Identification of phenylpropanoids in fig (Ficus carica L.) leaves

In this study, the phenylpropanoid composition and antioxidant activity of identified components in fig (Ficus carica L.) leaves were examined. Known polyphenols rutin, isoschaftoside, isoquercetin, and chlorogenic acid were identified. Furthermore, caffeoylmalic acid (CMA) was the most abundant polyphenol and was identified for the first time. CMA exhibited antioxidant activity similar to that of vitamin C or catechin. Psoralen and bergapten were identified as known furanocoumarins, with psoralen being the most abundant. Moreover, psoralic acid glucoside (PAG) was identified for the first time. As a precursor of psoralen, PAG content was equivalent to the psoralen content in moles. Notably, the content of these compounds varied between the five fig varieties, and the furanocoumarin and PAG contents varied more than that of the polyphenols. Further investigations concerning the influence of CMA and PAG on human health are necessary to elucidate functionalities of fig leaves.

Characterization of the liposoluble fraction of common wheat (Triticum aestivum) and spelt (T. aestivum ssp. spelta) flours using multivariate analysis

BACKGROUND

In the present paper, a special method for derivatization of liposoluble extract of common wheat and spelt flours was employed which enables simultaneous detection of fatty acid and non-saponifiable lipid fractions.

RESULTS

Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric analytical data for both fractions were separately analyzed by multivariate statistical techniques to model classes of different common wheat and spelt cultivars. Cluster analysis was used, and the results obtained revealed that better discrimination of samples was achieved by analyzing the peak area after 16 min retention time (non-saponifiable lipids), rather than commonly used peak area between 12 and 16 min (fatty acid fraction), due to more distinctive positions of points in factor space, even though the distances between points for fatty acid fraction (12-16 min) were greater. Similar results were obtained by principal components analysis, where all wheat points almost coincided whereas spelt showed good discrimination.

CONCLUSION

Comparison of chromatogram areas for non-saponifiable lipid fraction between common and spelt wheat showed a statistically high difference and hence has a potential for use in authenticity control.

Organic food processing: a framework for concept, starting definitions and evaluation

In 2007 EU Regulation (EC) 834/2007 introduced principles and criteria for organic food processing. These regulations have been analysed and discussed in several scientific publications and research project reports. Recently, organic food quality was described by principles, aspects and criteria. These principles from organic agriculture were verified and adapted for organic food processing. Different levels for evaluation were suggested. In another document, underlying paradigms and consumer perception of organic food were reviewed against functional food, resulting in identifying integral product identity as the underlying paradigm and a holistic quality view connected to naturalness as consumers' perception of organic food quality. In a European study, the quality concept was applied to the organic food chain, resulting in a problem, namely that clear principles and related criteria were missing to evaluate processing methods. Therefore the goal of this paper is to describe and discuss the topic of organic food processing to make it operational. A conceptual background for organic food processing is given by verifying the underlying paradigms and principles of organic farming and organic food as well as on organic processing. The proposed definition connects organic processing to related systems such as minimal, sustainable and careful, gentle processing, and describes clear principles and related criteria. Based on food examples, such as milk with different heat treatments, the concept and definitions were verified. Organic processing can be defined by clear paradigms and principles and evaluated according criteria from a multidimensional approach. Further work has to be done on developing indicators and parameters for assessment of organic food quality.

The influence of organic production on food quality - research findings, gaps and future challenges

Although several meta-analysis studies have been published comparing the quality of food derived from organic and non-organic origin, it is still not clear if food from organic production per se can guarantee product-related added value to consumers. This paper aims to summarize the status quo in order to identify research gaps and suggest future research challenges. Organic food is described according to a quality model already published. The influence of organic production on food quality is structured in primary production and processing. Furthermore, organic food authentication is discussed. Organic food seems to contain fewer pesticide residues and statistically more selected health-related compounds such as polyphenols in plant products and polyunsaturated fatty acids in milk and meat products, but the health relevance for consumers is not clear yet. Comparing food from organic origin with so called 'conventional' food seems not to be appropriate, because 'conventional' is not defined. In organic food quality research a system approach is needed from which systemic markers can be selected. Research on the impact of processing technologies on the quality according to organic principles seems of high relevance, since most of the food is processed.

Metabolite profiling on wheat grain to enable a distinction of samples from organic and conventional farming systems

BACKGROUND

Identification of biomarkers capable of distinguishing organic and conventional products would be highly welcome to improve the strength of food quality assurance. Metabolite profiling was used for biomarker search in organic and conventional wheat grain (Triticum aestivum L.) of 11 different old and new bread wheat cultivars grown in the DOK system comparison trial. Metabolites were extracted using methanol and analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Altogether 48 metabolites and 245 non-identified metabolites (TAGs) were detected in the cultivar Runal. Principal component analysis showed a sample clustering according to farming systems and significant differences in peak areas between the farming systems for 10 Runal metabolites. Results obtained from all 11 cultivars indicated a greater influence of the cultivar than the farming system on metabolite concentrations. Nevertheless, a t-test on data of all cultivars still detected 5 metabolites and 11 TAGs with significant differences between the farming systems.

CONCLUSION

Based on individual cultivars, metabolite profiling showed promising results for the categorization of organic and conventional wheat. Further investigations are necessary with wheat from more growing seasons and locations before definite conclusions can be drawn concerning the feasibility to evolve a combined set of biomarkers for organically grown wheat using metabolite profiles.

Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) and naturally fermented beetroot juices from organic and conventional production: metabolomics, antioxidant levels and anticancer activity

BACKGROUND

The aim of the paper was to determine the level of antioxidants and metabolomic fingerprinting in both raw beetroots and naturally fermented beetroot juices from organic (ORG) versus conventional (CONV) production. In addition, the anticancer properties of the fermented beetroot juices were evaluated.

RESULTS

The obtained results showed that ORG fresh beetroots contained significantly more dry matter, vitamin C and some individual phenolic compounds than CONV beetroots. The content of total phenolic acids was significantly higher in CONV beetroots compared with the ORG ones. The level of flavonoids was similar in ORG and CONV beetroots. There were only slight differences in the chemical composition of ORG and CONV beetroot juices. Metabolomic analysis provided a possibility to distinguish clearly between ORG and CONV fermented beetroot juices. However, this method was less useful in the case of fresh whole beetroots. It was found that anticancer activity was stronger in the case of ORG fermented juices when compared with CONV ones.

CONCLUSION

The obtained results indicate that ORG- and CONV-produced beetroots and fermented beetroot juices have different chemical properties and different impacts on cancer cells. It is necessary to continue research on this topic in order to confirm and understand the achieved results.

Status quo and future research challenges on organic food quality determination with focus on laboratory methods

Organic food quality determination needs multi-dimensional evaluation tools. The main focus is on the authentication as an analytical verification of the certification process. New fingerprinting approaches such as ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, direct analysis in real time-high-resolution mass spectrometry as well as crystallization with and without the presence of additives seem to be promising methods in terms of time of analysis and detecting organic system-related parameters. For further methodological development, a system approach is recommended, which also takes into account food structure aspects. Furthermore, the authentication of processed organic samples needs more consciousness, hence most of organic food is complex and processed.

Higher antioxidant and lower cadmium concentrations and lower incidence of pesticide residues in organically grown crops: a systematic literature review and meta-analyses

Demand for organic foods is partially driven by consumers' perceptions that they are more nutritious. However, scientific opinion is divided on whether there are significant nutritional differences between organic and non-organic foods, and two recent reviews have concluded that there are no differences. In the present study, we carried out meta-analyses based on 343 peer-reviewed publications that indicate statistically significant and meaningful differences in composition between organic and non-organic crops/crop-based foods. Most importantly, the concentrations of a range of antioxidants such as polyphenolics were found to be substantially higher in organic crops/crop-based foods, with those of phenolic acids, flavanones, stilbenes, flavones, flavonols and anthocyanins being an estimated 19 (95 % CI 5, 33) %, 69 (95 % CI 13, 125) %, 28 (95 % CI 12, 44) %, 26 (95 % CI 3, 48) %, 50 (95 % CI 28, 72) % and 51 (95 % CI 17, 86) % higher, respectively. Many of these compounds have previously been linked to a reduced risk of chronic diseases, including CVD and neurodegenerative diseases and certain cancers, in dietary intervention and epidemiological studies. Additionally, the frequency of occurrence of pesticide residues was found to be four times higher in conventional crops, which also contained significantly higher concentrations of the toxic metal Cd. Significant differences were also detected for some other (e.g. minerals and vitamins) compounds. There is evidence that higher antioxidant concentrations and lower Cd concentrations are linked to specific agronomic practices (e.g. non-use of mineral N and P fertilisers, respectively) prescribed in organic farming systems. In conclusion, organic crops, on average, have higher concentrations of antioxidants, lower concentrations of Cd and a lower incidence of pesticide residues than the non-organic comparators across regions and production seasons.

High concentrations of furan fatty acids in organic butter samples from the German market

Furan fatty acids (F-acids) are valuable antioxidants containing a furan moiety in the central part of the molecule. They occur in the lipids of different foodstuffs and plants, with grass being the main source for their presence in milk fat and butter. Because cows from organic farming receive higher portions of grass-based feed, it was tested whether organic butter samples (n = 26) contain more F-acids than conventional ones (n = 25) in Germany. For this purpose, samples were melted, and the lipid phase was separated and transesterified into methyl esters, which were enriched using silver ion chromatography and analyzed by GC-EI/MS in the selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. Levels of F-acids in butter were higher in summer than in winter, and in both seasons, organic samples contained significantly higher levels of F-acids than conventional ones (one-way ANOVA: p < 0.001). Furthermore, the daily intake of F-acids via milk fat and other foodstuffs was calculated.

1H NMR profiling as an approach to differentiate conventionally and organically grown tomatoes

This study describes the approach of (1)H NMR profiling for the authentication of organically produced tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum). Overall, 361 tomato samples of two different cultivars and four different producers were regularly analyzed during a 7 month period. The results of principal component analysis showed a significant trend for the separation between organically and conventionally produced tomatoes (p < 0.001 using the t test). Linear discriminant analysis demonstrated good discrimination between the growing regimens, and external validation showed 100% correctly classified tomato samples. Further validation studies, however, also disclosed unexpected differences between individual producers, which interfere with the aim of predicting the cultivation method, yet the results indicate significant differences between (1)H NMR spectra of organically and conventionally grown tomatoes.

Differentiating organically and conventionally grown oregano using ultraperformance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS), headspace gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (headspace-GC-FID), and flow injection mass spectrum (FIMS) fingerprints combined with multivariate data analysis

Ultraperformance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS), flow injection mass spectrometry (FIMS), and headspace gas chromatography (headspace-GC) combined with multivariate data analysis techniques were examined and compared in differentiating organically grown oregano from that grown conventionally. It is the first time that headspace-GC fingerprinting technology is reported in differentiating organically and conventionally grown spice samples. The results also indicated that UPLC-MS, FIMS, and headspace-GC-FID fingerprints with OPLS-DA were able to effectively distinguish oreganos under different growing conditions, whereas with PCA, only FIMS fingerprint could differentiate the organically and conventionally grown oregano samples. UPLC fingerprinting provided detailed information about the chemical composition of oregano with a longer analysis time, whereas FIMS finished a sample analysis within 1 min. On the other hand, headspace GC-FID fingerprinting required no sample pretreatment, suggesting its potential as a high-throughput method in distinguishing organically and conventionally grown oregano samples. In addition, chemical components in oregano were identified by their molecular weight using QTOF-MS and headspace-GC-MS.

Stable isotope analysis of plant-derived nitrate - novel method for discrimination between organically and conventionally grown vegetables

The lack of reliable markers for the discrimination between organic and conventional products makes the organic food market susceptible to attempted fraud. Robust analytical methodologies for organic food authentication are urgently needed. In this study a new approach, compound-specific nitrogen and oxygen isotope analysis of plant-derived nitrate, has been applied alongside bulk nitrogen isotope analysis for discrimination between organically and conventionally greenhouse-grown lettuce and retail potatoes and tomatoes. The method revealed significant differences between conventional and organic fertilisation. An intra-plant isotopic variation as well as significant impact of the fertiliser application rate on the nitrogen and oxygen isotope values of plant-derived nitrate has been observed. Nitrogen and oxygen isotope analysis of nitrate has a potential for differentiation between organic and conventional crops. Further analysis is needed to improve our understanding of the scope of application and robustness of this compound-specific approach.

Compositional differences in soybeans on the market: glyphosate accumulates in Roundup Ready GM soybeans

This article describes the nutrient and elemental composition, including residues of herbicides and pesticides, of 31 soybean batches from Iowa, USA. The soy samples were grouped into three different categories: (i) genetically modified, glyphosate-tolerant soy (GM-soy); (ii) unmodified soy cultivated using a conventional "chemical" cultivation regime; and (iii) unmodified soy cultivated using an organic cultivation regime. Organic soybeans showed the healthiest nutritional profile with more sugars, such as glucose, fructose, sucrose and maltose, significantly more total protein, zinc and less fibre than both conventional and GM-soy. Organic soybeans also contained less total saturated fat and total omega-6 fatty acids than both conventional and GM-soy. GM-soy contained high residues of glyphosate and AMPA (mean 3.3 and 5.7 mg/kg, respectively). Conventional and organic soybean batches contained none of these agrochemicals. Using 35 different nutritional and elemental variables to characterise each soy sample, we were able to discriminate GM, conventional and organic soybeans without exception, demonstrating "substantial non-equivalence" in compositional characteristics for 'ready-to-market' soybeans.

Dietary phthalate exposure in pregnant women and the impact of consumer practices

Phthalates are ubiquitous endocrine-disrupting chemicals that are contaminants in food and contribute to significant dietary exposures. We examined associations between reported consumption of specific foods and beverages and first trimester urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations in 656 pregnant women within a multicenter cohort study, The Infant Development and Environment Study (TIDES), using multivariate regression analysis. We also examined whether reported use of ecofriendly and chemical-free products was associated with lower phthalate biomarker levels in comparison to not following such practices. Consumption of one additional serving of dairy per week was associated with decreases of 1% in the sum of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) metabolite levels (95% CI: -2.0, -0.2). Further, participants who reported sometimes eating homegrown food had monoisobutyl phthalate (MiBP) levels that were 16.6% lower (95% CI: -29.5, -1.3) in comparison to participants in the rarely/never category. In contrast to rarely/never eating frozen fruits and vegetables, participants who reported sometimes following this practice had monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) levels that were 21% higher (95% CI: 3.3, 41.7) than rarely/ever respondents. Future study on prenatal dietary phthalate exposure and the role of consumer product choices in reducing such exposure is needed.

Effects of light-emitting diodes on expression of phenylpropanoid biosynthetic genes and accumulation of phenylpropanoids in Fagopyrum tataricum sprouts

Buckwheat sprouts are a popular food item in many countries. The effects of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) on sprout growth and development, changes in mRNA transcription, and accumulation of phenylpropanoid compounds were studied in tartary buckwheat 'Hokkai T8' sprouts. The highest transcript levels were observed after 2 days of LED exposure for all genes, especially FtPAL and FtF3'H, which showed higher expression in sprouts grown under blue and white light than in those grown under red light. Catechin content in sprouts grown under red light increased dramatically throughout the 10 day time course. Maximum rutin content (43.37 mg/g dry weight (DW)) was observed in sprouts at 4 days after exposure (DAE) to blue light. Similarly, the highest cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside content (0.85 mg/g DW) was detected at 10 DAE to blue light. On the basis of these results, blue LED light is recommended as a light source for enhancing the content of phenolic compounds in tartary buckwheat sprouts.

Berries and human health: research highlights from the Fifth Biennial Berry Health Benefits Symposium

The fifth biennial Berry Health Benefits Symposium showcased recent research supporting the positive effects of berry consumption on human health and disease. Remarkably, the vast majority of oral papers covered data accumulated from in vivo studies, which underscores how berry health research has advanced since the inception of this symposium in 2005. Similar to the past, research presented at this meeting was primarily focused on the major commercially cultivated berries in North America, namely, blackberry, blueberry, black raspberry, cranberry, red raspberry, and strawberry. Despite this, on the basis of similar compositional chemistry, it is possible that similar biological effects may also be extended to other small soft-fleshed "berry-type" fruits popular in other parts of the world including Europe, Asia, and South America. Overall, this symposium continues to add to the growing body of data supporting the positive impact of berry fruit consumption on human health promotion and disease risk reduction.

Contribution of organically grown crops to human health

An increasing interest in organic agriculture for food production is seen throughout the world and one key reason for this interest is the assumption that organic food consumption is beneficial to public health. The present paper focuses on the background of organic agriculture, important public health related compounds from crop food and variations in the amount of health related compounds in crops. In addition, influence of organic farming on health related compounds, on pesticide residues and heavy metals in crops, and relations between organic food and health biomarkers as well as in vitro studies are also the focus of the present paper. Nutritionally beneficial compounds of highest relevance for public health were micronutrients, especially Fe and Zn, and bioactive compounds such as carotenoids (including pro-vitamin A compounds), tocopherols (including vitamin E) and phenolic compounds. Extremely large variations in the contents of these compounds were seen, depending on genotype, climate, environment, farming conditions, harvest time, and part of the crop. Highest amounts seen were related to the choice of genotype and were also increased by genetic modification of the crop. Organic cultivation did not influence the content of most of the nutritional beneficial compounds, except the phenolic compounds that were increased with the amounts of pathogens. However, higher amounts of pesticide residues and in many cases also of heavy metals were seen in the conventionally produced crops compared to the organic ones. Animal studies as well as in vitro studies showed a clear indication of a beneficial effect of organic food/extracts as compared to conventional ones. Thus, consumption of organic food seems to be positive from a public health point of view, although the reasons are unclear, and synergistic effects between various constituents within the food are likely.

Effect of abiotic elicitation on main health-promoting compounds, antioxidant activity and commercial quality of butter lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)

The study presents changes in the phytochemical levels, antiradical activity and quality of lettuce caused by different chemical elicitors: arachidonic acid (AA), jasmonic acid (JA), and abscisic acid (ABA). The application of 1 μM and 100 μM JA induced an increase in the concentration of phenolic compounds, including flavonoids and phenolic acids. Flavonoid levels were also increased after treatment with 100 μM AA and ABA. Some of the elicitor concentrations used also caused an increase in the levels of other phytochemicals, such as chlorophyll a (1 μM and 100 μM AA, 50 μM ABA); chlorophyll b (100 μM AA); carotenoids (100 μM AA, 1 μM JA and 100 μM ABA) and vitamin C (100 μM AA, 100 μM JA). The highest antiradical activity was noted after treatment with 100 μM AA, 100 μM JA. 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging ability was positively and significantly correlated with flavonoid, chlorophyll and carotenoid levels. These results may suggest that the antiradical activity of lettuce was determined not only by phenolics, but also by other bioactive compounds. Elicitation did not change the sensory quality of lettuce. Therefore, treatment with elicitors could be a useful tool for improving the health-promoting qualities of lettuce without the loss of sensory quality.

Addressing analytical requirements to support health claims on "olive oil polyphenols" (EC Regulation 432/2012)

A health claim on "olive oil polyphenols", namely, hydroxytyrosol and its derivatives, was recently approved by EC Regulation 432/2012. As no official method exists so far for the complete separation of all forms of hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol present in the oil, it is of utmost importance to find a simple, reproducible, and undisputable protocol to protect consumers and avoid unfair competition. In this study two hydrolysis protocols for the complex forms either in the polar fraction of the oil (protocol 1) or directly in the oil (protocol 2) were comparatively applied to a series of extra virgin olive oils. Protocol 1 gave at least 50% higher levels of total hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol. Nevertheless, the minimum amount of 5 mg/20 g oil of phenols was fulfilled only when suitable correction factors were introduced in the calculations to account for the differences in the mass between simple and complex phenols. Changes in the terminology used in the health claim are also proposed.

Bioactivity and potential health benefits of licorice

Licorice is an herbal plant named for its unique sweet flavor. It is widely used in the food and tobacco industries as a sweetener. Licorice is also used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and complementary medicine. Because the use of licorice has long been a part of TCM, the details of its therapeutic applications have been thoroughly established. In modern science, licorice is of interest because of its broad range of applications. Extracts of and compounds isolated from licorice have been well studied and biologically characterized. In this review, we discuss the nutraceutical and functional activities of licorice as well as those of the extracts of and the isolated compounds from licorice, including agents with anti-inflammatory activity, cell-protective abilities, and chemopreventive effects. The side effects of licorice are also enumerated. A comparison of the activities of licorice described by modern science and TCM is also presented, revealing the correspondence of certain characteristics.

Composition and biological activities of hydrolyzable tannins of fruits of Phyllanthus emblica

Fruits of emblic leafflower have been used as food and traditional medicine in Asia. A wide range of biological activities have been shown in modern research suggesting potential of the fruits as healthy food and raw material for bioactive ingredients of food. Hydrolyzable tannins are among the major bioactive components of the fruits. Mucic acid gallate, mucic acid lactone gallate, monogalloylglucose, gallic acid, digalloylglucose, putranjivain A, galloyl-HHDP-glucose, elaeocarpusin, and chebulagic acid are the most abundant hydrolyzable tannins. The compositional profiles of tannins in the fruits vary depending on the cultivars as well as ripening stages. Fruits and tannin-rich extracts of fruits have shown antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and immune-regulating activities in vitro and in animal studies. The fruits and fruit extracts have manifested protective effects on organs/tissues from damages induced by chemicals, stresses, and aging in animal models. The fruits and fruit extracts have potential in inhibiting the growth of cancer cells and reducing DNA damage induced by chemicals and radiation. Antioxidative activities are likely among the mechanisms of the biological activities and physiological effects. Human intervention/clinical studies are needed to investigate the bioavailability and metabolism of the tannins and to substantiate the health benefits in humans. Emblic leafflower may be a potential raw material for natural food preservatives.

Medium-chain sugar amphiphiles: a new family of healthy vegetable oil structuring agents

Vegetable oils are frequently structured to enhance their organoleptic and mechanical properties. This is usually achieved by increasing the net amount of saturated and/or trans fatty acids in the oil. With the risk of coronary heart diseases associated with these fatty acids, the food industry is looking for better alternatives. In this context, the medium-chain dialkanoates of low-calorie sugars (sugar alcohol dioctanoates) are investigated as a healthy alternative structuring agent. Precursors of sugar amphiphiles, being FDA-approved GRAS materials, exhibited high cell viability at a concentration ~50 μg/mL. They readily formed nanoscale multilayered structures in an oil matrix to form a coherent network at low concentrations (1-3 wt %/v), which immobilized a wide range of oils (canola, soybean, and grapeseed oils). The structuring efficiency of sugar amphiphiles was computed in terms of mechanical, thermal, and structural properties and found to be a function of its type and concentration.

Phenols and ascorbic acid in black currants (Ribes nigrum L.): variation due to genotype, location, and year

Black currant berries contain many biochemical compounds with proven or potential human health benefits. We studied the content of total and single polyphenols, ascorbic acid, soluble sugars, and titratable acidity for two advanced selections and three cultivars of black currant at two distant locations in Sweden (south: 56°06'N; north: 65°21'N) over a 3 year period. Regression analyses revealed the effect of genotype to be considerably larger than that of location and year. However, significant effects of location, year, and interactions were also revealed. A principal component analysis nevertheless separated the genotypes. The content of ascorbic acid, total phenols, total anthocyanins, and soluble sugars was highest in berries from the south, whereas the content of phenolic acids and titratable acidity was highest in berries from the north. The results show that selection of cultivars and production sites are important for cultivation of high-quality black currant raw material for health-promoting products.