Transformation of Candida oleophila and survival of a transformant on orange fruit under field conditions

Histidine auxotrophs of wild-type strain I-182 of Candida oleophila, produced using ethyl methanesulfonate, were transformed with plasmids containing the HIS3, HIS4 and HIS5 genes of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Histidine auxotrophy was complemented by the HIS5 gene of S. cerevisiae. Stability of the transformants under non-selective conditions and DNA gel-blot analysis suggested that the transforming DNA had integrated into the C. oleophila genome. There were no detectable physiological differences between the wild-type and the transformants. The biological control ability of C. oleophila was not affected by the transformation. A genetically marked transformant (with a beta-glucuronidase gene) colonized wounds on oranges, and its population increased under field conditions. The identity of the genetically marked transformant was established by PCR-amplification of a portion of the beta-glucuronidase gene.

2-Oxoacids regulate kynurenic acid production in the rat brain: studies in vitro and in vivo

This study was designed to examine the role of 2-oxoacids in the enzymatic transamination of L-kynurenine to the excitatory amino acid receptor antagonist, kynurenate, in the rat brain. In brain tissue slices incubated in Krebs-Ringer buffer with a physiological concentration of L-kynurenine, pyruvate, and several other straight- and branched-chain 2-oxoacids, substantially restored basal kynurenate production in a dose-dependent manner without increasing the intracellular concentration of L-kynurenine. All 2-oxoacids tested also reversed or attenuated the hypoglycemia-induced decrease in kynurenate synthesis, but only pyruvate and oxaloacetate also substantially restored intracellular L-kynurenine accumulation. Thus, 2-oxoacids increase kynurenate formation in the brain primarily by functioning as co-substrates of the transamination reaction. This was supported further by the fact that the nonspecific kynurenine aminotransferase inhibitors (aminooxy)acetic acid and dichlorovinylcysteine prevented the effect of pyruvate on kynurenate production in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, all 2-oxoacids tested attenuated or prevented the effects of veratridine, quisqualate, or L-alpha-aminoadipate, which reduce the transamination of L-kynurenine to kynurenate. Finally, dose-dependent increases in extracellular kynurenate levels in response to an intracerebral perfusion with pyruvate or alpha-ketoisocaproate were demonstrated by in vivo microdialysis. Taken together, these data show that 2-oxoacids can directly augment the de novo production of kynurenate in several areas of the rat brain. 2-Oxoacids may therefore provide a novel pharmacological approach for the manipulation of excitatory amino acid receptor function and dysfunction.

High affinity glutamate transport in rat cortical neurons in culture

We assayed glutamate transport activity in cultures of rat cortical neurons containing < 0.2% astrocytes. Using [3H]L-glutamate as the tracer, sodium-dependent high affinity glutamate transport was demonstrated [K(m) = 17.2 +/- 2.4 microM; Vmax = 3.3 +/- 0.32 nmol/mg of protein/min (n = 5)]. Dihydrokainate (1 mM) inhibited uptake of radioactivity by 88 +/- 3% and had a Ki value of 65 +/- 7 microM. L-alpha-Aminoadipate (1 mM) inhibited uptake by only 25 +/- 4%. L-trans-2,4-Pyrrolidine dicarboxylate, L-serine-O-sulfate, and kainate potently inhibited transport activity with Ki values of 5.1 +/- 0.3, 56 +/- 6, and 103 +/- 9 microM, respectively (n = 3). Voltage-clamp studies of GLT1-expressing oocytes showed that, as in cortical neurons, glutamate transport was not inhibited by L-alpha-aminoadipate. Dihydrokainate was a potent inhibitor (Ki = 8 +/- 1 microM), and L-serine-O-sulfate produced a GLT1-mediated current with a K(m) value of 312 +/- 33 microM. Immunoblot analysis showed that neuronal cultures express excitatory amino acid carrier 1 (EAAC1), shown previously to be relatively insensitive to dihydrokainate, plus a trace amount of GLT1, but no GLAST. These studies establish that a major component of the glutamate transport activity of cortical neurons is dihydrokainate sensitive and distinct from the previously recognized neuronal transporter excitatory amino acid carrier 1.

Immunosuppressive properties of MX-68, a novel unpolyglutamatable antifolate

MX-68 is a novel unpolyglutamatable antifolate. We here reported the in vitro and in vivo immunosuppressive properties of MX-68 compared with a polyglutamatable antifolate, methotrexate (MTX). MX-68 showed potent suppressive effects on mitogen-induced mouse splenic lymphocyte proliferation as well as immunoglobulin production from LPS-stimulated mouse splenic B cells. In in vivo studies, MX-68 significantly suppressed antigen-specific antibody production of both T cell-dependent antigen and T cell-independent antigen. Moreover, MX-68 inhibited a sheep red blood cell (SRBC)-induced delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction by administration starting from the day of antigen immunization, but did not suppress the effector phase of the DTH reaction. MTX showed suppressive activities similar to MX-68 in all experiments. Interestingly, although MX-68 demonstrated somewhat stronger suppressive effects than MTX in vivo, the results from in vitro studies were reversed. These results suggest that polyglutamation is not always required to suppress immune responses and that MX-68 is a slightly stronger immunosuppressive drug than MTX in mice.

Brain-specific modulation of kynurenic acid synthesis in the rat

This study was designed to investigate modulatory mechanisms that control the synthesis of the neuroprotective endogenous excitatory amino acid receptor antagonist kynurenate. De novo kynurenate formation was examined in vitro using tissue slices from rat brain, liver, and kidney. In slices from adult cerebral cortex, veratridine, quisqualate, and L-alpha-aminoadipate decreased kynurenate synthesis substantially. Glucose removal or changes in the ionic milieu, too, influenced kynurenate formation significantly, suggesting that demands on cellular energy interfere with kynurenate production in the adult rat brain. The effects of quisqualate and L-alpha-aminoadipate were also observed in the immature brain, in the quinolinate-lesioned adult striatum, and, to a lesser extent, in peripheral organs. In contrast, the effect of veratridine was not seen in the lesioned brain or in kidney and liver tissue, indicating its dependency on intact neuron-glia interactions. Compared with the normal adult brain, ionic manipulations yielded qualitatively distinct results in the developing brain and in the periphery, but their effects remained unchanged in the lesioned striatum. Glucose deprivation was less consequential in the immature than in the adult brain and was entirely ineffective in the lesioned striatum and in the periphery. These results further link cellular, especially astrocytic, energy metabolism to kynurenate formation in the brain. More generally, the existence of brain-specific mechanisms for the regulation of kynurenate production is suggestive of a modulatory role of this metabolite in excitatory amino acid receptor function and dysfunction.

Development of the neonatal rabbit retina in organ culture. 1. Comparison with histogenesis in vivo, and the effect of a gliotoxin (alpha-aminoadipic acid)

Organ cultures from neonatal rabbit retinae grew well over periods of up to 2 weeks in vitro. Proliferation in vitro declined in parallel with the decline seen in vivo, although the rate of proliferation in the explants was slightly reduced. The proliferation of progenitor cells in vitro produced the same cell types produced postnatally in vivo. Postnatally generated cell clones, labeled by means of a retroviral vector, consisted mainly of rods and Müller cells. The layers of the retinae developed as in vivo; an outer plexiform layer occurred after the first 2 days in vitro. Ultrastructurally, ribbon synapses (outer and inner plexiform layer) and conventional synapses (inner plexiform layer) were observed. The photoreceptor cells grew well-developed inner segments and cilia but no mature outer segments. The cultured retinae contained a well-developed, regular lattice of Müller cells expressing vimentin as in vivo. The neuron-to-Müller cell-ratios were essentially the same as in vivo, viz. about 15 to 16 neurons, among them about 10 to 11 (rod) photoreceptor cells per Müller cell. When the glia cell-specific toxin alpha-aminoadipic acid (alpha AAA) was applied, the pattern of vimentin-positive Müller cells became irregular, or even locally missing. In such cases, the tissue became disorganized as indicated by a local disappearance of the regular layering, and development of many rosettes. It is concluded that an intact lattice of Müller cells is necessary for the migration of young neurons, and for correct formation of retinal layers.

Effect of 6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine (DON) on human carcinoid tumor cell aggregates

The induction of glutamine starvation has been suggested as a potential target for antitumoral treatment using inhibitors of amidotransferase, an enzyme which mediates the conversion of glutamate to glutamine. Using multicellular aggregates from tumor cell lines, the effect of treatment with a suggested glutamine antagonist, 6-diazo-5-axo-L-norleucine (DON), was investigated. As indicators of treatment response, three different parameters were measured: aggregate size, uptake of 14C-methionine and secretion of Chromogranin A. Of six cell types evaluated (carcinoid, glioma, neuroblastoma pancreas and bladder cancer), the largest inhibition of 14Cmethionine uptake, amounting to 60%, was found in the carcinoid cell line BON. In this cell line the maximum effect was reached already at 10 microM concentration. DON induced marked growth inhibition in the BON aggregates which lasted 3-4 weeks after which regrowth started. During this period the secretion of chromogranin and methionine uptake was also inhibited. These studies suggest that the neuroendocrine cell line BON is especially vulnerable to treatment by DON and show that strong inhibitory effects are found at concentrations lower than that achieved in patient blood in previous clinical trials.

L-alpha-aminoadipate inhibits kynurenate synthesis in rat brain hippocampus and tissue culture

Intracerebral administration of L-alpha-aminoadipic acid (L-AAA) at 500 mg/kg body weight to rats caused a complex behavioral change with sporadic wet-dog shakes. Animals developed severe limbic seizures between 1 and 6 h after L-AAA injection, characterized by generalized convulsions. Twenty days after L-AAA injection kynurenine aminotransferase (KAT) activity measured in hippocampal brain tissue slices prepared with a McIlwain chopper at 30 microns showed a significant 43% decrease. Subcutaneous injection of kynurenine at 500 mg/kg showed a 63% increase in KAT activity twenty days later. This increase was offset by a concomitant administration of 500 mg/kg L-AAA stereotaxically on day one. In astrocyte culture kynurenic acid synthesis is inhibited by L-AAA and L-pipecolic acid. The possible involvement of kynurenic acid in the modulation of neuronal degeneration is discussed.

L-alpha-aminoadipate reduces glutamate release from brain tissue exposed to combined oxygen and glucose deprivation

The effect of the glutamate analogue L-alpha-aminoadipate (alpha AA) on the release of glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) from rat hippocampal slices was investigated in vitro. Oxygen/glucose deprivation caused a large release of glutamate and GABA. alpha AA added during energy deprivation reduced the glutamate release in a dose-dependent manner (56% reduction at 5 mM), whereas GABA release was unchanged. We speculate that ischemic glutamate release from the brain is mediated by a low affinity transport mechanism that is blocked by alpha AA.

The glutathione level of retinal Müller glial cells is dependent on the high-affinity sodium-dependent uptake of glutamate

The dependence of intracellular glutathione, an important radical scavenger, on the extracellular glutamate and cystine concentration and the velocity of the high affinity sodium/glutamate transporter was studied in freshly-isolated Müller glial cells of the guinea-pig, kept in vitro for up to 11 h. To this end the relative Müller cell glutathione levels were measured using the fluorescent dye monochlorobimane, using different concentrations of glutamate and cystine in Ringer solution. In some experiments L-buthionine-[S,R]-sulfoximine, a blocker of glutathione synthesis, or L-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid and L-alpha-aminoadipic acid, inhibitors of glutamate uptake, were added. The Müller cells maintained about 80% of the normal glutathione level when maintained in Ringer solution containing 100 microM glutamate for 11 h. When under these conditions 100 microM cystine was added, the glutathione level increased to values, which were even higher than those at the beginning of the incubation period. Addition of cystine without glutamate caused a run down of the glutathione level to about 45% of the normal level, which is comparable to the run down in pure Ringer solution. Likewise, application of L-buthionine-[S,R]-sulfoximine (5 mM) lead to a strong run down of the glutathione level even in glutamate/cystine (100 microM)-containing solution. A similar suppressing effect was observed using L-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid and L-alpha-aminoadipic acid in the presence of 100 microM cystine and glutamate. We conclude that the intracellular glutamate concentration of the Müller cells is determined by the extracellular glutamate concentration and the velocity of the sodium/glutamate uptake. Consequently, cystine uptake into Müller cells, which is performed by the cystine/glutamate antiporter, is fueled by the sodium/glutamate transporter with intracellular glutamate. Both glutamate and cystine are also substrates for glutathione synthesis. The glutathione level is logically limited by the capacity of the sodium/glutamate transporter to provide glutamate intracellularly for, first, cystine uptake and, second, direct insertion into glutathione. Accordingly, the glutathione level is reduced when the sodium/glutamate transporter is blocked. Thus, a diminution of the glutathione level should be taken into consideration when the effects of sodium/glutamate uptake failure and reduced intracellular glutamate concentrations are discussed.

Induction of glutamine synthetase by L-alpha-aminoadipate in developmental stages of cultured astrocytes

Effect of L-alpha-aminoadipate (L alpha AA), a gliotoxic L-glutamate analogue, on glutamine synthetase (GS) activity of rat cultured astrocytes was examined, L alpha AA at sub-toxic concentrations (less than 0.5 mM, for 48 h) increased GS activity of cultured astrocytes. This increase was prevented by 10 microM cycloheximide, an inhibitor of protein synthesis. L alpha AA increased GS activities of astrocytes cultured in three different conditions, i.e. 12-day-old, 5-233k-old and dibutyryl cAMP(DBcAMP)-induced differentiated cultures. Insulin (10 micrograms/ml) and hydrocortisone (10 microM) increased GS activity of 12-day-old cultured cells, but not that of 5-weeks-old and DBcAMP-treated cells. The increase in GS activity was observed after a transient treatment with L alpha AA for 4 h. These results show that the induction of GS by L alpha AA is not related to developmental stages of astrocytes in culture.

Intracellular acidification of the leech giant glial cell evoked by glutamate and aspartate

Glutamate is an excitatory receptor agonist in both neurones and glial cells, and, in addition, glutamate is also a substrate for glutamate transporter in glial cells. We have measured intracellular and extracellular pH changes induced by bath application of glutamate, its receptor agonist kainate, and its transporter agonist aspartate, in the giant neuropile glial cell in the central nervous system of the leech Hirudo medicinalis, using double-barrelled pH-sensitive microelectrodes. The giant glial cells responded to glutamate and aspartate (100-500 microM), and kainate (5-20 microM) with a membrane depolarization or an inward current and with a distinct intracellular acidification. Glutamate and aspartate (both 500 microM) evoked a decrease in intracellular pH (pHi) by 0.187 +/- 0.081 (n = 88) and 0.198 +/- 0.067 (n = 86) pH units, respectively. With a resting pHi of 7.1 or 80 nM H+, these acidifications correspond to a mean increase of the intracellular H+ activity by 42 nM and 45 nM. Kainate caused a decrease of pHi by 0.1-0.35 pH units (n = 15). The glutamate/aspartate-induced decrease in pHi was not significantly affected by the glutamate receptor blockers kynurenic acid (1 mM) and 6-cyano-7-dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX, 50-100 microM), which greatly reduced the kainate-induced change in pHi. Extracellular alkalinizations produced by glutamate and aspartate were not affected by CNQX. Reduction of the external Na+ concentration gradually decreased the intracellular pH change induced by glutamate/aspartate, indicating half maximal activation of the acidifying process at 5-10 mM external Na+ concentration. When all external Na+ was replaced by NMDG+, the pHi responses were completely suppressed (glutamate) or reduced to 10% (aspartate). When Na+ was replaced by Li+, the glutamate- and aspartate-evoked pHi responses were reduced to 18% and 14%, respectively. Removal of external Ca2+ reduced the glutamate- and aspartate-induced pHi responses to 93 and 72%, respectively. The glutamate/aspartate-induced intracellular acidifications were not affected by the putative glutamate uptake inhibitor amino-adipidic acid (1 mM). DL-aspartate-beta-hydroxamate (1 mM), and dihydrokainate (2 mM), which caused some pHi decrease on its own, reduced the glutamate/aspartate-induced pHi responses by 40 and 69%, respectively. The putative uptake inhibitor DL-threo-beta-hydroxyaspartate (THA, 1 mM) induced a prominent intracellular acidification (0.36 +/- 0.05 pH units, n = 9), and the pHi change evoked by glutamate or aspartate in the presence of THA was reduced to less than 10%. The results indicate that glutamate, aspartate, and kainate produce substantial intracellular acidifications, which are mediated by at least two independent mechanisms: 1) via activation of non-NMDA glutamate receptors and 2) via uptake of the excitatory amino acids into the leech glial cell.

Preventive effect of a novel antifolate, MX-68, in murine systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)

We evaluated the preventive effects of a novel nonpolyglutamatable antifolate, MX-68, on two experimental murine models of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE); NZBxNZW F1 (BWF1) mice and chronic graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) mice, in comparison with classical antifolate methotrexate (MTX). The oral administration of 2 mg/kg MX-68, three times a week from 12 to 40 or 60 weeks of age, significantly delayed the onset of proteinuria and prolonged the life-span of BWF1 mice. The elevation of serum blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and cholesterol levels resulting from the development of lupus nephritis was also inhibited. However, MX-68 did not suppress the increase of serum anti-DNA or anti-TNP antibodies or total IgG isotype (IgG1, IgG2 and IgG3) levels. In chronic GVHD mice, MX-68 given three times a week from the day of first cell injection, for 9 weeks, dose-dependently delayed the appearance of proteinuria. The elevation of BUN and cholesterol levels was also inhibited. Furthermore, in the 4 mg/kg MX-68 group, the production of IgG anti-DNA and anti-TNP antibodies was significantly inhibited, but this was not observed in the 2 mg/kg MX-68 and the 4 mg/kg MTX groups. These beneficial effects of MX-68 were much greater than those of MTX in both models. These results suggest that MX-68 might be a more useful drug for the treatment of SLE.

The influence of organic acids on the proliferation of human peripheral lymphocytes activated by concanavalin A and pokeweed mitogen

The present study was undertaken to assess the influence of 25 organic acids, which appear in high concentrations in tissues of patients with various organic acidaemias, on the proliferation of human peripheral lymphocytes stimulated with concanavalin A (Con A) (a T-cell activator) and pokeweed mitogen (PWM) (predominantly a B-cell activator). Mononuclear cells were cultivated in flat-bottomed 96-well microplates at 37 degrees C for 96 (Con A) or 144 h (PWM) in the presence of one mitogen at different concentrations and of one acid at doses ranging from 1 to 5 mM. Control cultures did not contain any acid. Cell reactivity was measured by the incorporation of tritiated thymidine into cellular DNA. We observed that, among the 25 acids tested, aminoadipic (AAD), 2-hydroxy-3-methylvaleric (HMV), 2-ketoisocaproic (KIC), 2-methylbutyric (MBA), propionic (PPA) and tiglic (TIG) acids strongly suppressed lymphocyte DNA synthesis in Con A-supplemented cultures, whereas in cultures stimulated with PWM, 2-ketoisovaleric (KIV) and PPA acids presented the same effect. In contrast, lactic (LAC) and pyruvic (PYR) acids activated lymphocyte DNA synthesis in cultures treated with Con A, the same effect occurring with LAC acid for PWM-stimulated lymphocytes. The most inhibitory or stimulatory acids were added to cultures at different times after the beginning of the incubation period when mitogens were added. Except for HMV, KIC, PPA and LAC acids, whose actions persisted even after 24 h from the beginning of culture, the others only exerted their effects when added at time zero. The present study therefore demonstrated that some organic acids modulate DNA synthesis in Con A- and PWM-stimulated human lymphocytes.

Persistent depression of synaptic responses occurs in quisqualate sensitized hippocampal slices after exposure to L-aspartate-beta-hydroxamate

Exposure of slices of rat hippocampus to quisqualic acid produces an enhanced sensitivity of neurons to depolarization by other excitatory amino acid analogues, particularly amino acid phosphonates. The phosphonates may act at extracellular sites, since their depolarizing effects are rapidly reversed by washout with phosphonate-free incubation medium. We now wish to report a novel class of excitatory amino acid analogues that induce a persistent depolarization that is not reversed by washout. Exposure of quisqualate-sensitized slices of rat hippocampus to 400 microM L-aspartate-beta-hydroxamate for 8 min results in the complete depression of extracellular synaptic field potentials. This depression persists for at least 1 h after washout of the hydroxamate compound. Analogous compounds L-glutamate-gamma-hydroxamate, D-aspartate-beta-hydroxamate and the phosphonate derivative L-2-amino-3-phosphonopropanoic acid (L-AP3) induce a similar but weaker persistent depression of the field potentials. Previous studies also demonstrated that exposure of hippocampal slices to L-alpha-aminoadipate blocks or reverses quisqualate sensitization, making the neurons unresponsive to depolarization by phosphonate compounds. We now report that L-alpha-aminoadipate also blocks or reverses the persistent depolarization of quisqualate-sensitized neurons which is induced by exposure to the hydroxamates or L-AP3.

Inhibition of the high-affinity uptake of D-[3H]aspartate in rate by L-alpha-aminoadipate and arachidonic acid

The mechanism of inhibition of the high-affinity sodium-dependent transport of D-[3H]aspartate by the gliotoxin, L-alpha-aminoadipate, and also by the endogenous fatty acid, arachidonic acid (cis-5,8,11,14 eicosatetraenoic acid), into rat brain synaptosomes has been investigated. L-alpha-Aminoadipate competitively inhibited the transport of D-[3H]aspartate with a K1 value of 192 microM. Superfusion of coronal slices of rat brain for 40 min with 1 mM L-alpha-aminoadipate reduced the glutathione concentration of the tissue by 20%. Neither glutamate nor kainate depleted the glutathione level of the slices. Pre-incubation of synaptosomes with arachidonic acid (10 microM) for 10-60 min produced a marked potentiation of the inhibition of D-[3H]aspartate transport, compared to experiments in which the acid was added concurrently with the D-[3H]aspartate ('co-incubation' experiments). Inhibition of D-[3H]aspartate transport by arachidonic acid was not blocked by addition of nordihydroguaretic acid to the pre-incubation medium. Staurosporine (50 nM) reduced the inhibition of transport occurring during pre-incubation with 10 microM arachidonic acid, and there was no longer any significant difference from the level of inhibition obtained in co-incubation experiments. Phorbol, 12-myristate, 13-acetate (1 microM) reduced the transport of D-[3H]aspartate to 73% of control after 20 min pre-incubation of the synaptosomes. This study highlights the fact that inhibition of glutamate transport may affect brain function in a number of different ways. Competitive inhibition by a structural analogue of glutamate, such as L-alpha-aminoadipate, leads to a reduction in the glutathione level, which may be an important factor in L-alpha-aminoadipate-mediated toxicity. On the other hand, the more long-term effects of non-competitive inhibition of glutamate transport by arachidonic acid, in a mechanism involving protein kinase C, may represent a physiological means for regulation of transporter activity in the brain.

Selective ablation of astrocytes by intracerebral injections of alpha-aminoadipate

The efficacy and the specificity of the putative astrotoxin, alpha-aminoadipate, were examined in this study. The integrity of astrocytes was evaluated at several time points following a single injection of alpha-aminoadipate into amygdala of adult rats using immunohistochemistry. The density and the morphological appearance of neurons and the response of microglia were also examined. The injection of alpha-aminoadipate disrupted the astrocytic network in that region. There was a profound loss of glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive and S100 beta-positive astrocytes, normally present in the region, while vimentin immunohistochemistry revealed the presence of deformed cell processes, presumably astrocytic. The presence of reactive microglia at the injection site was suggestive of an active degenerative process, while the normal neuronal density and appearance, as compared to controls, suggested that the damage was confined to astrocytes. The confirmed effectiveness and cellular specificity of alpha-aminoadipate in vivo makes it a potentially important experimental tool for attempting to decipher the functional significance of astrocytes.

The effects of D-alpha-aminoadipic acid on long-term potentiation in the hippocampus of the rat in vitro

Many studies on long-term potentiation (LTP) in hippocampal region CA1 focus on receptor-mediated events that are often presumed to be linked to postsynaptic processes. Whereas it is now well-known that LTP consists of multiple components involving increases in postsynaptic responsiveness as well as enhanced presynaptic release of transmitter, little specific information has accrued on the nature of the presynaptic receptor-linked events. In the course of a series of experiments examining the actions of several antagonists of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors on LTP, we made certain observations that suggested the role of a novel type of amino acid receptor which possibly was located presynaptically and that seemed to contribute to the induction of LTP. LTP evoked in region CA1 following high frequency stimulation (HFS) of the Schaffer collateral-commissural pathway measured 20-30 min after HFS always was attenuated incompletely when induced during administration of DalphaAA at doses ranging from 50 mu M to as high as 1000 mu M, whereas 2-amino-5-phosphonopropionate (AP5), at a concentration of 30 mu M, always abolished the process completely. 6,7-Dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (DNQX) (10 mu M) administered alone also did not block LTP completely unless delivered in combination with DalphaAA. These non-AP5-like effects of DalphaAA could not be attributed to incomplete antagonism of postsynaptic NMDA receptors, since DalphaAA (200 mu M) completely and reversibly blocked the membrane depolarising effects of NMDA, as assessed through intracellular recording. Furthermore, the pharmacologically isolated NMDA-receptor-mediated component of the low-frequency, stimulus-evoked synaptic response was always abolished reversibly by DalphaAA (200 mu M). The most parsimonious explanation of these data is that a receptor which is only activated during HFS, is sensitive to the antagonising actions of AP5 and possibly also to DNQX but not to DalphaAA, and which could conceivably exist on terminals of the Schaffer collateral-commissural fibres, makes a significant contribution to LTP.

[The corticostriatal mechanisms of behavior]

Experiments in dogs, cats and monkeys revealed that, along with the diffuse principle of afferent terminal arrangement within the striatum, there exist some features of terminal organisation by the anterior-posterior and medio-lateral gradients. The data obtained suggest that the prefrontal cortex and the caudate nucleus head maintain programming of intentions and the evaluation of performed actions.

Effects of Müller cell disruption on mouse photoreceptor cell development

Müller cells have been proposed to play an important role in photoreceptor cell development during the final stages of retinal maturation. The effect of disrupting Müller cells during mouse retinal development was investigated using the specific glial cell toxin, DL-alpha-aminoadipic acid (AAA). By giving multiple systemic injections over several days, impairment of Müller cell function was maintained during the period of photoreceptor migration and differentiation. Following three consecutive days of AAA treatment [commencing on post-natal (P) day 3, 5, 7 or 9, and examined at P8-P14], clumps of photoreceptor nuclei were displaced through the inner segments, lying immediately beneath the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Apart from the scalloped appearance of the outer retina, the overall lamination pattern of the retina was relatively well preserved. Even when AAA treatment commenced as early as P3, several days prior to the formation of the outer nuclear layer, the majority of photoreceptors migrated to their correct position and formed inner and outer segments. Therefore, the signals for photoreceptor migration are either provided by the Müller cells prior to P3, or, alternatively, are derived from different intrinsic or extrinsic cues. Disruption of Müller cell function was evidenced by decreased glutamine synthetase activity as well as by increased glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and decreased cellular retinaldehyde-binding protein (CRALBP) immunoreactivity. Immunocytochemistry with an antibody to CD44, which labels the microvilli of Müller cells at the outer limiting membrane, coupled with electron microscopic analysis, demonstrated that the zonulae adherentes between Müller cells and photoreceptors were either irregular or absent in areas adjacent to displaced clumps of photoreceptors. Thus AAA treatment of early post-natal mice results in localized disruption of the contacts between Müller cells and photoreceptors. These pathologic changes persist into adulthood since at P28, while short stretches of photoreceptors appeared relatively normal with fully developed outer segments, periodic clumps of displaced photoreceptor nuclei were still present adjacent to the RPE. In conclusion, Müller cell processes at the outer limiting membrane appear to play a critical role in providing a barrier to aberrant photoreceptor migration into the subretinal space.

L-alpha-aminoadipic acid as a regulator of kynurenic acid production in the hippocampus: a microdialysis study in freely moving rats

L-alpha-Aminoadipic acid is a lysine metabolite with neuroexcitatory properties, and has previously been shown to inhibit the production of the broad spectrum excitatory amino acid receptor antagonist kynurenic acid in brain tissue slices. The effects of L-alpha-aminoadipic acid on the levels of extracellular kynurenic acid were now studied by microdialysis in the dorsal hippocampus of freely moving rats. Application of L-alpha-aminoadipic acid through the microdialysis probe dose dependently decreased both the concentration of endogenous kynurenic acid and of kynurenic acid which was produced de novo from its bioprecursor L-kynurenine (500 microM applied through the probe). 500 microM L-alpha-aminoadipic acid lowered the kynurenic acid concentration in the dialysate by 47% and 28% with and without precursor loading, respectively, whereas D-alpha-aminoadipic acid was without effect. Co-administration of 500 microM L-alpha-aminoadipic acid with 50 microM veratridine, which by itself produces a substantial decrease in the levels of extracellular kynurenic acid, did not result in a further reduction in kynurenic acid concentrations. Extensive neuronal degeneration caused by an intrahippocampal injection of quinolinic acid (120 nmol) did not interfere with the effect of L-alpha-aminoadipic acid. Taken together, these data suggest that the effect of L-alpha-aminoadipic acid on extracellular kynurenic acid levels is likely due to its direct action on astrocytes, which are known to harbor kynurenic acid's biosynthetic enzyme, kynurenine aminotransferase. L-alpha-Aminoadipic acid may modulate kynurenic acid function in the brain and thus play a role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative and seizure disorders.

Activity-dependent responses of developing cochlear nuclear neurons to microionophoretically-applied amino acids

The experimental purpose of this investigation was to determine whether the efficacy of glutamate, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and/or GABA is related to the activity state of neurons in the cochlear nuclear complex (CN). The hypothesis tested was that changes in discharge activity produced by glutamatergic and GABAergic ligands are, or may be, greater when neurons are stimulated at moderate to high acoustic levels compared to near threshold stimulation levels, when activity levels are high or low, respectively. All neurons from which discharge rate vs. sound pressure level curves were tested during simultaneous administration of amino acids exhibited characteristics commensurate with an activity-dependent system; at high sound levels, when discharge rates were elevated relative to rates produced by low level stimuli, both glutamate-induced increments and GABA-induced decrements in discharge rate were enhanced. The relationship between discharge rate and amino acid efficacy was a uniform property of neurons sampled throughout the first two postnatal weeks of development. In adults, preliminary indications are that activity-dependent neurotransmitter efficacy is characteristic of some cells, but not others. The activity-dependent nature of endogenous amino acid neurotransmission was demonstrated through the microionophoretic administration of NMDA and GABAA selective antagonists, D-alpha-aminoadipate (D alpha AA) and 2-amino-5-phosphonovalerate (APV), and bicuculline (BIC), respectively. These results suggest that postsynaptic actions elicited by membrane receptors subserving amino acid neurotransmission within the CN are activity-dependent.

alpha-Aminoadipic acid blocks the Na(+)-dependent glutamate transport into acutely isolated Müller glial cells from guinea pig retina

The effect of the glial toxin alpha-aminoadipic acid (AAA) upon the Na+/glutamate cotransporter of acutely isolated guinea pig retinal glial cells was studied using the whole-cell voltage-clamp technique. Glutamate evoked an inward current in these cells at negative holding potentials dependent on the presence of extracellular Na+ and intracellular K+. A reversal potential could not be found for the current. L-trans-Pyrrolidine-2.4-dicarboxylic acid (PDC), a blocker of Na(+)-dependent glutamate uptake, diminished the glutamate current also in our cells. Application of L-AAA also generated an inward current at negative holding potentials, without a reversal potential, being suppressed if extracellular Na+ or intracellular K+ was removed. The glutamate uptake blocker, PDC (200 microM), blocked the L-AAA (1 mM) current. Thus, L-AAA proved to be transported by the Na+/glutamate transporter of Müller cells. Hence, glutamate currents were diminished by L-AAA competitively with a Km of 499 microM at a glutamate concentration of 10 microM. The Na+/glutamate uptake was less sensitive to DL- and D-AAA block. It is suggested that the blocking effect of AAA on Na(+)-dependent glutamate uptake into glial cells might be involved in the well known glia toxicity of this compound.