinson disease, and controls, whereas patients with progressive supranuclear palsy had delayed and shortened REM sleep.

CONCLUSION

Although Gd-PSP is a tauopathy, most patients experience REM sleep behavior disorder. This suggests that the location of neuronal loss or dysfunction in the midbrain, rather than the protein comprising the histologic lesions (synuclein versus tau aggregation), is responsible for suppressing muscle atonia during REM sleep. Subjects with idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder should avoid eating sour sop.

Piscicidal potential of mesocarp of neem plant (Azadirachta indica L.) fruit on hybrid, "Heteroclarias"

The piscicidal potential of water-extract mesocarp of Azadirachta indica (L) was studied in static bioassay experiment with continuous aeration to determine its acute toxicity The mortality rate and opercular ventilation under laboratory conditions over 96 hr exposure were monitored. The 96 hrLC50 was 81.28 mgl(-1) while the threshold value was 21.13 mgl(-1). The fish exhibited respiratory distress (such as gasping air), loss of appetite, loss of balance and erratic swimming prior to mortality.

Final report on the safety assessment of capsicum annuum extract, capsicum annuum fruit extract, capsicum annuum resin, capsicum annuum fruit powder, capsicum frutescens fruit, capsicum frutescens fruit extract, capsicum frutescens resin, and capsaicin

Capsicum-derived ingredients function as skin-conditioning agents--miscellaneous, external analgesics, flavoring agents, or fragrance components in cosmetics. These ingredients are used in 19 cosmetic products at concentrations as high as 5%. Cosmetic-grade material may be extracted using hexane, ethanol, or vegetable oil and contain the full range of phytocompounds that are found in the Capsicum annuum or Capsicum frutescens plant (aka red chiles), including Capsaicin. Aflatoxin and N-nitroso compounds (N-nitrosodimethylamine and N-nitrosopyrrolidine) have been detected as contaminants. The ultraviolet (UV) absorption spectrum for Capsicum Annuum Fruit Extract indicates a small peak at approximately 275 nm, and a gradual increase in absorbance, beginning at approximately 400 nm. Capsicum and paprika are generally recognized as safe by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for use in food. Hexane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate extracts of Capsicum Frutescens Fruit at 200 mg/kg resulted in death of all mice. In a short-term inhalation toxicity study using rats, no difference was found between vehicle control and a 7% Capsicum Oleoresin solution. In a 4-week feeding study, red chilli (Capsicum annuum) in the diet at concentrations up to 10% was relatively nontoxic in groups of male mice. In an 8-week feeding study using rats, intestinal exfoliation, cytoplasmic fatty vacuolation and centrilobular necrosis of hepatocytes, and aggregation of lymphocytes in the portal areas were seen at 10% Capsicum Frutescens Fruit, but not 2%. Rats fed 0.5 g/kg day-1 crude Capsicum Fruit Extract for 60 days exhibited no significant gross pathology at necropsy, but slight hyperemia of the liver and reddening of the gastric mucosa were observed. Weanling rats fed basal diets supplemented with whole red pepper at concentrations up to 5.0% for up to 8 weeks had no pathology of the large intestines, livers, and kidneys, but destruction of the taste buds and keratinization and erosion of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract were noted in groups fed 0.5% to 5.0% red pepper. The results of 9-and 12-month extension of this study showed normal large intestines and kidneys. In rabbits fed Capsicum Annuum Powder at 5 mg/kg day-1 in the diet daily for 12 months damage to the liver and spleen was noted. A rabbit skin irritation test of Capsicum Annuum Fruit Extract at concentrations ranging from 0.1% to 1.0% produced no irritation, but Capsicum Frutescens Fruit Extract induced concentration-dependent (at 25 to 500 microg/ml) cytotoxicity in a human buccal mucosa fibroblast cell line. An ethanol extract of red chili was mutagenic in Salmonella typhimurium TA98, but not in TA100, or in Escherichia coli. Other genotoxicity assays gave a similar pattern of mixed results. Adenocarcinoma of the abdomen was observed in 7/20 mice fed 100 mg red chilies per day for 12 months; no tumors were seen in control animals. Neoplastic changes in the liver and intestinal tumors were observed in rats fed red chili powder at 80 mg/kg day-1 for 30 days, intestinal and colon tumors were seen in rats fed red chili powder and 1,2-dimethyl hydrazine, but no tumors were observed in controls. In another study in rats, however, red chile pepper in the diet at the same dose decreased the number of tumors seen with 1,2-dimethylhydrazine. Other feeding studies evaluated the effect of red chili peppers on the incidence of stomach tumors produced by N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine, finding that red pepper had a promoting effect. Capsicum Frutescens Fruit Extract promoted the carcinogenic effect of methyl(acetoxymethyl)nitrosamine (carcinogen) or benzene hexachloride (hepatocarcinogen) in inbred male and female Balb/c mice dosed orally (tongue application). Clinical findings include symptoms of cough, sneezing, and runny nose in chili factory workers. Human respiratory responses to Capsicum Oleoresin spray include burning of the throat, wheezing, dry cough, shortness of breath, gagging, gasping, inability to breathe or speak, and, rarely, cyanosis, apnea, and respiratory arrest. A trade name mixture containing 1% to 5% Capsicum Frutescens Fruit Extract induced very slight erythema in 1 of 10 volunteers patch tested for 48 h. Capsicum Frutescens Fruit Extract at 0.025% in a repeated-insult patch test using 103 subjects resulted in no clinically meaningful irritation or allergic contact dermatitis. One epidemiological study indicated that chili pepper consumption may be a strong risk factor for gastric cancer in populations with high intakes of chili pepper; however, other studies did not find this association. Capsaicin functions as an external analgesic, a fragrance ingredient, and as a skin-conditioning agent--miscellaneous in cosmetic products, but is not in current use. Capsaicin is not generally recognized as safe and effective by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for fever blister and cold sore treatment, but is considered to be safe and effective as an external analgesic counterirritant. Ingested Capsaicin is rapidly absorbed from the stomach and small intestine in animal studies. Subcutaneous injection of Capsaicin in rats resulted in a rise in the blood concentration, reaching a maximum at 5 h; the highest tissue concentrations were in the kidney and lowest in the liver. In vitro percutaneous absorption of Capsaicin has been demonstrated in human, rat, mouse, rabbit, and pig skin. Enhancement of the skin permeation of naproxen (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent) in the presence of Capsaicin has also been demonstrated. Pharmacological and physiological studies demonstrated that Capsaicin, which contains a vanillyl moiety, produces its sensory effects by activating a Ca2 +-permeable ion channel on sensory neurons. Capsaicin is a known activator of vanilloid receptor 1. Capsaicin-induced stimulation of prostaglandin biosynthesis has been shown using bull seminal vesicles and rheumatoid arthritis synoviocytes. Capsaicin inhibits protein synthesis in Vero kidney cells and human neuroblastoma SHSY-5Y cells in vitro, and inhibits growth of E. coli, Pseudomonas solanacearum, and Bacillus subtilis bacterial cultures, but not Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Oral LD50 values as low as 161.2 mg/kg (rats) and 118.8 mg/kg (mice) have been reported for Capsaicin in acute oral toxicity studies, with hemorrhage of the gastric fundus observed in some of the animals that died. Intravenous, intraperitoneal, and subcutaneous LD50 values were lower. In subchronic oral toxicity studies using mice, Capsaicin produced statistically significant differences in the growth rate and liver/body weight increases. Capsaicin is an ocular irritant in mice, rats, and rabbits. Dose-related edema was observed in animals receiving Capsaicin injections into the hindpaw (rats) or application to the ear (mice). In guinea pigs, dinitrochlorobenzene contact dermatitis was enhanced in the presence of Capsaicin, injected subcutaneously, whereas dermal application inhibited sensitization in mice. Immune system effects have been observed in neonatal rats injected subcutaneously with Capsaicin. Capsaicin produced mixed results in S. typhimurium micronucleus and sister-chromatid exchange genotoxicity assays. Positive results for Capsaicin were reported in DNA damage assays. Carcinogenic, cocarcinogenic, anticarcinogenic, antitumorigenic, tumor promotion, and anti-tumor promotion effects of Capsaicin have been reported in animal studies. Except for a significant reduction in crown-rump length in day 18 rats injected subcutaneously with Capsaicin (50 mg/kg) on gestation days 14, 16, 18, or 20, no reproductive or developmental toxicity was noted. In pregnant mice dosed subcutaneously with Capsaicin, depletion of substance P in the spinal cord and peripheral nerves of pregnant females and fetuses was noted. In clinical tests, nerve degeneration of intracutaneous nerve fibers and a decrease in pain sensation induced by heat and mechanical stimuli were evident in subjects injected intradermally with Capsaicin. An increase in mean inspiratory flow was reported for eight normal subjects who inhaled nebulized 10(-7) M Capsaicin. The results of provocative and predictive tests involving human subjects indicated that Capsaicin is a skin irritant. Overall, studies suggested that these ingredients can be irritating at low concentrations. Although the genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and tumor promotion potential of Capsaicin have been demonstrated, so have opposite effects. Skin irritation and other tumor-promoting effects of Capsaicin appear to be mediated through interaction with the same vanilloid receptor. Given this mechanism of action and the observation that many tumor promoters are irritating to the skin, the Panel considered it likely that a potent tumor promoter may also be a moderate to severe skin irritant. Thus, a limitation on Capsaicin content that would significantly reduce its skin irritation potential is expected to, in effect, lessen any concerns relating to tumor promotion potential. Because Capsaicin enhanced the penetration of an anti-inflammatory agent through human skin, the Panel recommends that care should be exercised in using ingredients that contain Capsaicin in cosmetic products. The Panel advised industry that the total polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)/pesticide contamination should be limited to not more than 40 ppm, with not more than 10 ppm for any specific residue, and agreed on the following limitations for other impurities: arsenic (3 mg/kg max), heavy metals (0.002% max), and lead (5 mg/kg max). Industry was also advised that aflatoxin should not be present in these ingredients (the Panel adopted < or =15 ppb as corresponding to "negative" aflatoxin content), and that ingredients derived from Capsicum annuum and Capsicum Frutescens Plant species should not be used in products where N-nitroso compounds may be formed. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)

An experimental model of peripheral neuropathy induced in rats by Karwinskia humboldtiana (buckthorn) fruit

Intoxication by Karwinskia humboldtiana (buckthorn) fruit presents a neurological picture similar to that of Guillain-Barré syndrome. In this report, we describe an experimental animal model of peripheral neuropathy induced by buckthorn fruit. Four groups of Wistar rats received one oral dose of 1.5 g/kg followed by oral doses of 0.5 g/kg at days 3, 7, 10, and 14 of dried and ground buckthorn fruit in aqueous suspension. Rats were sacrificed at 24, 48, 58, and 112 days after initial dose. Treated animals developed progressive paralysis through 58 days, then completely recovered by 112 days. Sciatic nerves showed segmental demyelination and cellular infiltrates until 58 days after exposure and then remyelinating changes at 112 days. This experimental model for peripheral neuropathy is reproducible and easy to handle. Its manipulation is relatively innocuous and allows us to study reversible peripheral nerve damage. This model can be developed in other animal species and may be useful to test new therapies for peripheral neuropathy.

Olfactory shifts parallel superspecialism for toxic fruit in Drosophila melanogaster sibling, D. sechellia

Olfaction in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is increasingly understood, from ligand-receptor-neuron combinations to their axonal projection patterns into the antennal lobe . Drosophila thus offers an excellent opportunity to study the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of olfactory systems. We compared the structure and function of the generalist D. melanogaster with that of specialist D. sechellia, which oviposits exclusively on morinda fruit . Our analyses show that whereas the fruit's headspace was dominated by acids, antennae responded most strongly to hexanoates. D. sechellia exhibited an extraordinarily strong response to methyl hexanoate (MeHex). Behaviorally, D. sechellia was much more attracted to these morinda fruit volatiles than was D. melanogaster. The high sensitivity to MeHex was paralleled by a 2.5x-3 x overrepresentation of MeHex neurons on the antenna and a concordant 2.9 x increase in volume of the corresponding glomerulus as compared to D. melanogaster. In addition, the MeHex neuron exhibited an extreme sensitivity down to femtograms of its ligand. In contrast, no peripherally mediated shift was found paralleling D. sechellia's increased attraction to acids. These findings are a demonstration of evolution acting at several levels in the olfactory circuitry in mediating a fruit fly's unique preference for fruit toxic to its sibling species .

Safety and whole-body antioxidant potential of a novel anthocyanin-rich formulation of edible berries

Edible berry extracts rich in anthocyanins possess a broad spectrum of therapeutic, pharmacologic and anti-carcinogenic properties. Six berry extracts (wild blueberry, bilberry, cranberry, elderberry, raspberry seeds and strawberry), singly and in combination, were studied in our laboratories for antioxidant efficacy, cytotoxic potential, cellular uptake and anti-angiogenic properties. Combinations of edible berry extracts were evaluated to develop a synergistic formula, OptiBerry, which exhibited high oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) value, low cytotoxicity and superior anti-angiogenic properties compared to the other combinations tested. The current study sought to determine the broad spectrum safety and antioxidant potential of OptiBerry in vivo. Acute oral LD(50) of OptiBerry was greater than 5 g/kg in rats. Acute dermal LD(50) of OptiBerry was greater than 2 g/kg. No changes in the body weight or adverse effects were observed following necropsy. Primary skin and eye irritation studies were conducted in New Zealand albino rabbits. OptiBerry was classified as slightly irritating to the skin (primary skin irritation index 0.3) and minimally irritating to the eye (maximum mean total score 6.0). The antioxidant potential of OptiBerry was investigated in rats and mice by assessing GSH redox status in tissues as well as by a unique state-of-the-art electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) imaging of whole-body redox status. A clinically relevant hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) exposure system (2 atm, 2 h) was employed to study the antioxidant properties of OptiBerry. OptiBerry feeding (8 weeks) significantly prevented HBO-induced GSH oxidation in the lung and liver of vitamin E-deficient Sprague Dawley rats. Furthermore, OptiBerry-fed mice, when exposed to HBO, demonstrated significant protection in whole-body HBO-induced oxidation compared to the unfed controls by EPR imaging. Taken together, these results indicate that OptiBerry is reasonably safe and possess antioxidant properties.

Experimental phytophotodermatitis

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Phytophotodermatitis (PPD) is defined as a phototoxic reaction of the skin after contact with substances derived from plants and subsequent exposure to sunlight. It is a frequent disease in our outpatient clinics during summer because of contact with Tahitian lemon. Our objectives were to experimentally reproduce PPD in rats, to identify whether PPD is induced by minimal exposure periods to sunlight, to find what kinds of lemons and which parts of the lemon (the fruit juice or the peel juice) may trigger the disease; to know whether the use of sunblock prevents the reaction; and to perform light microscopy of the lesions to describe their histology.

METHODS

Adult rats (Rattus norwegicus), three in each experiment, were used. After painting the rats with the fruit juice or the peel juice they were exposed to sunlight for 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 min. Tahitian and Sicilian lemons were used in the experiments. Biopsies with 3-mm punches of different times of exposure were performed.

RESULTS

The peel juice of both lemons reproduced PPD, which was clinically evident after 48 h. When the peel juice was alone applied there was no reaction; moreover, exposure to sunlight alone triggered no reaction. Two and a half minutes of exposure time was sufficient to induce phototoxic reaction, which was time dependent (the longer the exposure the more intense the reaction). Histopathological studies showed epithelial time-dependent vacuolar degeneration. The use of sunblock diminished the intensity of the reaction but did not prevent it.

CONCLUSION

PPD can be reproduced in an animal model. It may be caused by the peel juice of Tahitian and Sicilian lemon. Because of an extremely short time of exposure (2.5 min) is sufficient to induce PPD it is necessary to alert the population, of the need for caution when handling lemons, especially outdoors despite using sunblock.

Poisoning by Coriaria myrtifolia Linnaeus: a new case report and review of the literature

Coriaria myrtifolia should be recognized as one of the most neurotoxic plants in western Mediterranean area. This shrub produces a toxin, coriamyrtin, that is present in high concentrations in the berries. Ingestion of few fruits similar to blackberries may induce digestive and neurological manifestations including seizures, coma and apnea. The authors present a new case report that took place in the French Catalonia: an 8 year-old boy developed vomiting and generalized recurrent convulsions after ingestion of C. myrtifolia berries. He needed repeated diazepam administrations and was managed in the hospital. He recovered after one day of benzodiazepine treatment. In order to evaluate the consequences of C. myrtifolia poisoning, 83 cases of the literature were analyzed: the cases occurred in three countries (Spain, France and Morocco); the mean delay of the symptom development was 150 min; the neurological disturbances were the most frequent signs and 11 patients died (6 children, 5 adults) mainly in old reports.

The genetics of adaptation in Drosophila sechellia

Drosophila sechellia is an island endemic of the Seychelles. After its geographic isolation on these islands, D. sechellia evolved into a host specialist on the fruit of Morinda citrifolia--a fruit often noxious and repulsive to Drosophila. Specialization on M. citrifolia required the evolution of a suite of adaptations, including resistance to and preference for some of the toxins found in this fruit. Several of these adaptive traits have been studied genetically. Here, I summarize what is known about the genetics of these traits and briefly describe the ecological and geographical context that shaped the evolution of these characters. The data from D. sechellia suggest that adaptations are not as genetically complex as historically thought, although almost all of the adaptations of D. sechellia involve several genes.

Colocynth toxicity. A possible cause of bloody diarrhea

Five cases of toxicity due to consumption of an uncommon wild fruit called Colocynth are described. These cases were seen over a period of 2 years. Severe bouts of bloody diarrhea were encountered in these patients. The plant, its ingredients, the medicinal and other uses, features of toxicity and the management is discussed. Doctors are advised to be aware of this uncommon clinical problem.

Cytotoxic major saponin from tomato fruits

A major novel steroidal alkaloid glycoside, possessing cytotoxic activity has been isolated from the fruits of Lycopersicon esculentum.

Cytotoxicity and apoptotic inducibility of Vitex agnus-castus fruit extract in cultured human normal and cancer cells and effect on growth

A crude extract was prepared with ethanol from dried ripened Vitex agnus-castus fruits growing in Israel (Vitex extract). Cytotoxicity of the extract against human uterine cervical canal fibroblast (HCF), human embryo fibroblast (HE-21), ovarian cancer (MCF-7), cervical carcinoma (SKG-3a), breast carcinoma (SKOV-3), gastric signet ring carcinoma (KATO-III), colon carcinoma (COLO 201), and small cell lung carcinoma (Lu-134-A-H) cells was examined. After culture for 24 h (logarithmic growth phase) or 72 h (stationary growth phase), the cells were treated with various concentrations of Vitex extract. In both growth phases, higher growth activity of cells and more cytotoxic activity of Vitex extract were seen. The cytotoxic activity against stationary growth-phase cells was less than that against logarithmic growth-phase cells. DNA fragmentation of Vitex extract-treated cells was seen in SKOV-3, KATO-III, COLO 201, and Lu-134-A-H cells. The DNA fragmentation in Vitex extract-treated KATO-III cells was inhibited by the presence of the antioxidative reagent pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate or N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC). Western blotting analysis showed that in Vitex extract-treated KATO-III cells, the presence of NAC also inhibited the expression of heme oxygenase-1 and the active forms of caspases-3, -8 and -9. It is concluded that the cytotoxic activity of Vitex extract may be attributed to the effect on cell growth, that cell death occurs through apoptosis, and that this apoptotic cell death may be attributed to increased intracellular oxidation by Vitex extract treatment.

Neurotoxic effects of carambola in rats: the role of oxalate

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Carambola (star fruit) has been reported to contain neurotoxins that cause convulsions, hiccups, or death in uremic patients, and prolong barbiturate-induced sleeping time in rats. The constituent responsible for these effects remains uncertain. Carambola contains a large quantity of oxalate, which can induce depression of cerebral function and seizures. This study was conducted to investigate the role of oxalate in carambola toxicity in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects on barbiturate-induced sleeping time and death caused by intraperitoneal administration of carambola juice were observed in Sprague-Dawley rats. To obtain a dose-dependent response curve and evaluate the lethal dose, rats were treated with serial amounts of pure carambola juice diluted with normal saline in a volume of 1:1. To test the role of oxalate in the neurotoxic effect of carambola, either 5.33 g/kg carambola after oxalate removal or 5.33 g/kg of pure carambola juice diluted with normal saline were administered intraperitoneally, while the control group was given normal saline before pentobarbital injection. The effects of carambola and oxalate-removed carambola on barbiturate-induced sleeping time were compared with those of saline. To assess the lethal effect of oxalate in carambola, we gave rats chemical oxalate at comparable concentrations to the oxalate content of carambola.

RESULTS

Carambola juice administration prolonged barbiturate-induced sleeping time in a dose-dependent manner. The sleeping time of rats that received normal saline and 1.33 g/kg, 2.67 g/kg, 5.33 g/kg, and 10.67 g/kg of carambola juice were 66 +/- 16.6, 93.7 +/- 13.4, 113.3 +/- 11.4, 117.5 +/- 29.0, and 172.5 +/- 38.8 minutes, respectively. The three higher-dose groups had longer sleeping times than controls (p < 0.05 or 0.005). This effect was eliminated after the removal of oxalate from carambola juice. Four of eight rats in the 10.67-g/kg group and all rats in the 21.33 g/kg and chemical oxalate groups died after seizure. Lethal doses of carambola juice were rendered harmless by the oxalate removal procedure.

CONCLUSIONS

Oxalate is a main constituent of carambola neurotoxicity. This finding suggests that patients with carambola intoxication should be treated for oxalate toxicosis.

Evaluation of the cytotoxicity, mutagenicity and antimutagenicity of emerging edible plants

This study evaluates the toxic, mutagenic and antimutagenic effects of emerging edible plants that are consumed as new leafy vegetables in Taiwan. Among eight plant extracts, only the extracts of Sol (Solanum nigrum L.) showed cytotoxicity to Salmonella typhimurium TA100 in the absence of S9 mix. The toxicity of extracts from different parts of the Sol plant, such as leaf and stem, immature fruit and mature fruit, towards S. typhimurium TA100 and human lymphocytes was also assayed. The immature fruit extracts of Sol exhibited strong cytotoxicity with dose dependence and induced significant DNA damage in human lymphocytes based on the comet assay. However, no mutagenicity was found in eight plant extracts to TA98 or TA100 either with or without the S9 mixture. Sol and Sec [Sechium edule (Jacq.) Swartz] extracts showed the strongest inhibitory effect towards the mutagenicity of 2-amino-3-methyl-imidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ) in S. typhimurium TA98 and TA100; the ID(50) was less then 1 mg/plate. Cra [Crassocephalum creidioides (Benth.) S. Moore] extracts also expressed moderate antimutagenic activities towards IQ and benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) either in TA98 or in TA100; the ID(50) was 1.63-2.41 mg/plate. The extracts from Bas (Basella alba L.), Bou (Boussingaultia gracilis Miers var. pseudobaselloides Bailey), Cen (Centella asiatica L. Urban), Cor (Corchorus olitorius L.) and Por (Portulaca oleracea L.) showed weak to moderate inhibition of mutagenicity of IQ. However, the potential antimutagenicity of these plant extracts towards B[a]P was weaker than that towards IQ. For a direct mutagen, 4-nitroquinoline-N-oxide (NQNO), only the Sol extracts showed strong inhibitory effects in the TA100 system. The antimutagenic activity of water extracts of Sec was partly reduced by heating at 100 degrees C for 20 min. The heat-stable antimutagens in Sec extracts could be produced in the plant extract preparation process. Fractions with molecular weights above 30,000 showed the strongest antimutagenicity and peroxidase activity in all the fractions of the Sec extracts.

Should home ipecac-induced emesis be routinely recommended in the management of toxic berry ingestions?

Poison center (PC) management of toxic berry ingestions may include recommendations to administer syrup of ipecac (SI) regardless of the number of berries ingested. We investigated whether the routine use of SI in the home management of asymptomatic single or few (< 6) berry ingestions may be unnecessary. A prospective, randomized clinical trial compared SI + home observation (HO) to HO alone for management of pediatric toxic berry ingestions. Subjects were children 9 mo to 5 y who ingested a small number (< 6) of Taxus sp (yew), Solanum americanus (nightshade), Ilex sp (holly) or unknown potentially toxic berries. Exclusions were symptomatic subjects, ingestion of more than 1 type of berry or other plant part, or contraindication to SI. Outcome variables consisting of symptom assessment and disposition were assessed 24 h following the ingestion. Over a 27-mo period 103 subjects were entered into the study; 45 received SI/HO and 51 received only HO. While 100% of the SI/HO group experienced vomiting, none of the HO group vomited. Diarrhea and sedation were more common in the SI/HO group. Use of SI in the home management of young children who ingest fewer than 6 toxic berries (yew, nightshade, holly or unknown) and who are asymptomatic when the PC is contacted may be responsible for the majority of symptoms. Ingestion of small amounts of berries may require no intervention beyond observation. Methodological limitations of this study included the lack of confirmed identification of the berries and the inability to confirm ingestion and absorption.

Safety evaluation of wild apricot oil

Wild apricot, a variety of Prunus armeniaca, grows in the hilly regions of India. The seeds yield 27% of kernels. The potential availability of the kernels is 40,000 tons/year and these yield 47% of oil. The oil has 94% unsaturated fatty acids, rich in oleic and linoleic acids. Systemic effects and nutritional quality of wild apricot oil (WAO) were assessed in a 13-wk feeding study in weanling albino rats using a diet containing 10% WAO as the sole source of dietary fat. A similar diet containing groundnut oil (GNO) was used as the control. WAO did not manifest any toxic potential. The food consumption, growth rate and food efficiency ratio of rats fed WAO were similar to those fed GNO. The digestibility of this oil was found to be comparable to that of GNO. There were no macroscopic or microscopic lesions in any of the organs that could be ascribed to WAO incorporation in the diet. The results of this study indicate that WAO could be used for edible purposes without any overt toxic signs or symptoms. However a long-term study may be needed to confirm its innocuousness further.

Mutagenicity of white grape juice in the Ames test

The mutagenicity of commercially available white grape juice was evaluated in the Ames mutagenicity test. Grape juice elicited a positive mutagenic, response in Salmonella typhimurium strain TA104 and a weaker response in strains TA97, TA98, TA100 and TA1530. The mutagenic response was evident in the absence of an activation system and inclusion of such a system did not influence mutagenicity. The grape juice-mediated mutagenic response was not due to histidine residues in the juice or likely treatment with sulfite. Moreover, freshly prepared grape juice displayed a similar mutagenic response. Three different brands of commercially available white grape juice were investigated in the Ames test; they all provoked a clear positive mutagenic response, but the degree of mutagenicity differed and could not be attributed to differences in the content of solids. It is concluded that grapes contain direct-acting genotoxic component(s).

Effect of Momordica charantia on key hepatic enzymes

The effect of Momordica charantia on certain key hepatic enzymes was investigated using male Sprague-Dawley rats as the animal model. Fruit juice and seed extract of Momordica charantia were administered orally at a daily dose of 1 ml/100 g body weight for 30 days under light ether anaesthesia while the control group received equivalent amounts of distilled water under identical conditions (n = 10 in each case). Serum gamma-glutamyl transferase (P < 0.001) and alkaline phosphatase (P < 0.01-0.001) concentrations were found to be significantly elevated following oral administration of both the fruit juice and the seed extract. Consistent significant histopathological changes in the liver were not observed in either treatment group although the prevalence of dilatation and/or congestion of the central vein sinusoidal system appeared to be twice as high following fruit juice treatment than in the other 2 groups. Thus, Momordica charantia may either contain hepatotoxins capable of causing cellular damage at the molecular level without causing significant histopathological changes or the plant may have an enzyme inducing effect.

Genetics of a nonoptimal behavior: oviposition preference of Drosophila mauritiana for a toxic resource

Among three sibling species of the D. melanogaster subgroup, two are generalists (D. simulans and D. mauritiana), while the third, D. sechellia, specializes on a single toxic resource, the fruit of Morinda citrifolia. D. sechellia, resistant to the toxics, prefers to oviposit on morinda; D. simulans, which is very sensitive, is strongly repelled. D. mauritiana exhibits an aberrant behavior since it prefers to lay its eggs on morinda, where its embryos are killed. Oviposition behavior, studied in parental species, F1 hybrids, and backcrosses, was mostly an additive genetical trait. Further investigations were made with D. mauritiana and D. simulans carrying recessive markers. The X and second chromosomes had no effect, while a clear effect was found for chromosome 3. Since the toxicity of morinda is due to middle-length fatty acids, the behavior of the three species toward various acids was investigated. We found that D. sechellia exhibited a general oviposition preference for acids, while D. simulans was repelled by acids with at least four carbons. Surprisingly D. mauritiana exhibited behavior quite similar to that of D. simulans. Preference for morinda in D. sechellia and D. mauritiana could be mediated by different chemicals.

Blood cholinesterase in rats fed an insect resistance apple clone containing a natural cholinesterase inhibitor

A crab apple clone (Malus brevipes 1021), highly resistant to the apple maggot, is being used in breeding programs developing commercial apple cultivars. This study has discovered that this crab apple contains a natural cholinesterase (ChE) inhibitor that caused a 17.5% in vitro inhibition of rat blood ChE activity. This crab apple also showed a relatively high total (titratable) acidity of 1.28%. The commercial, nonresistant, apple cultivar McIntosh was capable of causing a 7.9% inhibition of blood ChE in vitro. The total acidity in McIntosh was 0.45%. A 4-wk feeding study compared 2 groups of 5-wk-old Fischer 344 male rats fed diets containing 45% of either M. brevipes or McIntosh freeze-dried apples to a third (control) group of rats fed a semipurified diet. In vivo blood ChE activities were similar in all groups of rats, as well as hemoglobin, hematocrit, and red blood cell counts. The liver mixed-function oxidase activity through aminopyrine N-demethylase in the rats fed the apple diets was higher than the controls, but p-nitroanisole O-demethylase activity was induced only in the animals fed the maggot-resistant crab apple. Lowered growth with concomitant lowered food intake, in the otherwise healthy rats fed the maggot-resistant crab apple diet, was attributed to the less palatable, highly acidic fruit. This study indicates that the natural ChE inhibitor in the insect-resistant apple M. brevipes is apparently detoxified upon ingestion.

Experimental Azadirachta indica toxicosis in chicks

Brown Hisex chicks were fed Azadirachta indica ripe fruit at 2, 5 or 10% of basic diet from their 7th to 35th d of age. Decreased body weight gain and efficiency of feed utilization and hepatonephropathy were most severe in chicks fed the 10% A indica diet. These changes were accompanied by anemia and increases in LDH, GOT and ALP activities and uric acid concentration and by decreased serum total protein. Hepatocytes and renal tubular cells did not completely revert to normal 2 w after removal from the test diets.

Clinical and pathological effects on the rabbit's eye of some plant-derived ophthalmic swabs

The stems of corn, millet, sugar cane and the banana leaf frond excite some clinical and pathological effects in the rabbit's eye when implanted either into the anterior chamber (AC) or subconjunctivally. These effects have not been sight threatening. The materials can either be left to be cleared by the body's phagocytes when they produce mild inflammatory reaction or removed surgically if the inflammatory response is moderate when fragments have been left intraocularly.

A toxicological investigation of the garden shrub Brunfelsia calcyina var. floribunda (yesterday-today-and-tomorrow) in three species

Brunfelsia calcyina var. floribunda is an ornamental evergreen shrub found in the United States. A diagnosis of the fatal intoxication of a canine due to consumption of plant material (primarily berries) was made. The significant features of the clinical constellation were similar to those seen with substances interfering with the neurotransmission process, such as lathyrus or strychnine. Necropsy findings on the canine were unrevealing. Toxicologic studies performed on mice and rats with ground shrub material demonstrated that all parts of this plant are toxic, but unequally so. All plant preparations produced signs similar to those of a spinal convulsant. There were no distinguishing gross pathologic or histopathologic findings associated with the toxicoses induced in the laboratory animals with preparations from this plant. The toxic principles from this shrub are water soluble and very stable. The ability of aqueous extracts stored at 4 C to produce the clinical syndrome and subsequent lethality remained unchanged over a period of 4 months. Exposures are not always fatal. They most often occur in the canine and there is a significant hazard for small children.

Effects of toxin T-544 from the Karwinskia humboldtiana (buckthorn) plant upon mouse embryos explanted at 11 days

Eleven-day mouse embryos were exposed to the K. humboldtiana toxin T-544 for 24 hr. At the end of the culture period, embryos were examined grossly for malformations and biochemically for altered protein levels. There was a significant difference in malformations in those embryos exposed to 0.05 and 0.2 microgram/ml of toxin compared with controls. Embryo protein content was significantly lower in those embryos exposed to 0.1 microgram/ml of T-544 compared with control group.

Subchronic feeding study of grape colour extract in beagle dogs

The effect of feeding Welch's Special Grape Color Powder Type BW-AT at dose levels of 7.5 and 15% w/w in the diet for 90 days was studied in beagle dogs. Body-weight gain of male and female dogs at the high dose level was significantly decreased compared with control dogs. No other treatment-related effects were seen in food consumption, haematology, clinical chemistry, ophthalmology or gross and histopathological findings.