Modern Japanese medical history and the European influence

Before the first European visited Japan in 1549, traditional Chinese medicine was mainly employed in Japan. Francisco de Xavier, a missionary of the Society of Jesus, tried to promote the introduction of Christianity by providing a medical service for Japanese citizens. However, Japan implemented a national isolation policy in 1639 and cut off diplomatic relations with the rest of the world, except Holland and China. For over 200 years, until the American admiral Matthew Perry forced Japan to open its doors in 1853, Japan learned about western medicine only from doctors of the Dutch merchants' office or from Dutch medical books. After 1853, Western medicine was rapidly introduced into Japan, and great achievements by Japanese medical doctors soon followed, such as the serum therapy for tetanus, the discovery of the plague and dysentery bacilli, the invention of Salvarsan for the treatment of syphilis, and the demonstration of the neurosyphilis spirochete.

Words of Tohkaku Wada: medical heritage in Japan

The origins of Japan's medical ideas, which are deeply rooted in its religion, culture and history, are not widely understood in medical societies of other countries. We have taken up the task of summarising this tradition here so that some insight can be gained into the unique issues that characterise the practice of medicine in Japan. We borrow from the sayings of Tohkaku Wada, a medical philosopher of late eighteenth-century Japan, for a look at Japanese medical tradition. Wada's medical thought was very much reflective of the Buddhism, Zen, and swordsmanship that informed eighteenth-century philosophy in Japan. His central concepts were "chu" and "sei", that is, complete and selfless dedication to the patient and the practice of medicine. This paper explores Wada's thought, explaining it mainly from the standpoint of Japanese traditional culture.

Panduroga: a medico-historical study

According to Ayurveda the word 'Pandu' denotes pale or yellowish white colour. Panduroga (anaemia) is a disease in which man becomes pallor due to deficiency of Rakta dhatu (blood) in the body. Rakta dhatu is mentioned among the Saptadhatus of the body. Historical importance of Panduroga and the comparative study regarding its Nidana-Samprapti, Lakshanas, Upadravas and Chikitsa etc. as found in Athavaveda, Mahabharata, Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, Chakradatta and Basava Rajeeyam etc. are being presented in this paper.

Modernization of medical care in Korea (1876-1990)

This article explores the modernization of traditional Korean medicine in an attempt to answer why Korea has a dual system of professionalized care, and argues that the dual system has been shaped by conflicts between herbal doctors and Western-trained doctors throughout the various stages of historical development. I do not attempt comparisons with other countries, but social scientists have created a large body of work on the interaction between Western and Asian medical traditions in India, China, Japan, and other countries. Korea has been absent from this research. The present essay should draw attention to its sociological relevance.

[Possibility in unification of oriental and western medicine education by combination of educational curricula]

The authors attempted a possibility of unification in the educational curricula of both Oriental and Western medical schools for the unification of two medicines. Historically the two medicines were originated from the most primitive state like instinctive method and we can say two medicines were entirely the same. However, after abrupt and current development of science in the 19th century by discovery of microscope and bacteria as well as cells, changed medicine into recent unbelievable current medicine from old ancient style medicine like Chinese Medicine which was just the remnant old medicine. The unification of educational curricula is thought to be possible to combine each other by technical adjustment from mutual understanding and cooperation for the most high quality of peoples lives. There were good equality to partial correspondences between two educational curricula around 90% at two pre-and schools from the study to analyse. The combined medicine is thought to be more efficient to the diagnosis and treatment of patients because of the effectiveness of Oriental medicine in certain disease conditions like chronic illness by acupuncture as a alternative medicine or herbs.

Three journeys to high altitude: medicine, Tibetan thangkas, and Sepu Kangri

This article begins by highlighting the work of several pioneers of altitude medicine, and their achievements in physiology and clinical observation. Tibetan medicine of the 17th century is then introduced, particularly the medical paintings (thangkas) and the conduct of traditional physicians. Finally, I mention recent British mountain exploration in central Tibet during 1996, 1997 and 1998 and the challenge of Sepu Kangri which, at 6,995m, is the highest peak of the eastern Nyangla Qen Tangla Shan.

[Unification of Oriental and Western medicine with study on Oriental and Western medicine]

In Korea the system of medical management has been bifurcated into two parts since the restoration of nation from Japanese after World War II. One is 'Western Medicine' and the other is 'Oriental Medicine' like Chinese but not like Japanese. The authors attempted to study on the unification of both medicines to prevent the confusion of medicare for people. The major part of medical care is accomplished by Western medicine among people in Korea and China. However, Oriental medicine is still present as well as college of Oriental medicine in small number. There have been long struggles between two parts of medicine because of each assertions for the theories. The ancient medicine has been likely to have its characteristics either in Western or Oriental medicine although in many countries were succeeded by Western medicine except a few Asian countries such as Korea and China. In Japan since the license of Oriental(herb) medicine was ceased about one hundred years ago, the Western medicine has been authorized by law until today and the herb is the secondary medicine as a kind of folk treatment as well as continuous and enormous study for scientification. In only China and Korea this herb medicine has been kept to use as a part of medicine by law though China has developed combined medicine to use both Western and Oriental medicine by one physician since previous prime minister Chou En-Lai around the year 1950 who made a recommendation to the two medical societies, Western and Oriental. This fact has a big sense to establish the unification of two medicines in near future in Korea as well as China. For this accomplishment of medical unification both parts of medicine require sincere and enormous efforts to study the theory and practice of herb medicine even from now on. This unification of two medicines will provide the best medicare in most convenient way to the people in the world creating new world medicine like the third medicine including alternative medicine. The acupuncture is changing to a new method in Western medicine especially applying into anesthesia and pain clinic in even USA and Western countries at this time. In conclusion the unification of the Western and Oriental medicine will provide the most reasonable and practical medicare including alternative medicine to people in the world. Because the Oriental medicine will be used at least separately to supplement the Western medicine by one physician.

Florence Nightingale's influence on the development and professionalization of modern nursing in Japan

This article has summarized the overwhelming sociocultural and geopolitical forces that influenced the development of modern nursing in Japan. The irony of Japanese nursing is that modern nursing, first introduced by navy physicians, served the needs of Japanese military efforts and those of physicians who required others to perform menial hospital chores. Because of the harsh realities of nursing in the battlefields or in hospitals, working as a Kangofu was, and is, not compatible with a traditional family life. Like Nightingale, the majority of active Kangofus, especially the leaders in the profession, are unmarried. The major impact of Nightingale on Japanese nurses has been in her role as a spiritual icon, giving nurses the strength to survive in the face of enormous hardship. The true professionalization of nursing in Japan lies on the horizon, 110 years after Nightingale's work was introduced in Japan and 50 years after Japan became a democratic country. Toward this new vision for nursing, I offer the Hokenfu model rather than the traditional Kangofu model, under which Japanese nurses have suffered oppression and discrimination for a century. In conclusion, Japanese nurses should expand their perspective on their profession and seize the opportunity for reform that now tantalizingly presents itself, not only to best serve their patients but also to fulfill their own potential as respected health professionals-potential that is, as of now, unrealized.

The transformations of Tibetan medicine

This article presents a cultural and historical analysis of 20th-century Tibetan medicine. In its expansion into the state bureaucracy, Tibetan medicine has acceded to institutional modernity through transformations in theory, practice, and methods for training physicians. Despite Chinese rule in Tibet, however, Tibetan medicine has not yielded completely to state interests. With the collapsing of the traditionally pluralistic Tibetan health system into the professional sector of Tibetan medicine, contemporary Tibetan medicine has become to the laity a font of ethnic revitalization and resistance to the modernization policies of the Chinese state. These processes are particularly evident in the elaboration of disorders of rlung, a class of sicknesses that, collectively, have come to symbolize the suffering inherent in rapid social, economic, and political change.