Cloning and expression analysis of two pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1β and IL-8, in haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus)

This paper reports the cloning and sequencing of two pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin (IL)-1beta and IL-8, in haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) by homology cloning. The complete transcript of the haddock IL-1beta was sequenced and contained 1043 bp, including a 762 bp open reading frame. The 3' end of the gene includes a polyadenylation signal 13 bp upstream of the poly(A) tail, along with 10 instability motifs. The predicted protein of 253aa revealed the presence of the IL-1 family signature and the absence of an ICE cut site. The cDNA of the chemokine IL-8 was sequenced in haddock and contained 903 bp of which 306 bp are the open reading frame. Interestingly, the predicted protein sequence of 101aa, contains an ELR motif preceding the CXC signature, common in all vertebrate IL-8 molecules but absent in all teleost genes sequenced to date. The expression of both haddock cytokines was studied in four different tissues: head kidney, spleen, liver and gill. Tissues were obtained from both healthy fish and fish stimulated in vivo with four commercial serotypes of LPS, namely Escherichia coli 026:B6, 055:B5, 0111:B4 and 0127:B8 and PMA. Haddock IL-1beta was not constitutively expressed and expression was only observed following stimulation. However, this expression was stimulant dependent and only PMA and LPS 026:B6 induced high levels of expression in the head kidney. The haddock IL-8 gene on the other hand, showed a constitutive expression, that could be up or down-regulated depending on the immunostimulant used, although to a lesser extent than IL-1beta.

Upgrading constructed wetlands phosphorus reduction from a dairy effluent using electric arc furnace steel slag filters

In 2003, a subsurface flow constructed wetlands (SSF-CW) system was built at the University of Vermont (UVM) Paul Miller Dairy Farm as an alternative nutrient management approach for treating barnyard runoff and milk parlour waste. Given the increasing problem of phosphorus (P) pollution in the Lake Champlain region, a slag based P-removal filter technology (PFT) was established (2004) at the CW with two objectives: (i) to test the filters' efficiency as an upgrade unit for improving P removal performance via SSF-CW (ii) to investigate the capacity of filters technology to remove P as a "stand alone" unit. Six individual filters (F1-F6) were filled with electric arc furnace (EAF) steel slag, each containing 112.5 kg of material with a pore volume of 21 L. F1-F4, fed with CW treated water, received approximately 2.17 g DRP kg(-1) EAF steel slag (0.25 kg DRP total) during the 259 day feeding period. F1-F4 retained 1.7 g DRP kg(-1) EAF steel slag, resulting in an average P removal efficiency of 75%. The addition of filters improved CW DRP removal efficiency by 74%. F5 and F6, fed non-treated water, received 1.9 g DRP kg(-1) EAF steel slag (0.22 kg DRP in total) and retained 1.5 g DRP kg(-1) resulting in a P removal efficiency of 72%. The establishment of the EAF slag based PFT is the first in-field evaluation of this technology to reduce P from dairy farm effluent in Vermont.

Efficacy and safety of etoricoxib 30 mg and celecoxib 200 mg in the treatment of osteoarthritis in two identically designed, randomized, placebo-controlled, non-inferiority studies

OBJECTIVE

To compare the efficacy of etoricoxib 30 mg with the generally maximum recommended dose of celecoxib, 200 mg, in the treatment of osteoarthritis (OA) in two identically designed studies.

METHODS

Two multi-centre, 26-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled, non-inferiority studies were conducted, enrolling patients who were prior non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) or acetaminophen users. There were 599 patients in study 1 and 608 patients in study 2 randomized 4:4:1:1 to etoricoxib 30 mg qd, celecoxib 200 mg qd or one of two placebo groups for 12 weeks. After 12 weeks, placebo patients were evenly distributed to etoricoxib or celecoxib based on their initial enrollment randomization schedule. The primary hypothesis was that etoricoxib 30 mg would be at least as effective as celecoxib 200 mg for the time-weighted average change from baseline over 12 weeks for Western Ontario and McMaster (WOMAC) Pain Subscale, WOMAC Physical Function Subscale and Patient Global Assessment of Disease Status. Active treatments were also assessed over the full 26 weeks. Adverse experiences were collected for safety assessment.

RESULTS

In both studies, etoricoxib was non-inferior to celecoxib for all three efficacy outcomes over 12 and 26 weeks; both were superior to placebo (P < 0.001) for all three outcomes in each study over 12 weeks. The safety and tolerability of etoricoxib 30 mg qd and celecoxib 200 mg qd were similar over 12 and 26 weeks.

CONCLUSIONS

Etoricoxib 30 mg qd was at least as effective as celecoxib 200 mg qd and had similar safety in the treatment of knee and hip OA; both were superior to placebo. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifiers: NCT00092768; NCT00092791.

Advances in Fish Cytokine Biology Give Clues to the Evolution of a Complex Network

Complex immune systems require complex regulatory mechanisms. Whilst the control of innate and inflammatory responses is likely to be ancient in origin, and potentially ubiquitous in the animal kingdom, clearly the evolution of an adaptive immune system in vertebrates is likely to coincide with new regulatory mechanisms and molecules. Key amongst these is the cytokine network, well characterised in mammals and becoming increasingly well characterised in fish and birds. This article will review our current understanding of which components of this network are crucial for adaptive immunity and evolved early, being present from fish to mammals. It will also consider which components of this network potentially evolved later (after the fish-tetrapod divergence) leading to unique cytokine genes in particular vertebrate groups.

The effect of match standard and referee experience on the objective and subjective match workload of English Premier League referees

The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of match standard and referee experience on the objective and subjective workload of referees during English Premier League and Football League soccer matches. We also examined the relationship between heart rate (HR) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) for assessing match intensity in soccer referees. Heart rate responses were recorded using short-range telemetry and RPE scores were collected using a 10-point scale. Analysis revealed a significant relationship between mean match HR and match RPE scores (r=0.485, p<0.05, n=18). There were significant differences in match HR (Premier League 83.6+/-2.6% maximal HR (HRmax) versus Football League 81.5+/-2.2%HRmax, p<0.05) and match RPE scores (Premier League 7.8+/-0.8 versus Football League 6.9+/-0.8, p<0.05) between standards of competition. Referee experience had no effect on match HR and RPE responses to Premier League and Football League matches. The results of the present study demonstrate the validity of using HR and RPE as a measure of global match intensity in soccer referees. Referee experience had no effect on the referees' objective and subjective match workload assessments, whereas match intensity was correlated to competition standard. These findings have implications for fitness preparation and evaluation in soccer referees. When progressing to a higher level of competition, referees should ensure that appropriate levels of fitness are developed in order to enable them to cope with an increase in physical match demands.

Prevalence of, and risk factors for, hepatitis C virus infection among recent initiates to injecting in London and Glasgow: cross sectional analysis

Our aim was to compare the prevalence of antibody to hepatitis C virus (anti-HCV) among recently initiated injecting drug users (IDUs) in London and Glasgow, and to identify risk factors which could explain differences in prevalence between the cities. Complementary studies of community recruited IDUs who had initiated injection drug use since 1996 were conducted during 2001-2002. Data on HCV risk behaviours were gathered using structured questionnaires with identical core questions and respondents were asked to provide an oral fluid specimen which was tested anonymously for anti-HCV but was linked to the questionnaire. Sensitivities of the anti-HCV assays for oral fluid were 92-96%. Prevalence of anti-HCV was 35% (122/354) in London and 57% (207/366) in Glasgow (P < 0.001). Multifactorially, factors significantly associated with raised odds of anti-HCV positivity were increasing length of injecting career, daily injection, polydrug use, having had a needlestick injury, and having served a prison sentence. In addition lower odds of anti-HCV positivity were associated with non-injection use of crack cocaine and recruitment from drug agencies. After adjustment for these factors, the increased odds of anti-HCV associated with being a Glasgow IDU were diminished but remained significant. HCV continues to be transmitted among the IDU population of both cities at high rates despite the availability of syringe exchange and methadone maintenance. Effectiveness of harm reduction interventions may be compromised by inadequate coverage and failure to reduce sufficiently the frequency of sharing different types of injecting equipment, as well as the high background prevalence of HCV, and its high infectivity. Comprehensive action is urgently required to reduce the incidence of HCV among injectors.

Adaptive immunity in teleosts: cellular immunity

Specific cell-mediated immunity in fish is to date a relatively poorly studied area in fish immunology. Despite breakthroughs in the cloning of the fish TcR and major histocompatibility (MHC) molecules, and more recently the CD3 and CD8 marker molecules, assays to measure specific T-cell responses are still in their infancy. The classical division of T cells into cytotoxic (Tc) and helper (Th) subpopulations is probably relevant to fish, based on the presence of these functional activities and MHC class I and II molecules, but as yet even this is not definitively proved. This review will consider which specific cell-mediated responses can be measured within fish and what their relevance is to fish vaccination programmes.

Heart rate responses of women aged 23-67 years during competitive orienteering

OBJECTIVES

To compare the heart rate responses of women orienteers of different standards and to assess any relation between heart rate responses and age.

METHODS

Eighteen competitive women orienteers completed the study. They were divided into two groups: eight national standard orienteers (ages 23-67 years); 10 club standard orienteers (ages 24-67 years). Each participant had her heart rate monitored during a race recognised by the British Orienteering Federation. Peak heart rate (HR(PEAK)), mean heart rate (HR(MEAN)), standard deviation of her heart rate during each orienteering race (HR(SD)), and mean change in heart rate at each control point (DeltaHR(CONTROL)) were identified. The data were analysed using analysis of covariance with age as a covariate.

RESULTS

National standard orienteers displayed a lower within orienteering race standard deviation in heart rate (6 (2) v 12 (2) beats/min, p<0.001) and a lower DeltaHR(CONTROL) (5 (1) v 17 (4) beats/min, p<0.001). The mean heart rate during competition was higher in the national standard group (170 (11) v 158 (11) beats/min, p = 0.025). The HR(MEAN) for the national and club standard groups were 99 (8)% and 88 (9)% of their age predicted maximum heart rate (220-age) respectively. All orienteers aged >55 years (n = 4) recorded HR(MEAN) greater than their age predicted maximum.

CONCLUSIONS

The heart rate responses indicate that national and club standard women orienteers of all ages participate in the sport at a vigorous intensity. The higher DeltaHR(CONTROL) of club standard orienteers is probably due to failing to plan ahead before arriving at the controls and this, coupled with slowing down to navigate or relocate when lost, produced a higher HR(SD).

High mortality rates among inmates during the year following their discharge from a French prison

While the poor health status of prisoners has been highlighted in Western countries, the surveillance of their mortality has been neglected. We studied the mortality of 1305 prisoners released during 1997 from a French prison. Vital status after release was obtained for 86.4% of them. Compared with the general population, ex-prisoners non-natural mortality rates were significantly increased both in the 15-34 and 35-54 age categories (3.5-fold and 10.6-fold respectively) and the risk of death due to overdose was 124 and 274 times higher in the same categories respectively. Prevention and care should be reinforced in the pre-release period without waiting more epidemiological data.

Heart rate responses of male orienteers aged 21-67 years during competition

Orienteering is a sport in which it is common for most participants to be aged over 40 years, but research into the demands of the sport has focused almost exclusively on elite participants aged 21-35 years. The aim of the present study was to examine the heart rate responses of older male orienteers. Thirty-nine competitive male orienteers were divided into three groups: group 1 (international competitive standard, n = 11, age 21-67 years), group 2 (national competitive standard, n = 15, age 24-66 years) and group 3 (club competitive standard, n = 13, age 23-60 years). Each participant had his heart rate monitored during two orienteering races of contrasting technical difficulty. The results were analysed using analysis of covariance, with age as a covariate, and Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients to determine whether age was related to the observed heart rate responses. The groups did not differ in their peak (175 +/- 12 beats x min(-1), P = 0.643) or mean (159 +/- 13 beats x min(-1), P = 0.171) heart rates during the races. There was a decline of 6 beats x min(-1) x decade(-1) (P = 0.001) for peak heart rate and 5 beats x min(-1) x decade(-1) (P < 0.001) for mean heart rate. Mean heart rates were 86 +/- 6% of the participants' maximal heart rates and were not associated with age. The orienteers in group 1 displayed a lower (P < 0.005) within-race standard deviation in heart rate (6 +/- 2 beats x min(-1)) than those in groups 2 and 3 (10 +/- 3 and 10 +/- 4 beats x min(-1), respectively). In conclusion, the mean heart rates indicated that all three groups of orienteers ran at a relative high intensity and the international competitive standard orienteers displayed a less variable heart rate, which may have been related to fewer instances of slowing down to relocate and being able to navigate while running at relatively high speeds.

Physiological factors associated with low bone mineral density in female endurance runners

OBJECTIVE

To explore potential factors that could be associated with low bone mineral density (BMD) in female endurance runners.

METHODS

Fifty two female endurance runners (1,500 m to marathon), aged 18-44 years, took part. Body fat percentage, lumbar spine BMD, and femoral neck BMD were measured using the Hologic QDR 4,500w bone densitometer. Data on training, menstrual cycle status, osteoporosis, and health related factors were obtained by questionnaire. Dietary variables were assessed from a prospective seven day dietary record of macronutrients and micronutrients.

RESULTS

The mean (SD) lumbar spine and femoral neck BMD were 1.11 (0.11) and 0.89 (0.12) g/cm(2) respectively. A backward elimination regression analysis showed that age, body mass, body fat, distance run, magnesium, and zinc intake were the variables significantly associated with BMD. Lumbar spine BMD (g/cm(2)) = -1.90 + (0.0486 x age (years)) + (0.342 x log mass (kg)) - (0.000861 x age(2) (years)) - (0.00128 x distance (km/week)), with an R(2) = 30.1% (SEE = 0.089 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.05 to 0.23); p<0.001). Femoral neck BMD (g/cm(2)) = -2.51 - (0.00989 x age (years)) + (0.720 x log mass (kg)) + (0.000951 x magnesium (mg/day)) -(0.0289 x zinc (mg/day)) - (0.00821 x body fat (%)) - (0.00226 x distance (km/week)), with an R(2) = 50.2% (SEE = 0.100 (95% CI 0.06 to 0.22); p<0.001). The negative association between skeletal BMD and distance run suggested that participants who ran longer distances had a lower BMD of the lumbar spine and femoral neck. Further, the results indicated a positive association between body mass and BMD, and a negative association between body fat and BMD.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest a negative association between endurance running distance and lumbar spine and femoral neck BMD, with a positive association between body mass and femoral neck and lumbar spine BMD. However, longitudinal studies are required to assess directly the effect of endurance running and body mass on BMD, and to see if the addition of alternative exercise that would increase lean body mass would have a positive effect on BMD and therefore help to prevent osteoporosis.

Distribution of therapeutic response in asthma control between oral montelukast and inhaled beclomethasone

The distribution of responses in study populations provides a novel method of comparing the benefit of two treatments. This 6-week, randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind study compared the effectiveness of oral montelukast with inhaled beclomethasone in chronic asthma by assessing the distribution and overlap of patient responses to therapy, as measured by a clinical outcome (asthma control days). A total of 730 adult patients with asthma, age 15-65 yrs, with a forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) at baseline of 50-85% of predicted and > or = 15% improvement in FEV1 after inhaled beta-agonist were enrolled. After a 2-week placebo run-in period, patients were randomly allocated to receive montelukast (10 mg once daily), inhaled beclomethasone (200 microg twice daily) or placebo. The primary end-point (per cent of asthma control days) was compared between treatments as the overlap in the response distributions. The overlap of the distribution of responses between the montelukast and beclomethasone groups was 89% for per cent asthma control days and 96% for change from baseline in FEV1. The mean (+/-SD) per cent asthma control days in the montelukast and beclomethasone groups was significantly higher than that in the placebo group (placebo 40.0+/-35.8, montelukast 50.7+/-37.1, beclomethasone 57.9+/-36.1). The mean differences between montelukast and placebo, beclomethasone and placebo, and montelukast and beclomethasone were significant. The mean per cent change (+/-SD) from baseline in FEV1 was 12.1+/-18.7 and 13.9+/-20.8 in the montelukast and beclomethasone groups, respectively, and significantly greater than that in the placebo group (6.4+/-20.1); there was no significant difference between the montelukast and beclomethasone groups in mean values or response distribution. There was also no difference among treatment groups in the frequency of adverse experiences. A comparison of the response distribution is an important approach to comparing therapies; montelukast and beclomethasone provided similar response distributions for the end-point of per cent asthma control days over a 6-week treatment period.

Phylogeny of cytokines: molecular cloning and expression analysis of sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax interleukin-1beta

In this paper the cloning of interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) from the fish Dicentrarchus labrax (sea bass) is described. Using degenerate primers designed from known IL-1beta sequences, a cDNA fragment was amplified by PCR and elongated by 3' and 5' RACE to give the full-length coding sequence for sea bass IL-1beta. The cDNA is 1292 bp, lacks a putative ICE cut site, and codes for a deduced peptide of 29.4 kDa with a pI of 5.1. Sequence analysis showed highest amino acid similarity with rainbow trout (62%), Xenopus (46%), and carp (45.5%) IL-1beta sequences. Expression studies show that sea bass IL-1beta can be upregulated by bacterial lipopolysaccharide both in vitro and in vivo in leucocytes from blood, head-kidney, spleen, gills and liver, whereas the IL-1beta transcript was not detectable in thymus and gut-associated lymphoid tissue. Northern blot analysis with head-kidney leucocyte RNA showed a main LPS-upregulated band at 1.3 kb, and two minor bands at 0.9 and 3.0 kb, respectively. Phylogenetic comparisons with IL-1beta from other vertebrates is presented.

Suprascapular neuropathy. Variability in the diagnosis, treatment, and outcome

The functional outcome of operative and nonoperative treatment of suprascapular neuropathy was compared to determine the preferred method of treatment for each etiology of nerve injury. The predictive value of preoperative electromyography also was studied. Fifty-three patients were evaluated at least 1 year (average, 28 months) from the time of operative (n = 36) or nonoperative (n = 17) treatment. A modified American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons self-assessment score was obtained at presentation and at final followup. Electromyography data were obtained at initial presentation. Minimal electromyographic changes associated with denervation were associated with a limited response to treatment, especially in patients with nerve compression secondary to spinoglenoid notch cysts. Pretreatment electromyographic findings, therefore, were predictive of treatment response. Overall, operative and nonoperative treatment of these suprascapular nerve injuries resulted in significant functional improvement, but the results varied depending on the etiology of the injury. Spinoglenoid notch cysts responded significantly better to operative treatment, with the results for open surgery being the same as the results for arthroscopic decompression. In addition, compressive lesions attributable to suprascapular notch entrapment had the best improvement with surgical decompression. Traumatic lesions, including traction and direct closed injuries, had an equal response to operative and nonoperative treatment. Overuse injuries did not improve with operative treatment. Viral neuritis improved with nonoperative treatment and never was treated with surgery. Overall, traumatic injuries resulted in significantly worse final outcomes than any other etiologic processes. In the nonoperative group, neuropathy secondary to spinoglenoid cysts resulted in significantly worse function. The outcome of treatment is dependent on the severity and etiology of the nerve injury, and the method of treatment.

A randomized trial of alternative two- and three-dose hepatitis B vaccination regimens in adolescents: antibody responses, safety, and immunologic memory

OBJECTIVES

Hoping to increase hepatitis B (HB) vaccination of adolescents, we did the following: 1) studied if modified regimens of the recombinant HB vaccine, Recombivax HB (2 or 3 doses of 5 or 10 microg given over 4 or 6 months), induce protective anti-hepatitis B surface antibody [anti-HBsAb] levels (>/=10 mIU/mL) comparable to the recommended regimen (5 microg at 0 and 1, and 6 months); 2) measured early antibody response after a single dose; and 3) assessed immunologic memory after 2- and 3-dose regimens.

DESIGN

One thousand twenty-six adolescents were randomized to 1 of 5 treatment groups (10 microg at 0 and 4 or 0 and 6 months; 5 microg at 0 and 6 or 0, 2, and 4 or 0, 1, and 6 months) in an open trial. Anti-HBsAb was measured in all participants just before and 1 month after the last dose, and at several other times in a subset of vaccinees. Anti-HBsAb response to a booster dose 2 years later was examined to assess immunologic memory in participants vaccinated with 5 microg at 0 and 6 or 0, 1, and 6 months.

RESULTS

All regimens induced >/=10 mIU/mL of anti-HBs in >/=95% of vaccinees. Geometric mean titers ranged from 674.8 to 3049.4 mIU/mL. Geometric mean titers were higher with regimens using the following: 1) 10 versus 5 microg; 2) 3 versus 2 doses; and 3) vaccination intervals of 6 versus 4 months. After 6 months, 63.8% of vaccinees given one 10-microg dose had >/=10 mIU/mL of anti-HBsAb versus 41.6% after one 5-microg dose. Participants vaccinated with either two or three 5-microg doses retained robust immunologic memory.

CONCLUSIONS

. The results of this study show that a 2-dose regimen of Recombivax HB is as immunogenic and induces immunologic memory as effectively as the recommended 3-dose regimen. A regimen of two 10-microg doses may be of significant benefit for vaccinees who are poorly compliant or deviate from the intended vaccination schedule.

Differences between the sexes and age-related changes in orienteering speed

The aim of this study was to assess the effects of the age and sex of the competitor on orienteering speed during competitive events. The results of the fastest three male and fastest three female competitors in each 5-year age band (21-79 years), from four national orienteering events, were analysed. The data for age and orienteering speed were log-transformed and regression analyses were conducted to determine the relationships between age and sex and orienteering speed. For comparison, data for the fastest Great Britain finisher in the 10,000-m track and 10-km cross-country events for age groups 40-69 years at the World Masters Championships were also analysed. The results showed that, before the age of 40 years, there was no substantial slowing in orienteering speed for males (0.5-4.2% per decade) but a moderate decline (4.7-10.0% per decade) for females. After the age of 45 years, the orienteering speed of males and females slowed by 13+/-2% and 16+/-4% per decade (mean +/- s), respectively, until around the age of 69, after which the deterioration was accentuated. The orienteering speed of the females was 81+/-4, 74+/-6 and 69+/-7% that of the males at ages 21, 45 and 65 years, respectively. The magnitudes of the age-related slowing of orienteering speed and of the difference in orienteering speed between males and females aged 45 years and over were greater than those reported for the other endurance running events. This may reflect the physical demands of running in orienteering terrain, tactical and cognitive aspects of the sport, or sociocultural aspects of the participating population.

The physiology of the highly trained female endurance runner

Continuing improvements in the performance of female endurance runners and increasing levels of participation have generated the need to know more about the physiology of this group. Specific research is needed in this area, as data referring to male endurance runners cannot legitimately be applied to the female endurance runner because of their markedly different physiological and hormonal profiles. Recent developments in our understanding of an athlete's physiology (mainly in relation to the male endurance runner) have revealed new areas of interest that need to be assessed with specific reference to the female athlete. Relatively little attention has been directed towards identifying the major physiological characteristics of the highly trained/elite female endurance runner in general, and that which has been published on such factors and the effects of the menstrual cycle have produced equivocal results. Moreover, the impact of such training upon the menstrual cycle and endurance running performance is a controversial area, especially when assessing its subsequent impact on health-related issues. Reports of the condition referred to as the 'female athlete triad' have increased in recent years, with a decrease in bone mineral density predisposing the female athlete to increased risks of stress fractures. The aetiology of this triad is multifactorial, with such risk factors including nutrition, menstrual status, training intensity and frequency, body size and composition and psychology/physical stress. However, research limitations and flaws have lead to controversy in the literature regarding the immediate and long term effects of the triad on the female athlete. Likewise, the effects of the oral contraceptive pill on health and endurance performance also remain elusive, with a dearth of research pertaining to how oral contraceptive agents can aid athletic performance and the long term health of the female athlete. The purpose of this paper is to critically appraise the existing literature to provide a current review of the physiological scientific knowledge base in relation to the female athlete, health, training and performance, with suggestions for future areas of research. It is well known that certain menstrual and health-related performance factors of the female athlete, that is, physiological predictors of performance and body fat, have been extensively investigated over the last 30 years. However, a variety of methodological flaws and inconsistencies are present within the research and thus only the most prominent and well controlled studies within this area over the past 30 years will be referred to.

Invertebrate and fish cytokines

Cytokine-like molecules are well described in invertebrates, although most recent studies have revealed that there is analogy, rather than homology, between invertebrate and vertebrate cytokine-like activities. Cytokines certainly appeared early in the evolution of vertebrates, dating back some 400 millions years. Here, evidence will be reviewed and updated of the presence of these molecules in jawed fish and in particular, in bony fish, which represent the oldest group displaying true functionality of immune system as known in modern vertebrates. Many studies during the last ten years have confirmed the presence of functional homologues of mammalian cytokines in fish. In this review, particular attention will be focussed on IL-1beta, a very ancient defence cytokine recently sequenced in two species, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and carp (Cyprinus carpio). Original data on the partial peptide sequence of IL-1beta in the mediterranean sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax are also presented.

Factor XIIa and triacylglycerol rich lipoproteins: responses to exercise intervention

OBJECTIVES

(a) To determine if factor XIIa (FXIIa) would be sensitive to change from exercise intervention in a group of previously sedentary/low active middle aged men and women; (b) to investigate further the previously reported relation between FXIIa and triacylglycerol (TAG) rich lipoproteins.

METHODS

Thirty seven men (mean (SD) age 57 (7) years) and 60 women (mean age 54 (7) years) completed the study. Before the intervention, these subjects were randomly allocated to a group of walkers (n = 81) or controls (n = 16). Before and after an 18 week walking intervention, fasted blood samples were collected and analysed for FXIIa, TAG, total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and apolipoprotein (apo) B.

RESULTS

Kruskal-Wallis analysis of data obtained before the intervention showed no significant differences (p>0.4) between the walking and control groups for age, height, body mass, gender, FXIIa, TAG, TC, HDL-C, or apo B, although the women did show significantly lower levels of TAG (p<0.04) and higher HDL-C (p<0.0001) than the men. General linear model analysis of data obtained after the intervention, using the baseline value as a covariate, showed significant reductions (p<0.0001) in FXIIa for the walkers compared with the controls. Pearson product-moment correlations also showed significant relations between the concentrations of FXIIa and TAG, TC, LDL-C, and apo B.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study suggest that FXIIa is sensitive to change from exercise intervention and support previous research showing an association between the concentrations of FXIIa and TAG rich lipoproteins.

Immunopurification of T-cells from sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax (L.)

The monoclonal antibody DLT15, specific for thymocytes and peripheral T-cells of the teleost fish Dicentrarchus labrax (sea bass), was used to purify immunoreactive cells from blood and gut-associated lymphoid tissue. The purification was performed by immuno-magnetic sorting of leucocyte fractions enriched by Percoll density gradient centrifugation, and the purity of the isolated cells was estimated by cytofluorimetric analysis. Following a single step, the percentage of DLT15-purified cells was 88 +/- 10% for gut-associated lymphoid tissue and 79 +/- 18% for blood leucocytes. DLT15-purified cells from gut-associated lymphoid tissue were employed for RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis. In RT-PCR experiments using as primers degenerate oligonucleotides corresponding to the peptide sequence MYWY and VYFCA of the trout TcR beta chain, a 203 bp product was amplified. When sequenced, the cDNA was found to show 60% nucleotide identity to the trout TcRV beta 3. By 3'-RACE the cDNA was elongated to obtain the TcR constant region, with high similarity to other fish TcR sequences. These results strongly suggest that cells recognised by DLT15 are putative T lymphocytes.

Molecular cloning of the gene for interleukin-1beta from Xenopus laevis and analysis of expression in vivo and in vitro

The Xenopus cDNA for interleukin-1beta (IL-1B) was cloned and sequenced. The gene contains 1,462 nucleotides that translate in a single reading frame to give a predicted 283-amino acid IL-1beta molecule. The translated molecule contains a single potential glycosylation site, a readily identifiable IL-1 family signature, and has highest homology to chicken IL-1beta by phylogenetic tree analysis and sequence similarity. It lacks a signal peptide in common with other known IL-1B genes, and lacks a clear ICE (caspase) cut site in common with other nonmammalian IL-1B genes sequenced to date. RT-PCR was used to study sites of IL-1B transcript expression, 24 h following injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Expression was detected in the brain, liver, kidney, and spleen, with expression weakest in the brain and strongest in the spleen. No transcript expression was detectable following injection of saline. Northern blot analysis was used to quantify the induction of IL-1B expression in splenocytes following in vivo or in vitro stimulation with LPS. The results are discussed in relation to the potential role of IL-1beta in amphibian immune responses.

Correlates of simulated hill climb cycling performance

The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between several commonly used aerobic and anaerobic cycle ergometer tests and performance during a treadmill cycling hill climb. Eight competitive cyclists (age 27+/-7 years; body mass 73.2+/-5.2 kg; height 177+/-6 cm; mean +/- s) completed six tests in random order: a lactate minimum test; a Wingate anaerobic power test; and two 6-km climbs at 6% and two 1-km climbs at 12% gradient performed on a motorized treadmill. The mean times and power outputs for the 6-km and 1-km climbs were 16:30+/-1:08 min: s and 330+/-17.8 W, and 4:19+/-0:27 min: s and 411+/-24.4 W, respectively. The best individual predictor of 6-km and 1-km performance times was the time for the corresponding climb at the other distance (r = 0.97). The next strongest predictor of both hill climb performances was the average power produced during the Wingate test divided by body mass. Stepwise regression analysis showed that the two variables contributing most to the prediction equation for both climbs were the Wingate average power per unit of body mass and maximal aerobic power divided by total mass (rider + bike), which together accounted for 92 and 96% of the variability in the 6-km and 1-km climbs. In conclusion, among competitive cyclists, the Wingate average power per unit of body mass was the best single predictor of simulated cycling hill climb performance at the distance and gradient used.

Assessment of blood lactate: practical evaluation of the Biosen 5030 lactate analyzer

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to assess the validity and reliability of the Biosen 5030 lactate analyzer compared with a YSI 2300 lactate analyzer and a Kodak Ektachem DTII in a practical laboratory study context.

METHODS

To assess validity, 144 triplicate capillarized blood samples, across a range of values, were analyzed using the three analyzers. To assess reliability a further 665 samples were repeat analyzed. Temporal stability was determined by the reanalysis of resting and maximal exercise blood samples, after a period of storage ranging from 7 to 20 h, at room temperature. To measure inter- and intra-investigator reliability, 20 resting samples were taken from three different subjects by different investigators and a coefficient of variation was determined.

RESULTS

There were strong relationships between the Biosen, the YSI (r2 = 0.97), and the Kodak Ektachem (r2 = 0.91). An analysis of Biosen compared with YSI revealed a positive bias of 0.37 mmol x L(-1) (95% limits of agreement, -0.85 to 1.59 mmol x L(-1)). The test-retest reliability correlation was significant (r2 = 0.99, P < 0.05), but a paired t-test revealed a small (0.03 mmol x L(-1), P < 0.05) significant difference. The coefficient of variation from the three investigators across the 20 samples ranged from 1.3 to 3%. Blood lactate concentration in resting blood samples did significantly increase in value (0.2 mmol x L(-1), P < 0.05) after 7-h exposure to the air, whereas there was no change in maximal exercise blood lactate values after 20-h exposure to the air.

CONCLUSIONS

In a practical context, the Biosen 5030 lactate analyzer was comparable to the other analyzers giving fast reliable measures of blood lactate concentrations over the full range of values, which remained stable over extended periods at room temperature.

"Pseudo-conduction block" in vasculitic neuropathy

The predominant electrophysiologic feature of vasculitic mononeuropathy multiplex is axonal loss. Electrophysiologic findings interpreted as conduction block have, however, also been reported to occur in neuropathy secondary to necrotizing vasculitis. We report 3 patients with mononeuropathy multiplex and biopsy proven vasculitis in whom eight nerves met criteria for conduction block. In each circumstance, serial study demonstrated conversion of the electrophysiologic findings to those most consistent with severe axonal loss. "Conduction block" in vasculitic mononeuropathy multiplex is secondary to focal axonal conduction failure presumably related to infarctive axonal injury. The term conduction block should be used with caution in this disorder and only if serial studies demonstrate findings consistent with this electrophysiologic diagnosis.

The use of Doppler and atrioventricular plane motion echocardiography for the detection of changes in left ventricular function after training

In this study we compared the efficacy of Doppler and atrioventricular plane motion echocardiography in detecting the changes in left ventricular function caused by moderate-intensity training. Fifty-nine healthy men and women (aged 40-68 years) were divided into either a group of walkers (n = 32) or controls (n = 27). Pre-intervention, there were no significant differences between the groups for gender, age, height, mass or predicted maximal oxygen consumption. The walkers completed a progressive 18-week walking programme that resulted in an estimated mean gross energy expenditure whilst walking of 4.0 (1.3) MJ x week(-1) for the duration of the study, and 5.9 (1.7) MJ x week(-1) during the final 6 weeks. After the 18-week programme there were no significant changes in Doppler measures of early or late filling velocities. However, the walkers showed an increase in the velocity of relaxation (1.2 cm x s(-1)) (P < 0.02) of the left free wall, as measured using atrioventricular plane motion echocardiography, while the controls showed no significant changes. The findings suggest that atrioventricular plane motion echocardiography is more sensitive than Doppler echocardiography in detecting the left ventricular changes caused by exercise intervention.

Plasma amino acids in childhood epileptic encephalopathies

Abnormalities in plasma amino acid levels have been noted in patients with various epilepsies, and sometimes also in their first degree relatives. We sought to study plasma amino acid levels in children with epileptic encephalopathies and their parents, relating findings to the pattern of cortical glucose metabolism as determined by 18fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) positron emission tomography (PET). Twenty-eight children with cryptogenic epileptic encephalopathies were studied prospectively. Cortical glucose metabolism was evaluated by FDG PET with combined visual and semiquantitative analysis used to detect focal cortical defects. The plasma concentration of 21 amino acids in the children and their parents was measured by ion exchange chromatography and compared with control values using non-parametric statistical methods. Multivariate analysis was used to assess antiepileptic drug effects. Children were classified as: Lennox-Gastaut syndrome following infantile spasms (six patients); de-novo Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (eight); severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy (eight) and myoclonic-astatic epilepsy (two). Four patients remained unclassified. Fourteen patients had focal/multifocal abnormalities on PET scans. The plasma level of aspartate was significantly lower in both the children with epileptic encephalopathies and in their parents (P < 0.005). The lowered aspartate levels could not be accounted for by the antiepileptic drug medication taken by the children. Further analysis showed the lowered aspartate levels to be confined to children and their parents who lacked focal PET abnormalities. These findings suggest a possible genetic abnormality in the aspartate neurotransmitter systems in the pathogenesis of seizures in the childhood epileptic encephalopathies.

An examination of differences in the time course of oxazepam's effects on implicit vs explicit memory

The present study was designed to examine the effects of oxazepam on implicit vs explicit memory processes, as a function of this drug's time course. The effects of oxazepam (30 mg) or placebo on directly comparable tests of implicit memory (word stem completion) and explicit memory (cued recall) were examined at three time points: 100 min post-drug administration (prior to the theoretical peak plasma concentration of oxazepam; i.e.'pre-peak' condition), 170 min post-drug (close to theoretical peak; i.e. 'peak' condition) or 240 min post-drug (following theoretical peak: i.e. 'post-peak' condition). Sixty healthy volunteers were randomly assigned to either the drug condition or the placebo condition in a double-blind design and were tested on both memory tests at one of the three time points. In the 'pre-peak' condition, oxazepam impaired cued recall performance relative to placebo but did not impair priming. In the 'peak' condition, oxazepam impaired performance on both memory tasks. In the 'post-peak' condition, cued recall performance in the oxazepam group remained significantly impaired relative to placebo. However, oxazepam-induced impairments in priming were only marginal, suggesting that oxazepam-induced impairments in implicit memory processes begin to wane following theoretical peak drug concentrations. The fact that oxazepam-induced priming impairments were significant only when the word stem completion task was administered close to peak plasma concentrations, supports the hypothesis that benzodiazepines exert time-dependent effects on implicit memory processes. The results also support the theoretical distinction between implicit and explicit memory processes, since the directly comparable implicit and explicit tasks showed different impairment curves over time.

Acute sensorimotor polyneuropathy with tonic pupils and an abduction deficit: an unusual presentation of polyarteritis nodosa

A tonic pupil may occur in isolation or as part of a systemic disorder. We report a patient who developed tonic pupils and an abduction deficit in the setting of polyarteritis nodosa. The combination of a tonic pupil and an abduction deficit should suggest the possibility of a vasculopathic disorder, because the ciliary ganglion and lateral rectus muscle are both supplied by the lateral muscular artery. Widespread small artery and arteriolar narrowing and occlusion are the hallmarks of polyarteritis nodosa. Unusual ischemic syndromes may occur, such as this rare combination of neuro-ophthalmic signs, by involvement of both the nutrient artery and its collaterals. We are unaware of other reports of neuropathic tonic pupils in association with polyarteritis nodosa.

Immunogenicity and safety of Haemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide-Neisseria meningitidis conjugate vaccine in 7.5 micrograms liquid formulation: a comparison of three lots with the 15.0 micrograms lyophilized formulation. Study Group for 7.5 micrograms Liquid PedvaxHIB

We conducted a multicenter, single-blind, randomized comparisons of the immunogenicity and safety of three manufacturing-scale lots of 7.5 micrograms liquid Haemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide- Neisseria meningitidis conjugate vaccine (PRP-OMPC) and a single lot of 15.0 micrograms lyophilized PRP OMPC. A total of 908 infants were entered into the study. Each infant received two primary injections intramuscularly 2 months apart beginning at age 2-6 months and a booster injection at 12-15 months. Blood samples for serology were obtained before each injection and 1 month after the second and the booster dose. Immune responses were measured by radioimmunoassay. Approximately 80% of the infants achieved a titer > 1.0 micrograms ml-1 after the second primary dose of all four lots tested: the geometric mean titer (GMT) was ca 3 micrograms ml-1 for each vaccine group. After the booster dose, more than 90% of infants from each vaccine group had a titer > 1.0 microgram ml-1;GMTs ranged from 8 to 10 micrograms ml-1. No serious vaccine-associated adverse reactions were reported. Thus the 7.5 liquid PRP OMPC vaccine was at least as immunogenic and well tolerated as the 15.0 micrograms lyophilized vaccine.

Effects of an 18 week walking programme on cardiac function in previously sedentary or relatively inactive adults

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of an 18 week walking programme upon cardiac function.

METHODS

29 sedentary or relatively inactive but otherwise healthy subjects (15 walkers and 14 controls, aged 40-68 years) completed the study. The walkers completed a progressive 18 week walking programme which required an estimated average energy expenditure of 900 kcal week-1 for the total duration of the study and 1161 kcal week-1 during the final six weeks. Walking was carried out at an intensity of 67.8 (SD 4.99)% of maximum oxygen consumption and 73.8(6.99%) of maximum heart rate. Before and after the intervention all subjects underwent an M mode echocardiogram, graded treadmill walking test, and step test for the assessment of aerobic fitness.

RESULTS

After 18 weeks the results of the control group showed no change in any of the variables measured while the walkers showed a statistically significant increase in the velocity of relaxation of the longitudinal myocardial fibres of the left ventricle and a decrease in heart rate measured during the step tests, indicating an improvement in aerobic capacity.

CONCLUSIONS

Walking promotes improvements in cardiovascular fitness. Moderate forms of exercise may improve cardiac function.

Influence of saddle type upon the incidence of lower back pain in equestrian riders

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the possible influences of saddle type on the incidence of "lower back pain" in a cross section of equestrian riders.

METHODS

108 equestrian riders completed a questionnaire concerning their riding habits and whether they suffered from lower back pain. In particular they were asked whether they used a traditional style/general purpose saddle (GP) or a deep seated/Western style saddle (W).

RESULTS

48% of the riders reported suffering from lower back pain, the incidence being higher in the GP saddle users (66%) than in W saddle users (23%) (P < 0.001). Female riders had a higher incidence of lower back pain than males, 58% v 27% (P < 0.005). When the genders were analysed separately for the effect of saddle type, males using the GP and W saddles had a 33% and 6% incidence of lower back pain respectively, while females using the GP and W saddles had a 72% and 33% incidence. The highest incidence of lower back pain occurred in the GP saddle users who had been riding for more than 15 years (P < 0.07). The data also indicated a possible tendency for there to be more low back pain among riders using a short stirrup length. No other factors were found to affect the incidence of lower back pain.

CONCLUSIONS

The difference in the incidence of lower back pain between the users of the two saddle types may be due to the additional comfort, cushioning, postural positioning, and stability offered by the design of the deep seated saddle. The results suggest that, while a deep seated saddle is not suited to all equestrian activities, where possible its use should be considered because of its effect in reducing the risk of lower back pain.

Prenatal diagnosis of the urea cycle diseases: a survey of the European cases

A European survey of prenatal diagnosis cases involving urea cycle diseases was performed. Citrullinemia was the most frequently investigated disease (108 cases). Other diseases are, in order of frequency, argininosuccinic aciduria (75 cases), ornithine transcarbamylase defect (52 cases), carbamoylphosphate synthetase defect (8 cases), triple H (3 cases), and arginase deficiency (1 case). Only one disease (ornithine transcarbamylase defect) is presently diagnosed using molecular biology methods.

Variation in coverage by ethnic group of neonatal (Guthrie) screening programme in south London

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether coverage of the neonatal (Guthrie) screening programme in Britain is different for groups at highest risk of sickle cell disease and to identify possible reasons for incomplete coverage.

DESIGN

Descriptive study of coverage of screening programme and its variation by mobility, district of residence, and ethnic group.

SUBJECTS

1727 infants born between 1 October and 31 December 1991.

SETTING

Former West Lambeth and Camberwell District Health Authorities, London.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Proportion of infants with an identifiable screening test result.

RESULTS

Screening covered 1663/1727 (96.3%) infants overall (745/786 (94.8%) in West Lambeth; 918/941 (97.6%) in Camberwell). The relative odds ratio of an African infant not having been tested compared with a white infant was 3.05 (95% confidence interval 1.30 to 7.14) (2.08 (0.86 to 5.01) after adjustment for mobility and district of residence). For infants whose families moved into the districts after the birth compared with those born and resident in the districts the relative odds ratio of having been tested was 10.16 (4.85 to 21.29). The odds ratio of locally delivered infants in West Lambeth not having been tested compared with those in Camberwell was 2.12 (1.08 to 4.16) after adjustment for ethnic group.

CONCLUSION

Coverage of the screening programme is incomplete and poorer in infants of African ethnic group than in white infants. Poorer coverage is also associated with mobility of the family around the time of birth. The findings have implications for using the neonatal programme for testing for sickle cell disease and other disorders. Arrangements for monitoring the existing screening programme are inadequate and an improved system should be established, similar to the scheme that monitors the immunisation programme.

The NADH dehydrogenase subunit 7 gene is interrupted by four group II introns in the wheat mitochondrial genome

We have characterized a wheat mitochondrial gene, designated nad7, capable of encoding a 394-amino acid subunit of the respiratory chain NADH dehydrogenase complex. It contains four introns possessing group II features and their positions differ from those in both the liverwort mitochondrial nad7 pseudogene and the nuclear gene encoding the homologous 49 kDa subunit of complex I in Neurospora. The derived amino acid sequence of the wheat nad7 gene is strongly conserved relative to its nuclear or organellar counterparts in other organisms. C-to-U type RNA editing, which is observed at 32 positions within the coding region of wheat nad7 transcripts, strengthens protein sequence similarity. RNA editing is also predicted to improve base-pairing within the domain V/VI regions of all four introns.

The influence of thyroid hormone replacement in a porcine brain death model

This study was conducted to determine whether the administration of tri-iodothyronine (T3) to brain-dead donor pigs would improve hemodynamic instability, serum levels of thyroid hormones, or the outcome of transplantation of donor livers. Brain death was caused in young pigs (25-38 kg) by rapid inflation of an intracranially implanted balloon catheter. The animals were maintained on a ventilator and frequent measurements of acid/base balance, electrolytes, and glucose were made. At the end of 16 hr, livers were removed and implanted into prepared recipients. Serum-free tri-iodothyronine fell to zero at the end of 16 hr, and there was a 4-6-fold decline in free thyroxine (T4). The levels of serum reverse T3 (rT3) however, increased up to 6-fold. In animals treated with tri-iodothyronine 2 micrograms/hr, the serum levels of free T3 and T4 were not changed but the levels of serum reverse T3 (rT3) increased further. There were no apparent correlations between any hemodynamic parameter and serum thyroid hormone levels in the donors. After the liver transplants, recipients could be divided into those that survived longer than 6 days and those that did not. Although there were significant differences in the plasma levels of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase, there was no correlation between survival and whether the donor had received tri-iodothyronine. Although other hormones, including insulin and cortisol, may also be necessary, there is no indication from these studies that the administration of tri-iodothyronine to brain-dead donors of liver grafts benefits the serum hormone levels in the donors or the subsequent survival of the recipients.

Characterization of the wheat mitochondrial orf25 gene

The wheat mitochondrial orf25 nucleotide sequence of 576 bp has been determined. Its derived protein sequence shares 88% and 75% amino acid identity with those of maize and tobacco mitochondria, respectively. The wheat and tobacco orf25 sequences lack four inserts, of 6 bp to 36 bp, that are present in the maize homologue. The wheat orf25 gene is actively transcribed and is preceded by a regulatory sequence block very similar to those located upstream of the wheat coxII and atp6 genes. Our observations support the view that orf25 sequences encode a functional polypeptide in plant mitochondria.

Effects of culture density, conditioned medium and feeder cultures on microspore embryogenesis in Brassica napus L. cv. Topas

In microspore cultures of Brassica napus L. cv. Topas, embryo yield increases with culture density up to about 40,000 microspores per ml. A much higher density (100,000 per ml) appears inhibitory to embryogenesis. A relatively high culture density (30,000 or 40,000 per ml) for the first 2-4 days of culture is crucial for embryogenesis, after which cultures may be diluted to allow better embryo growth.Medium conditioned by culturing microspores at 30,000 or 40,000 per ml for 1 day improved microspore-embryo yield in low density cultures (3,000 or 4,000 per ml) more than 3-fold. In contrast, media conditioned with microspores from 1-4 days or 0-4 days of culture were inhibitory.Use of feeder cultures resulted in up to 10-fold increase of embryo yield in low density microspore cultures, depending on the method used. Filter papers and other membranes placed on top of feeders greatly inhibited embryogenesis in the feeder layer as well as microspores cultured on the feeder, possibly due to poorer gaseous exchange.