Finding Prospective Mates by the Parasitoid Wasp Urolepis rufipes (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)

Cues from emergence sites may be predictive of mating opportunities if potential mates are slow to disperse after emergence, and particularly if emergence sites are clumped, as in the solitary parasitoid wasp Urolepis rufipes Ashmead. Males emerge before females, and the present study suggests that males may use emergence sites of conspecific males to locate mates. In choice experiments, virgin males spent more time on a male-emerged host (a host from which a male had recently emerged) than on a female-emerged host. Relative to when no host was present, virgin males also marked more in the presence of a male-emerged host, but did not mark more in the presence of a female-emerged host. Females, but not other males, are known to be attracted to male marks. Unlike for males, there was no evidence that females distinguished between male-emerged and female-emerged hosts. Virgin females preferred areas where multiple males had marked over areas where a single male had marked. Such areas had more total marks, yet marks per male did not differ between aggregated and solitary males. Thus, through his own attraction to male-emerged hosts and by marking near other males a male may find and attract females, and with no apparent increase in the cost of attraction.

Severity of ASD symptoms and their correlation with the presence of copy number variations and exposure to first trimester ultrasound

Current research suggests that incidence and heterogeneity of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms may arise through a variety of exogenous and/or endogenous factors. While subject to routine clinical practice and generally considered safe, there exists speculation, though no human data, that diagnostic ultrasound may also contribute to ASD severity, supported by experimental evidence that exposure to ultrasound early in gestation could perturb brain development and alter behavior. Here we explored a modified triple hit hypothesis [Williams & Casanova, ] to assay for a possible relationship between the severity of ASD symptoms and (1) ultrasound exposure (2) during the first trimester of pregnancy in fetuses with a (3) genetic predisposition to ASD. We did so using retrospective analysis of data from the SSC (Simon's Simplex Collection) autism genetic repository funded by the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative. We found that male children with ASD, copy number variations (CNVs), and exposure to first trimester ultrasound had significantly decreased non-verbal IQ and increased repetitive behaviors relative to male children with ASD, with CNVs, and no ultrasound. These data suggest that heterogeneity in ASD symptoms may result, at least in part, from exposure to diagnostic ultrasound during early prenatal development of children with specific genetic vulnerabilities. These results also add weight to on-going concerns expressed by the FDA about non-medical use of diagnostic ultrasound during pregnancy. Autism Res 2017, 10: 472-484. © 2016 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Focus on Autism and Related Conditions

Recent advances in genetics and brain imaging have expanded the understanding of autism spectrum disorder as a complex heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder in both etiology and symptom severity. Such discoveries have caused changes in diagnostic criteria and are opening new doors for therapeutic options. This article examines the current understanding of autism spectrum disorder. This review includes estimates of prevalence, discussion of etiology, and current and evolving treatments.

Extended-Release Guanfacine for Hyperactivity in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder

OBJECTIVE

Hyperactivity, impulsiveness, and distractibility are common problems in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Extended-release guanfacine is approved for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder but not well studied in ASD.

METHOD

In a multisite, randomized clinical trial, extended-release guanfacine was compared with placebo in children with ASD accompanied by hyperactivity, impulsiveness, and distractibility.

RESULTS

Sixty-two subjects (boys, N=53; girls, N=9; mean age=8.5 years [SD=2.25]) were randomly assigned to guanfacine (N=30) or placebo (N=32) for 8 weeks. The guanfacine group showed a 43.6% decline in scores on the Aberrant Behavior Checklist-hyperactivity subscale (least squares mean from 34.2 to 19.3) compared with a 13.2% decrease in the placebo group (least squares mean from 34.2 to 29.7; effect size=1.67). The rate of positive response (much improved or very much improved on the Clinical Global Impression-Improvement scale) was 50% (15 of 30) for guanfacine compared with 9.4% (3 of 32) for placebo. A brief cognitive battery tapping working memory and motor planning showed no group differences before or after 8 weeks of treatment. The modal dose of guanfacine at week 8 was 3 mg/day (range: 1-4 mg/day), and the modal dose was 3 mg/day (range: 2-4 mg/day) for placebo. Four guanfacine-treated subjects (13.3%) and four placebo subjects (12.5%) exited the study before week 8. The most common adverse events included drowsiness, fatigue, and decreased appetite. There were no significant changes on ECG in either group. For subjects in the guanfacine group, blood pressure declined in the first 4 weeks, with return nearly to baseline by endpoint (week 8). Pulse rate showed a similar pattern but remained lower than baseline at endpoint.

CONCLUSIONS

Extended-release guanfacine appears to be safe and effective for reducing hyperactivity, impulsiveness, and distractibility in children with ASD.

Drilling-in and Chewing-out of Hosts by the Parasitoid Wasp Spalangia endius (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) When Parasitizing Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae)

Many organisms are protected from natural enemies by a tough exterior. Such protection is particularly important for immobile stages, such as pupae. The pupa of some insects is protected by a puparium, which is a shell formed from the exoskeleton of the last larval instar. However, the puparium of certain fly species is drilled through by adult females of the wasp Spalangia endius Walker. The female wasp then deposits an egg on the fly pupa within the puparium. After the wasp offspring finishes feeding on the fly pupa, it chews through the puparium to complete emergence. Despite the apparent toughness of the puparium, there was no detectable wear on the ovipositor of S. endius females even when females had been encountering fly pupae (Musca domestica L.) for weeks, and regardless of whether the pupae were large or old or both. Energy dispersive spectroscopy did not reveal any metal ions in the ovipositor's cuticle to account for this resistance against wear. Offspring of S. endius that chewed their way out of pupae also showed no detectable wear on their mandibles. Tests with a penetrometer showed that the force required to penetrate the center of a puparium was greater for larger and for older pupae; and an index of overall thickness was greater for large old pupae than for small old pupae. The lack of an effect of pupal size or age on wear may result from wasps choosing locations on the puparium that are easier to get through.

Compatibility of the Parasitoid Wasp Spalangia endius (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) and Insecticides against Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) as Evaluated by a New Index

Various insecticides for the control of the house fly Musca domestica L. were tested for compatibility with a biological control agent, the pupal parasitoid Spalangia endius Walker. Bioassays used the mode in which each organism was expected to be harmed by the insecticides, a surface contact bioassay for S. endius and a feeding bioassay for M. domestica. A Pesticide Compatibility Index (PCI) was created that allows comparison of LC50 values when the mode of exposure to a pesticide differs. First LC50 values were converted into units of prescribed dosages (LPR=LC50-to-prescribed dosage ratio). This study used dosages from labels of granular baits. PCI is the ratio of LPRbiological control agent to LPRpest. For these PCI values, order of compatibility with S. endius was spinosad>thiamethoxam>inotefuran>methomyl>imidacloprid. That spinosad was better than imidacloprid or methomyl, both for parasitoid survival and for killing flies, is consistent with conclusions from the LC50 values. Permethrin and nitenpyram were also tested, but their PCIs were not calculated. Permethrin is prescribed as a contact insecticide against flies rather than being consumed as a bait, and nitenpyram has not been formulated as a fly insecticide. Compared with the other insecticides in terms of LC50 values, permethrin was moderately toxic to S. endius but one of the most toxic for M. domestica, whereas nitenpyram was least toxic for both S. endius and the flies.

Substrate-Borne Marking in the Parasitoid Wasp Urolepis rufipes (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)

Many animals use pheromone marking as a way to identify their territory or other resources. Among insects, substrate-borne marking is frequently reported for females, which in many species make marks containing oviposition-deterring pheromone, which other females avoid. However, there are fewer reports of substrate-borne marking for males. Here, marking in males of the parasitoid wasp Urolepis rufipes (Ashmead) is described. The conditions under which males mark and whether males and females respond to the males' marks were examined using behavioral observations. Males marked by dragging the tips of their abdomens across a substrate. They marked much more after mating and after consuming honey. They also marked more when with a female, irrespective of copulation, although not when with a male. Females spent more time on or near marked substrates, and males also responded to their own marks. Although males aggressively and successfully defended areas that they had marked against other males, males did not respond to another male's marks in the conspecific's absence. In contrast to males, females did not mark, either on the surface of hosts or on other surfaces, and males showed no detectable response to surfaces which females had recently occupied.

Tuberous sclerosis associated neuropsychiatric disorders (TAND) and the TAND Checklist

BACKGROUND

Tuberous sclerosis complex is a multisystem genetic disorder with a range of physical manifestations that require evaluation, surveillance, and management. Individuals with tuberous sclerosis complex also have a range of behavioral, psychiatric, intellectual, academic, neuropsychologic, and psychosocial difficulties. These may represent the greatest burden of the disease. Around 90% of individuals with tuberous sclerosis complex will have some of these difficulties during their lifetime, yet only about 20% ever receive evaluation and treatment. The Neuropsychiatry Panel at the 2012 Tuberous Sclerosis Complex International Consensus Conference expressed concern about the significant "treatment gap" and about confusion regarding terminology relating to the biopsychosocial difficulties associated with tuberous sclerosis complex.

METHODS

The Tuberous Sclerosis Complex Neuropsychiatry Panel coined the term TAND-tuberous sclerosis complex-associated neuropsychiatric disorders-to bring together these multidimensional manifestations of the disorder, and recommended annual screening for TAND. In addition, the Panel agreed to develop a TAND Checklist as a guide for screening.

RESULTS

Here, we present an outline of the conceptualization of TAND, rationale for the structure of the TAND Checklist, and include the full US English version of the TAND Checklist.

CONCLUSION

We hope that the unified term TAND and the TAND Checklist will raise awareness of the importance of tuberous sclerosis complex-associated neuropsychiatric disorders and of the major burden of disease associated with it, provide a shared language and a simple tool to describe and evaluate the different levels of TAND, alert clinical teams and families or individuals of the importance of screening, assessment, and treatment of TAND, and provide a shared framework for future studies of tuberous sclerosis complex-associated neuropsychiatric disorders.

STX209 (arbaclofen) for autism spectrum disorders: an 8-week open-label study

STX209 (arbaclofen), a selective GABA-B agonist, is hypothesized to modulate the balance of excitatory to inhibitory neurotransmission, and has shown preliminary evidence of benefit in fragile X syndrome. We evaluated its safety, tolerability, and efficacy in non-syndromic autism spectrum disorders, in an 8-week open-label trial enrolling 32 children and adolescents with either Autistic Disorder or Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified, and a score ≥17 on the Aberrant Behavior Checklist (ABC)-Irritability subscale. STX209 was generally well-tolerated. The most common adverse events were agitation and irritability, which typically resolved without dose changes, and were often felt to represent spontaneous variation in underlying symptoms. Improvements were observed on several outcome measures in this exploratory trial, including the ABC-Irritability (the primary endpoint) and the Lethargy/Social Withdrawal subscales, the Social Responsiveness Scale, the CY-BOCS-PDD, and clinical global impression scales. Placebo-controlled study of STX209 is warranted.

Measuring anxiety as a treatment endpoint in youth with autism spectrum disorder

Despite the high rate of anxiety in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), measuring anxiety in ASD is fraught with uncertainty. This is due, in part, to incomplete consensus on the manifestations of anxiety in this population. Autism Speaks assembled a panel of experts to conduct a systematic review of available measures for anxiety in youth with ASD. To complete the review, the panel held monthly conference calls and two face-to-face meetings over a fourteen-month period. Thirty eight published studies were reviewed and ten assessment measures were examined: four were deemed appropriate for use in clinical trials, although with conditions; three were judged to be potentially appropriate, while three were considered not useful for clinical trials assessing anxiety. Despite recent advances, additional relevant, reliable and valid outcome measures are needed to evaluate treatments for anxiety in ASD.

Seasonal colour and antipredator behaviour in Etheostoma (Percidae)

This study examined how colour varies across season and sex in the fantail darter Etheostoma flabellare and the banded darter Etheostoma zonale. Etheostoma flabellare has male-only parental care and exhibited slight sexual dimorphism in overall colour, with no discernible effect of season on colour; whereas E. zonale does not have parental care and exhibited substantial sexual dimorphism in colour, but only in the breeding season. Additionally, antipredator behaviour of E. zonale was compared between males that were fully coloured during the breeding season and males that were partially coloured at that time, but the effects of colour and season were not consistent across males.

Side effects from use of one or more psychiatric medications in a population-based sample of children and adolescents

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the side effect risks from using one or more psychiatric medications (including antipsychotics, antidepressants, α-2 agonists, benzodiazepines, mood stabilizers, and stimulants) among a national cohort of children and adolescents.

METHODS

A questionnaire survey was administered to parents who filled a prescription for a psychiatric medication for their child at a large national retail pharmacy chain. Primary outcome variables were the total count of side effects from a list of 12 problem areas, as well as parent-reported side effect intensity (mild/moderate/severe). Modifiers investigated included specific medication and number of medications utilized, demographics, and difficulties with access to care.

RESULTS

A total of 1347 parents of study subjects ages 3-17 years from 30 U.S. states who were taking psychiatric medications for any indication purchased at one retail pharmacy chain enrolled following a single mail invitation (7.5% response). Of the study subjects, 80% were white/non-Hispanic, 64% were male, 63% had private health insurance, and 67% had used a current medication for >1year. Most (84%) had one or more parent-reported side effect. After adjusting for covariates, subjects with two medications reported 17% (p<0.001) and with three or more medications reported 38% (p=0.002) increases in their average number of side effects than did children taking one medication. Parental reporting of difficulties in accessing care also predicted a 42% (p<0.001) greater number of side effects than for those who had no access difficulties. Side effects were particularly more common in medication combinations including either selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) (77% higher odds, p<0.001) or antipsychotics (99% higher odds, p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Side effects from psychiatric medications appear to be both more common and more severe overall with increasing numbers of medications utilized, and with perceived difficulty in accessing care. Polypharmacy regimens including either SSRIs or antipsychotics were especially associated with experiencing side effects, within this study sample.

Update on diagnostic classification in autism

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In the lead up to and following the recent publication of the DSM-5, the diagnostic construct of autism has received intense scrutiny.

RECENT FINDINGS

This article briefly reviews the history of the diagnosis of autism, the changes that have occurred in the diagnosis over time, and the rationale for change. The most significant changes being introduced with the DSM-5 are highlighted, as well as some of the concerns that will be a focus of attention with respect to the potential impacts going forward.

SUMMARY

The categorical divisions that characterized the pervasive developmental disorders are now collapsed into a single entity, autism spectrum disorder. The final DSM-5 criteria have yet to be formally compared prospectively against prior criteria, but early indications suggest that the boundaries around the pervasive developmental disorders have not been substantially altered.

Psychiatric assessment of severe presentations in autism spectrum disorders and intellectual disability

Children with autism spectrum and related disorders and intellectual disability are not protected from the experience of psychiatric illnesses. Many factors can contribute to exacerbation of existing behavioral symptoms or to the emergence of new psychiatric problems. The psychiatric assessment must thus take into account a range of possible etiologic or contributory factors. The approach outlined in this article highlights the value of assessing 4 broad domains, including diagnostic (genetic) factors, medical considerations, developmental influences, and environmental factors. Examples of how the consideration of each of these domains may inform the diagnostic formulation are highlighted.

Livestock bedding effects on two species of parasitoid wasps of filth flies

Choice of livestock bedding has been shown to affect density of filth fly maggots. Here, laboratory experiments indicate that bedding type can also affect natural enemies of the flies, specifically the parasitoid wasps Spalangia endius Walker and Urolepis rufipes (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) parasitizing a natural host, the house fly Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae). For both parasitoid species, when females parasitized hosts under bedding, cedar shavings resulted in fewer parasitoids compared with pine shavings, but pine shavings did not differ from wood pellets and corn cob pellets. In the absence of exposure to hosts, longevity of adult females was reduced in cedar shavings compared with pine shavings and pellets. In contrast to the effects on parasitization and on adult survival, shavings treatment had no significant effect on the number of parasitoids or flies that emerged when hosts were not exposed to shavings until after parasitization.

Measuring repetitive behaviors as a treatment endpoint in youth with autism spectrum disorder

Restricted interests and repetitive behaviors vary widely in type, frequency, and intensity among children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. They can be stigmatizing and interfere with more constructive activities. Accordingly, restricted interests and repetitive behaviors may be a target of intervention. Several standardized instruments have been developed to assess restricted interests and repetitive behaviors in the autism spectrum disorder population, but the rigor of psychometric assessment is variable. This article evaluated the readiness of available measures for use as outcome measures in clinical trials. The Autism Speaks Foundation assembled a panel of experts to examine available instruments used to measure restricted interests and repetitive behaviors in youth with autism spectrum disorder. The panel held monthly conference calls and two face-to-face meetings over 14 months to develop and apply evaluative criteria for available instruments. Twenty-four instruments were evaluated and five were considered “appropriate with conditions” for use as outcome measures in clinical trials. Ideally, primary outcome measures should be relevant to the clinical target, be reliable and valid, and cover the symptom domain without being burdensome to subjects. The goal of the report was to promote consensus across funding agencies, pharmaceutical companies, and clinical investigators about advantages and disadvantages of existing outcome measures.

Mice exposed to diagnostic ultrasound in utero are less social and more active in social situations relative to controls

Clinical use of diagnostic ultrasound imaging during pregnancy has a long history of safety and diagnostic utility, as supported by numerous human case reports and epidemiological studies. However, there exist in vivo studies linking large but clinically relevant doses of ultrasound applied to mouse fetuses in utero to altered learning, memory, and neuroanatomy of those mice. Also, there exists a well-documented significant increase in the likelihood of non-right-handedness in boys exposed to diagnostic ultrasound in utero, potentially relevant given the increased prevalence of autism in males, and reports of excess non-right-handedness in this population. Motivated by these observations, we applied 30 minutes of diagnostic ultrasound to pregnant mice at embryonic day 14.5 and assayed the social behavior of their male pups 3 weeks after their birth. The ultrasound-exposed pups were significantly (P < 0.01) less interested in social interaction than sham-exposed pups in a three-chamber sociability test. In addition, they demonstrated significantly (P < 0.05) more activity relative to the sham-exposed pups, but only in the presence of an unfamiliar mouse. These results suggest that fetal exposure to diagnostic ultrasound applied in utero can alter typical social behaviors in young mice that may be relevant for autism. There exist meaningful differences between the exposure of diagnostic ultrasound to mice versus humans that require further exploration before this work can usefully inform clinical practice. Future work should address these differences as well as clarify the extent, mechanisms, and functional effects of diagnostic ultrasound's interaction with the developing brain.

Baseline factors predicting placebo response to treatment in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: a multisite randomized clinical trial

IMPORTANCE

The finding of factors that differentially predict the likelihood of response to placebo over that of an active drug could have a significant impact on study design in this population.

OBJECTIVE

To identify possible nonspecific, baseline predictors of response to intervention in a large randomized clinical trial of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

Randomized clinical trial of citalopram hydrobromide for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders and prominent repetitive behavior. Baseline data at study entry were examined with respect to final outcome to determine if response predictors could be identified. A total of 149 children and adolescents 5 to 17 years of age (mean [SD] age, 9.4 [3.1] years) from 6 academic centers were randomly assigned to citalopram (n = 73) or placebo (n = 76). Participants had autistic disorder, Asperger syndrome, or pervasive developmental disorder, not otherwise specified; had illness severity ratings that were moderate or more than moderate on the Clinical Global Impression-Severity scale; and scored moderate or more than moderate on compulsive behaviors measured with the modified Children's Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale.

INTERVENTIONS

Twelve weeks of treatment with citalopram (10 mg/5 mL) or placebo. The mean (SD) maximum dose of citalopram was 16.5 (6.5) mg by mouth daily (maximum dose, 20 mg/d).

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

A positive response was defined as having a score of at least much improved on the Clinical Global Impression-Improvement scale at week 12. Baseline measures included demographic (sex, age, weight, and pubertal status), clinical, and family measures. Clinical variables included baseline illness severity ratings (the Aberrant Behavior Checklist, the Child and Adolescent Symptom Inventory, the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised, and the Children's Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale). Family measures included the Caregiver Strain Questionnaire.

RESULTS

Several baseline predictors of response were identified, and a principal component analysis yielded 3 composite measures (disruptive behavior, autism/mood, and caregiver strain) that significantly predicted response at week 12. Specifically, participants in the placebo group were significantly less likely than participants in the citalopram group to respond at week 12 if they entered the study more symptomatic on each of the 3 composite measures, and they were at least 2 times less likely to be responders.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This analysis suggests strategies that may be useful in anticipating and potentially mitigating the nonspecific response in randomized clinical trials of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00086645.

Revisiting the relationship between autism and schizophrenia: toward an integrated neurobiology

Schizophrenia and autism have been linked since their earliest descriptions. Both are disorders of cerebral specialization originating in the embryonic period. Genetic, molecular, and cytologic research highlights a variety of shared contributory mechanisms that may lead to patterns of abnormal connectivity arising from altered development and topology. Overt behavioral pathology likely emerges during or after neurosensitive periods in which resource demands overwhelm system resources and the individual's ability to compensate using interregional activation fails. We are at the threshold of being able to chart autism and schizophrenia from the inside out. In so doing, the door is opened to the consideration of new therapeutics that are developed based upon molecular, synaptic, and systems targets common to both disorders.

Training of child and adolescent psychiatry fellows in autism and intellectual disability

Patients with autism spectrum disorders and intellectual disability can be clinically complex and often have limited access to psychiatric care. Because little is known about post-graduate clinical education in autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability, we surveyed training directors of child and adolescent psychiatry fellowship programs. On average, child and adolescent psychiatry directors reported lectures of 3 and 4 h per year in autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability, respectively. Training directors commonly reported that trainees see 1-5 patients with autism spectrum disorder or intellectual disability per year for outpatient pharmacological management and inpatient treatment. Overall, 43% of directors endorsed the need for additional resources for training in autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability, which, coupled with low didactic and clinical exposure, suggests that current training is inadequate.

Exploring the manifestations of anxiety in children with autism spectrum disorders

This study explores the manifestation and measurement of anxiety symptoms in 415 children with ASDs on a 20-item, parent-rated, DSM-IV referenced anxiety scale. In both high and low-functioning children (IQ above vs. below 70), commonly endorsed items assessed restlessness, tension and sleep difficulties. Items requiring verbal expression of worry by the child were rarely endorsed. Higher anxiety was associated with functional language, IQ above 70 and higher scores on several other behavioral measures. Four underlying factors emerged: Generalized Anxiety, Separation Anxiety, Social Anxiety and Over-arousal. Our findings extend our understanding of anxiety across IQ in ASD and provide guidance for improving anxiety outcome measurement.