A Synthetic Phospholipid Derivative Mediates Ion Transport Across Lipid Bilayers

Inspired by the natural phospholipid structures for cell membrane, a synthetic phospholipid LC with an ion recognition group benzo-18-crown-6 (B18C6) moiety was prepared which has been demonstrated to be able to transport ions across the lipid bilayers. Fluorescent vesicle assay shows that LC has an excellent transport activity, and the EC₅₀ value for K⁺ is 11.2 μM. The voltage clamp measurement exhibits regular square-like current signals with considerably long opening times, which indicates that LC achieves efficient ion transport through a channel mechanism and its single channel conductivity is 17 pS. Both of the vesicle assay and patch clamp tests indicate that LC has selectivity for Rb⁺, whose ionic radius is larger than the cavity of crown ether. It suggests that the sandwich interaction may play a key role in the ion transport across lipid bilayers. All these results help us to speculate that LC transports ions via a channel mechanism with a tetrameric aggregate as the active structure. In addition, LC had obvious toxicity to HeLa cells, and the IC₅₀ was 100.0 μM after coculture for 36 h. We hope that this simple synthetic phospholipid will offer novel perspectives in the development of more efficient and selective ion transporters.

Direct uptake of sphingosine-1-phosphate independent of phospholipid phosphatases

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a lipid mediator that is relatively abundant in plasma and plays an important role in the vascular and immune systems. To date, the only known mechanism for removing S1P from plasma has been dephosphorylation by phospholipid phosphatases (PLPPs) on the surface of cells in contact with the plasma. However, there remains a possibility that PLPP-independent dephosphorylation or direct S1P uptake into cells could occur. To examine these possibilities, here we generated triple KO (TKO) HAP1 cells that lacked all PLPPs (PLPP1–3) present in mammals. In the TKO cells, the intracellular metabolism of externally added deuterium-labeled S1P to ceramide was reduced to 17% compared with the WT cells, indicating that most extracellular S1P is dephosphorylated by PLPPs and then taken up into cells. However, this result also reveals the existence of a PLPP-independent S1P uptake pathway. Tracer experiments using [³²P]S1P showed the existence of a direct S1P uptake pathway that functions without prior dephosphorylation. Overexpression of sphingolipid transporter 2 (SPNS2) or of major facilitator superfamily domain containing 2B (MFSD2B), both known S1P efflux transporters, in TKO cells increased the direct uptake of S1P, whereas KO of MFSD2B in TKO cells reduced this uptake. These results suggest that these are channel-type transporters and capable of not only exporting but also importing S1P. Furthermore, we observed that erythroid cells expressing MFSD2B, exhibited high S1P uptake activity. Our findings describing direct S1P uptake may contribute to the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms that regulate plasma S1P concentration.

A Molecular Lid Mechanism of K+ Channel Blocker Action Revealed by a Cone Peptide

Many venomous organisms carry in their arsenal short polypeptides that block K⁺ channels in a highly selective manner. These toxins may compete with the permeating ions directly via a "plug" mechanism or indirectly via a "pore-collapse" mechanism. An alternative "lid" mechanism was proposed but remained poorly defined. Here we study the Drosophila Shaker channel block by Conkunitzin-S1 and Conkunitzin-C3, two highly similar toxins derived from cone venom. Despite their similarity, the two peptides exhibited differences in their binding poses and biophysical assays, implying discrete action modes. We show that while Conkunitzin-S1 binds tightly to the channel turret and acts via a "pore-collapse" mechanism, Conkunitzin-C3 does not contact this region. Instead, Conk-C3 uses a non-conserved Arg to divert the permeant ions and trap them in off-axis cryptic sites above the SF, a mechanism we term a "molecular-lid". Our study provides an atomic description of the "lid" K⁺ blocking mode and offers valuable insights for the design of therapeutics based on venom peptides.

Dual-process brain mitochondria isolation preserves function and clarifies protein composition

The brain requires continuously high energy production to maintain ion gradients and normal function. Mitochondria critically undergird brain energetics, and mitochondrial abnormalities feature prominently in neuropsychiatric disease. However, many unique aspects of brain mitochondria composition and function are poorly understood. Developing improved neuroprotective therapeutics thus requires more comprehensively understanding brain mitochondria, including accurately delineating protein composition and channel-transporter functional networks. However, obtaining pure mitochondria from the brain is especially challenging due to its distinctive lipid and cell structure properties. As a result, conflicting reports on protein localization to brain mitochondria abound. Here we illustrate this problem with the neuropsychiatric disease-associated L-type calcium channel Cav1.2α1 subunit previously observed in crude mitochondria. We applied a dual-process approach to obtain functionally intact versus compositionally pure brain mitochondria. One branch utilizes discontinuous density gradient centrifugation to isolate semipure mitochondria suitable for functional assays but unsuitable for protein localization because of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) contamination. The other branch utilizes self-forming density gradient ultracentrifugation to remove ER and yield ultrapure mitochondria that are suitable for investigating protein localization but functionally compromised. Through this process, we evaluated brain mitochondria protein content and observed the absence of Cav1.2α1 and other previously reported mitochondrial proteins, including the NMDA receptor, ryanodine receptor 1, monocarboxylate transporter 1, excitatory amino acid transporter 1, and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. Conversely, we confirmed mitochondrial localization of several plasma membrane proteins previously reported to also localize to mitochondria. We expect this dual-process isolation procedure will enhance understanding of brain mitochondria in both health and disease.

Novel ORAI1 Mutation Disrupts Channel Trafficking Resulting in Combined Immunodeficiency

Store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE) represents a predominant Ca²⁺ influx pathway in non-excitable cells. SOCE is required for immune cell activation and is mediated by the plasma membrane (PM) channel ORAI1 and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca²⁺ sensor STIM1. Mutations in the Orai1 or STIM1 genes abolish SOCE leading to combined immunodeficiency (CID), muscular hypotonia, and anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia. Here, we identify a novel autosomal recessive mutation in ORAI1 in a child with CID. The patient is homozygous for p.C126R mutation in the second transmembrane domain (TM2) of ORAI1, a region with no previous loss-of-function mutations. SOCE is suppressed in the patient’s lymphocytes, which is associated with impaired T cell proliferation and cytokine production. Functional analyses demonstrate that the p.C126R mutation does not alter protein expression but disrupts ORAI1 trafficking. Orai1-C126R does not insert properly into the bilayer resulting in ER retention. Insertion of an Arg on the opposite face of TM2 (L135R) also results in defective folding and trafficking. We conclude that positive side chains within ORAI1 TM2 are not tolerated and result in misfolding, defective bilayer insertion, and channel trafficking thus abolishing SOCE and resulting in CID.

Potential of mean force and umbrella sampling simulation for the transport of 5-oxazolidinone in heterotetrameric sarcosine oxidase

The structure of heterotetrameric sarcosine oxidase (HSO) contains a highly complex system composed of a large cavity and tunnels, which are essential for the reaction and migration of the reactants, products, and intermediates. Previous geometrical analysis using the CAVER program has predicted that there are three possible tunnels, T1, T2, and T3, for the exit pathway of the iminium intermediate, 5-oxazolidinone (5-OXA), of the enzyme reaction. Previous molecular dynamics (MD) simulation of HSO has identified the regions containing the water channels from the density distribution of water. The simulation indicated that tunnel T3 is the most probable exit pathway of 5-OXA. In the present study, the potential of mean force (PMF) for the transport of 5-OXA through tunnels T1, T2, and T3 was calculated using umbrella sampling (US) MD simulations and the weighted histogram analysis method. The PMF profiles for the three tunnels support the notion that tunnel T3 is the exit pathway of 5-OXA, and that 5-OXA tends to stay at the middle of the tunnel. The maximum errors of the calculated PMF for the predicted exit pathway, tunnel T3, were estimated by repeating the US simulations using different sets of initial positions. The PMF profile was also calculated for the transport of glycine within T3. The PMF profiles from the US simulations were in good agreement with the previous predictions that 5-OXA escape through tunnel T3 and how glycine is released to the outside of HSO was discussed.

Highlighting membrane protein structure and function: A celebration of the Protein Data Bank

Biological membranes define the boundaries of cells and compartmentalize the chemical and physical processes required for life. Many biological processes are carried out by proteins embedded in or associated with such membranes. Determination of membrane protein (MP) structures at atomic or near-atomic resolution plays a vital role in elucidating their structural and functional impact in biology. This endeavor has determined 1198 unique MP structures as of early 2021. The value of these structures is expanded greatly by deposition of their three-dimensional (3D) coordinates into the Protein Data Bank (PDB) after the first atomic MP structure was elucidated in 1985. Since then, free access to MP structures facilitates broader and deeper understanding of MPs, which provides crucial new insights into their biological functions. Here we highlight the structural and functional biology of representative MPs and landmarks in the evolution of new technologies, with insights into key developments influenced by the PDB in magnifying their impact.

Inhibition by Imipramine of the Voltage-Dependent K+ Channel in Rabbit Coronary Arterial Smooth Muscle Cells

Imipramine, a tricyclic antidepressant, is used in the treatment of depressive disorders. However, the effect of imipramine on vascular ion channels is unclear. Therefore, using a patch-clamp technique we examined the effect of imipramine on voltage-dependent K+ (Kv) channels in freshly isolated rabbit coronary arterial smooth muscle cells. Kv channels were inhibited by imipramine in a concentration-dependent manner, with an IC50 value of 5.55 ± 1.24 µM and a Hill coefficient of 0.73 ± 0.1. Application of imipramine shifted the steady-state activation curve in the positive direction, indicating that imipramine-induced inhibition of Kv channels was mediated by influencing the voltage sensors of the channels. The recovery time constants from Kv-channel inactivation were increased in the presence of imipramine. Furthermore, the application of train pulses (of 1 or 2 Hz) progressively augmented the imipramine-induced inhibition of Kv channels, suggesting that the inhibitory effect of imipramine is use (state) dependent. The magnitude of Kv current inhibition by imipramine was similar during the first, second, and third depolarizing pulses. These results indicate that imipramine-induced inhibition of Kv channels mainly occurs in the closed state. The imipramine-mediated inhibition of Kv channels was associated with the Kv1.5 channel, not the Kv2.1 or Kv7 channel. Inhibition of Kv channels by imipramine caused vasoconstriction. From these results, we conclude that imipramine inhibits vascular Kv channels in a concentration- and use (closed-state)-dependent manner by changing their gating properties regardless of its own function.

A Novel Comprehensive Evaluation Method for Estimating the Bank Profile Shape and Dimensions of Stable Channels Using the Maximum Entropy Principle

This paper presents an extensive and practical study of the estimation of stable channel bank shape and dimensions using the maximum entropy principle. The transverse slope (St) distribution of threshold channel bank cross-sections satisfies the properties of the probability space. The entropy of St is subject to two constraint conditions, and the principle of maximum entropy must be applied to find the least biased probability distribution. Accordingly, the Lagrange multiplier (λ) as a critical parameter in the entropy equation is calculated numerically based on the maximum entropy principle. The main goal of the present paper is the investigation of the hydraulic parameters influence governing the mean transverse slope (St¯) value comprehensively using a Gene Expression Programming (GEP) by knowing the initial information (discharge (Q) and mean sediment size (d₅₀)) related to the intended problem. An explicit and simple equation of the St¯ of banks and the geometric and hydraulic parameters of flow is introduced based on the GEP in combination with the previous shape profile equation related to previous researchers. Therefore, a reliable numerical hybrid model is designed, namely Entropy-based Design Model of Threshold Channels (EDMTC) based on entropy theory combined with the evolutionary algorithm of the GEP model, for estimating the bank profile shape and also dimensions of threshold channels. A wide range of laboratory and field data are utilized to verify the proposed EDMTC. The results demonstrate that the used Shannon entropy model is accurate with a lower average value of Mean Absolute Relative Error (MARE) equal to 0.317 than a previous model proposed by Cao and Knight (1997) (MARE = 0.98) in estimating the bank profile shape of threshold channels based on entropy for the first time. Furthermore, the EDMTC proposed in this paper has acceptable accuracy in predicting the shape profile and consequently, the dimensions of threshold channel banks with a wide range of laboratory and field data when only the channel hydraulic characteristics (e.g., Q and d₅₀) are known. Thus, EDMTC can be used in threshold channel design and implementation applications in cases when the channel characteristics are unknown. Furthermore, the uncertainty analysis of the EDMTC supports the model's high reliability with a Width of Uncertainty Bound (WUB) of ±0.03 and standard deviation (Sd) of 0.24.

Lactate Elicits ER-Mitochondrial Mg2+ Dynamics to Integrate Cellular Metabolism

Mg2+ is the most abundant divalent cation in metazoans and an essential cofactor for ATP, nucleic acids, and countless metabolic enzymes. To understand how the spatio-temporal dynamics of intracellular Mg2+ (iMg2+) are integrated into cellular signaling, we implemented a comprehensive screen to discover regulators of iMg2+ dynamics. Lactate emerged as an activator of rapid release of Mg2+ from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stores, which facilitates mitochondrial Mg2+ (mMg2+) uptake in multiple cell types. We demonstrate that this process is remarkably temperature sensitive and mediated through intracellular but not extracellular signals. The ER-mitochondrial Mg2+ dynamics is selectively stimulated by L-lactate. Further, we show that lactate-mediated mMg2+ entry is facilitated by Mrs2, and point mutations in the intermembrane space loop limits mMg2+ uptake. Intriguingly, suppression of mMg2+ surge alleviates inflammation-induced multi-organ failure. Together, these findings reveal that lactate mobilizes iMg2+ and links the mMg2+ transport machinery with major metabolic feedback circuits and mitochondrial bioenergetics.

Analysis of Arabidopsis TPK2 and KCO3 reveals structural properties required for K+ channel function

Arabidopsis thaliana contains five tandem-pore domain potassium channels, TPK1-TPK5 and the related one-pore domain potassium channel, KCO3. Although KCO3 is unlikely to be an active channel, it still has a physiological role in plant cells. TPK2 is most similar to KCO3 and both are localized to the tonoplast. However, their function remains poorly understood. Here, taking advantage of the similarities between TPK2 and KCO3, we evaluated Ca²⁺ binding to the EF hands in TPK2, and the elements of KCO3 required for K⁺ channel activity. Presence of both EF-hand motifs in TPK2 resulted in Ca²⁺ binding, but EF1 or EF2 alone failed to interact with Ca²⁺. The EF hands were not required for K⁺ transport activity. EF1 contains two cysteines separated by two amino acids. Replacement of both cysteines with serines in TPK2 increased Ca²⁺ binding. We generated a two-pore domain chimeric K⁺ channel by replacing the missing pore region in KCO3 with a pore domain of TPK2. Alternatively, we generated two versions of simple one-pore domain K⁺ channels by removal of an extra region from KCO3. The chimera and one of the simple one-pore variants were functional channels. This strongly suggests that KCO3 is not a pseudogene and KCO3 retains components required for the formation of a functional K⁺ channel and oligomerization. Our results contribute to our understanding of the structural properties required for K⁺ channel activity.

Lens Connexin Channels Show Differential Permeability to Signaling Molecules

Gap junction channels mediate the direct intercellular passage of small ions as well as larger solutes such as second messengers. A family of proteins called connexins make up the subunits of gap junction channels in chordate animals. Each individual connexin forms channels that exhibit distinct permeability to molecules that influence cellular signaling, such as calcium ions, cyclic nucleotides, or inositol phosphates. In this review, we examine the permeability of connexin channels containing Cx43, Cx46, and Cx50 to signaling molecules and attempt to relate the observed differences in permeability to possible in vivo consequences that were revealed by studies of transgenic animals where these connexin genes have been manipulated. Taken together, these data suggest that differences in the permeability of individual connexin channels to larger solutes like 3',5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP₃) could play a role in regulating epithelial cell division, differentiation, and homeostasis in organs like the ocular lens.

Double ventricular tachycardias associated with an anatomical isthmus identified by a computed tomography-derived channel

We describe a 47-year-old woman with ischemic ventricular tachycardia (VT) with repetitive implantable cardioverter-defibrillator shocks, requiring ablation. Preprocedural computed tomography (CT) demonstrated a single anatomical channel on the inferior-basal infarcted area between less than a 3-mm wall-thinning area and the mitral annulus, which suggested the circuit of two VTs observed. In addition, distribution of less than 2 mm and less than 3 mm wall-thinning area can explain the mechanism of the variation of the QRS morphology and S-QRS interval during entrainment. Ablation in this region resulted in no VT inducibility and the absence of any VTs for 2 years. CT wall thinning data may allow us to understand the mechanism and circuit of VT and aid VT ablation procedures.

Analysis of Lung Gene Expression Reveals a Role for Cl- Channels in Diisocyanate-induced Airway Eosinophilia in a Mouse Model of Asthma Pathology

Diisocyanates are well-recognized causes of asthma. However, sensitized workers frequently lack diisocyanate-specific IgE, which complicates diagnosis and suggests the disease involves IgE-independent mechanisms. We used a mouse model of methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) asthma to identify biological pathways that may contribute to asthma pathogenesis. MDI sensitization and respiratory tract exposure were performed in Balb/c, transgenic B-cell (e.g., IgE)-deficient mice and a genetic background (C57BL/6)-matched strain. Eosinophils in airway fluid were quantitated by flow cytometry. Lung tissue gene expression was assessed using whole-genome mRNA microarrays. Informatic software was used to identify biological pathways affected by respiratory tract exposure and potential targets for disease intervention. Airway eosinophilia and changes (>1.5-fold; P value < 0.05) in expression of 192 genes occurred in all three mouse strains tested, with enrichment in chemokines and a pattern associated with alternatively activated monocytes/macrophages. CLCA1 (calcium-activated chloride channel regulator 1) was the most upregulated gene transcript (>100-fold) in all exposed mouse lungs versus controls, followed closely by SLC26A4, another transcript involved in Cl- conductance. Crofelemer, a U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved Cl- channel inhibitor, reduced MDI exposure induction of airway eosinophilia, mucus, CLCA1, and other asthma-associated gene transcripts. Expression changes in a core set of genes occurs independent of IgE in a mouse model of chemical-induced airway eosinophilia. In addition to chemokines and alternatively activated monocytes/macrophages, the data suggest a crucial role for Cl- channels in diisocyanate asthma pathology and as a possible target for intervention.

Perceptual learning of detection of textures in noise

We examined whether the effects of practice on visual detection are stimulus specific and whether practice alters response bias. Eighty-four subjects performed yes-no detection of band-limited noise patterns (textures) in two levels of external noise, on two consecutive days. On day 2, one-half of the observers switched to novel textures. Texture contrast was varied on signal-present trials using the method of constant stimuli. The signal was present on 50% of the trials. We measured d', detection thresholds, and two measures of response criterion: a global criterion that was based on sensitivity at all signal levels (Jones et al., 2015) and a local criterion computed at a hit rate of 70% or 80% (Wenger & Rasche, 2006). Performance improved for both groups on day 2, indicating that improvement transferred to novel textures. Increases in d' were associated with a decrease in false alarms across days. The global criterion became less liberal and became more optimal (i.e., less biased) with practice; however, this effect was small and was not statistically significant in all conditions. The local criterion measure also became slightly less liberal with practice in most conditions, becoming more or less optimal depending on the hit rate at which it was computed. Overall, the effects of practice on sensitivity in a visual detection task generalized to novel patterns. In addition, we found that practice had relatively small effects on response criterion, and the precise effects on response bias differed between global and local measures of criterion.

A Simple Assay to Evaluate the Function of Human Connexin Hemichannels Expressed in Escherichia coli that Can Be Used for Drug Discovery and Mutant Analysis

Abnormally increased activity of connexin hemichannels contributes to cell damage in many disorders, including deafness, stroke, and cardiac infarct, and therefore hemichannels constitute a potentially important therapeutic target. Unfortunately, the available hemichannel inhibitors are not specific and most are toxic. The absence of a simple and cost-effective screening assay has made the discovery of hemichannel inhibitors difficult. Here, we present an optimized assay where human connexins are expressed in genetically modified Escherichia coli cells deficient in potassium uptake (LB2003 cells). These cells cannot grow in low-potassium medium, and hemichannel function is assayed by the reversion of the no-growth phenotype. Since functional hemichannels are permeable to potassium, they allow for its uptake and cell growth. The simple reading of bacterial growth in low-potassium medium distinguishes functional hemichannels (growth) from those inhibited (no growth). This assay is simple, robust, inexpensive, and reliable, and is easily scaled to high-throughput multiwell platforms. © 2019 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Basic Protocol 1: Preparation of competent LB2003 cells resistant to kanamycin Basic Protocol 2: Growth complementation assay Support Protocol: Evaluation of cytotoxic effects of potential connexin hemichannel inhibitors.

Structure and function of LCI1: a plasma membrane CO2 channel in the Chlamydomonas CO2 concentrating mechanism

Microalgae and cyanobacteria contribute roughly half of the global photosynthetic carbon assimilation. Faced with limited access to CO₂ in aquatic environments, which can vary daily or hourly, these microorganisms have evolved use of an efficient CO₂ concentrating mechanism (CCM) to accumulate high internal concentrations of inorganic carbon (C_i ) to maintain photosynthetic performance. For eukaryotic algae, a combination of molecular, genetic and physiological studies using the model organism Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, have revealed the function and molecular characteristics of many CCM components, including active C_i uptake systems. Fundamental to eukaryotic C_i uptake systems are C_i transporters/channels located in membranes of various cell compartments, which together facilitate the movement of C_i from the environment into the chloroplast, where primary CO₂ assimilation occurs. Two putative plasma membrane C_i transporters, HLA3 and LCI1, are reportedly involved in active C_i uptake. Based on previous studies, HLA3 clearly plays a meaningful role in HCO₃^- transport, but the function of LCI1 has not yet been thoroughly investigated so remains somewhat obscure. Here we report a crystal structure of the full-length LCI1 membrane protein to reveal LCI1 structural characteristics, as well as in vivo physiological studies in an LCI1 loss-of-function mutant to reveal the C_i species preference for LCI1. Together, these new studies demonstrate LCI1 plays an important role in active CO₂ uptake and that LCI1 likely functions as a plasma membrane CO₂ channel, possibly a gated channel.

Statistical Characteristics of Stationary Flow of Substance in a Network Channel Containing Arbitrary Number of Arms

We study flow of substance in a channel of network which consists of nodes of network and edges which connect these nodes and form ways for motion of substance. The channel can have arbitrary number of arms and each arm can contain arbitrary number of nodes. The flow of substance is modeled by a system of ordinary differential equations. We discuss first a model for a channel which arms contain infinite number of nodes each. For stationary regime of motion of substance in such a channel we obtain probability distributions connected to distribution of substance in any of channel’s arms and in entire channel. Obtained distributions are not discussed by other authors and can be connected to Waring distribution. Next, we discuss a model for flow of substance in a channel which arms contain finite number of nodes each. We obtain probability distributions connected to distribution of substance in the nodes of the channel for stationary regime of flow of substance. These distributions are also new and we calculate corresponding information measure and Shannon information measure for studied kind of flow of substance.

Ryanodine receptor subtypes regulate Ca2+ sparks/spontaneous transient outward currents and myogenic tone of uterine arteries in pregnancy

AIMS

Our recent study demonstrated that increased Ca2+ sparks and spontaneous transient outward currents (STOCs) played an important role in uterine vascular tone and haemodynamic adaptation to pregnancy. The present study examined the role of ryanodine receptor (RyR) subtypes in regulating Ca2+ sparks/STOCs and myogenic tone in uterine arterial adaptation to pregnancy.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Uterine arteries isolated from non-pregnant and near-term pregnant sheep were used in the present study. Pregnancy increased the association of α and β1 subunits of large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BKCa) channels and enhanced the co-localization of RyR1 and RyR2 with the β1 subunit in the uterine artery. In contrast, RyR3 was not co-localized with BKCa β1 subunit. Knockdown of RyR1 or RyR2 in uterine arteries of pregnant sheep downregulated the β1 but not α subunit of the BKCa channel and decreased the association of α and β1 subunits. Unlike RyR1 and RyR2, knockdown of RyR3 had no significant effect on either expression or association of BKCa subunits. In addition, knockdown of RyR1 or RyR2 significantly decreased Ca2+ spark frequency, suppressed STOCs frequency and amplitude, and increased pressure-dependent myogenic tone in uterine arteries of pregnant animals. RyR3 knockdown did not affect Ca2+ sparks/STOCs and myogenic tone in the uterine artery.

CONCLUSION

Together, the present study demonstrates a novel mechanistic paradigm of RyR subtypes in the regulation of Ca2+ sparks/STOCs and uterine vascular tone, providing new insights into the mechanisms underlying uterine vascular adaptation to pregnancy.

L-Glucose: Another Path to Cancer Cells

Cancerous tumors comprise cells showing metabolic heterogeneity. Among numerous efforts to understand this property, little attention has been paid to the possibility that cancer cells take up and utilize otherwise unusable substrates as fuel. Here we discuss this issue by focusing on l-glucose, the mirror image isomer of naturally occurring d-glucose; l-glucose is an unmetabolizable sugar except in some bacteria. By combining relatively small fluorophores with l-glucose, we generated fluorescence-emitting l-glucose tracers (fLGs). To our surprise, 2-NBDLG, one of these fLGs, which we thought to be merely a control substrate for the fluorescent d-glucose tracer 2-NBDG, was specifically taken up into tumor cell aggregates (spheroids) that exhibited nuclear heterogeneity, a major cytological feature of malignancy in cancer diagnosis. Changes in mitochondrial activity were also associated with the spheroids taking up fLG. To better understand these phenomena, we review here the Warburg effect as well as key studies regarding glucose uptake. We also discuss tumor heterogeneity involving aberrant uptake of glucose and mitochondrial changes based on the data obtained by fLG. We then consider the use of fLGs as novel markers for visualization and characterization of malignant tumor cells.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Visualization and Control of Cellular Membrane Potential: Strategies, Progress, and Remaining Issues

The interfacing of nanoparticle (NP) materials with cells, tissues, and organisms for a range of applications including imaging, sensing, and drug delivery continues at a rampant pace. An emerging theme in this area is the use of NPs and nanostructured surfaces for the imaging and/or control of cellular membrane potential (MP). Given the important role that MP plays in cellular biology, both in normal physiology and in disease, new materials and methods are continually being developed to probe the activity of electrically excitable cells such as neurons and muscle cells. In this Review, we highlight the current state of the art for both the visualization and control of MP using traditional materials and techniques, discuss the advantageous features of NPs for performing these functions, and present recent examples from the literature of how NP materials have been implemented for the visualization and control of the activity of electrically excitable cells. We conclude with a forward-looking perspective of how we expect to see this field progress in the near term and further into the future.

Amyloids: Regulators of Metal Homeostasis in the Synapse

Conformational changes in amyloidogenic proteins, such as β-amyloid protein, prion proteins, and α-synuclein, play a critical role in the pathogenesis of numerous neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, prion disease, and Lewy body disease. The disease-associated proteins possess several common characteristics, including the ability to form amyloid oligomers with β-pleated sheet structure, as well as cytotoxicity, although they differ in amino acid sequence. Interestingly, these amyloidogenic proteins all possess the ability to bind trace metals, can regulate metal homeostasis, and are co-localized at the synapse, where metals are abundantly present. In this review, we discuss the physiological roles of these amyloidogenic proteins in metal homeostasis, and we propose hypothetical models of their pathogenetic role in the neurodegenerative process as the loss of normal metal regulatory functions of amyloidogenic proteins. Notably, these amyloidogenic proteins have the capacity to form Ca²⁺-permeable pores in membranes, suggestive of a toxic gain of function. Therefore, we focus on their potential role in the disruption of Ca²⁺ homeostasis in amyloid-associated neurodegenerative diseases.

Mg2+ homeostasis and transport in cyanobacteria - at the crossroads of bacterial and chloroplast Mg2+ import

Magnesium cation (Mg2+) is the most abundant divalent cation in living cells, where it is required for various intracellular functions. In chloroplasts and cyanobacteria, established photosynthetic model systems, Mg2+ is the central ion in chlorophylls, and Mg2+ flux across the thylakoid membrane is required for counterbalancing the light-induced generation of a ΔpH across the thylakoid membrane. Yet, not much is known about Mg2+ homoeostasis, transport and distribution within cyanobacteria. However, Mg2+ transport across membranes has been studied in non-photosynthetic bacteria, and first observations and findings are reported for chloroplasts. Cyanobacterial cytoplasmic membranes appear to contain the well-characterized Mg2+ channels CorA and/or MgtE, which both facilitate transmembrane Mg2+ flux down the electrochemical gradient. Both Mg2+ channels are typical for non-photosynthetic bacteria. Furthermore, Mg2+ transporters of the MgtA/B family are also present in the cytoplasmic membrane to mediate active Mg2+ import into the bacterial cell. While the cytoplasmic membrane of cyanobacteria resembles a 'classical' bacterial membrane, essentially nothing is known about Mg2+ channels and/or transporters in thylakoid membranes of cyanobacteria or chloroplasts. As discussed here, at least one Mg2+ channelling protein must be localized within thylakoid membranes. Thus, either one of the 'typical' bacterial Mg2+ channels has a dual localization in the cytoplasmic plus the thylakoid membrane, or another, yet unidentified channel is present in cyanobacterial thylakoid membranes.

μ-Coriolis Mass Flow Sensor with Resistive Readout

This paper presents a μ-Coriolis mass flow sensor with resistive readout. Instead of measuring a net displacement such as in a capacitive readout, a resistive readout detects the deformation of the suspended micro-fluidic channel. It allows for actuation at much higher amplitudes than for a capacitive readout, resulting in correspondingly larger Coriolis forces in response to fluid flow. A resistive readout can be operated in two actuation vibrational modes. A capacitive readout can only be operated in one of these two modes, which is more sensitive to external disturbances. Three types of devices have been realized. We present measurement results for all three devices. One device clearly outperforms the other two, with a flow sensitivity of 2.22 °/(g·h⁻¹) and a zero-flow stability of 0.02 g·h⁻¹ over 30 min. Optimization of the metal strain gauges and/or implementation of poly-Silicon strain gauges could further improve performance.

Mechanosensor transient receptor potential vanilloid member 4 (TRPV4) regulates mouse cholangiocyte secretion and bile formation

Mechanosensitive signaling has emerged as a mechanism for the regulation of cholangiocyte transport and bile formation. The mechanical effect of fluid-flow, or shear, at the apical membrane of cholangiocytes regulates secretion through a process involving increases in [Ca²⁺]_i and activation of Ca²⁺-activated Cl^- channels. However, the initiating steps translating shear force to increases in intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) are unknown. Transient receptor potential vanilloid member 4 (TRPV4), a nonselective cation channel present in the apical membrane of cholangiocytes, has been proposed as a potential mechanosensor. The aim of the present studies was to determine the potential role of TRPV4 in initiating mechanosensitive signaling in response to fluid-flow in cholangiocytes. TRPV4 expression was confirmed in both small and large mouse cholangiocytes. Exposure of cells to either fluid flow or specific TRPV4 pharmacological agonists rapidly increased both [Ca²⁺]_i and membrane cation currents. Both flow- and agonist-stimulated currents displayed identical biophysical properties and were inhibited in the presence of TRPV4 antagonists or in cells after transfection with TRPV4 small interfering RNA. Transfection of mouse cholangiocytes with a TRPV4-enhanced green fluorescent protein construct increased the expression of TRPV4 and the magnitude of flow-stimulated currents. A specific TRPV4 agonist significantly increased the biliary concentration of ATP and bile flow in live mice when administered intravenously and increased ATP release from cholangiocyte monolayers when applied exogenously. The findings are consistent with a model in which activation of cholangiocyte TRPV4 translates shear force into an acute rise in membrane cation permeability, [Ca²⁺]_i, ATP release, and bile flow. Understanding the role of mechanosensitive transport pathways may provide novel insights to modulate bile flow for the treatment of cholestatic liver disorders.NEW & NOTEWORTHY These studies functionally characterize TRPV4 as a mechanosensitive channel in mouse cholangiocytes. By mediating a rapid rise in intracellular Ca²⁺, necessary for Ca²⁺-dependent secretion, TRPV4 represents a mechanosensor responsible for translating fluid flow into intracellular signaling and biliary secretion. Furthermore, intravenous infusion of a specific TRPV4 agonist increases bile flow in live mice. Understanding the role of TRPV4 in mechanosensitive transport pathways may provide novel insights to modulate bile flow during cholestasis.