The use of specific opioid agonists and antagonists to delineate the vagally mediated antinociceptive and cardiovascular effects of intravenous morphine

Intravenous (i.v.) administration of morphine produces a dose-dependent inhibition of the tail-flick (TF) reflex, depressor response, and bradycardia in the rat. Some of these effects depend on interactions of i.v. morphine with peripheral opioid receptors and the integrity of cervical vagal afferents. The present studies used the relatively specific mu, delta, and kappa opioid receptor agonists (DAGO, DPDPE or U-50,488H) and the relatively specific mu, delta, and kappa opioid receptor antagonists (beta-FNA, naloxonazine, naltrindole or nor-BNI) in either intact rats or rats with bilateral cervical vagotomy (CVAG) to delineate the vagal afferent/opioid-mediated components of these effects. I.v. administration of DAGO in intact rats produced a dose-dependent inhibition of the TF reflex, depressor response, and bradycardia virtually identical to those produced by i.v. morphine. All of these effects of either i.v. DAGO or i.v. morphine were significantly attenuated by either bilateral CVAG or pre-treatment with the mu 2 opioid receptor antagonist beta-FNA. Pre-treatment with the mu 1 opioid receptor antagonist naloxonazine affected i.v. DAGO-induced inhibition of the TF reflex and bradycardia, but had no significant effects on i.v. morphine-produced responses. I.v. administration of DPDPE produced a dose-dependent pressor response, but had no marked effects on the either the TF reflex or heart rate (HR). The pressor response was unaffected by either bilateral CVAG or pre-treatment with naltrindole, naloxone, hexamethonium, or bertylium. i.v. administration of U-50,488H produced a depressor response and bradycardia, but had no significant effect on the TF reflex. The depressor response and bradycardia produced by i.v. U-50,488H were unaffected by bilateral CVAG, but could be antagonized by pre-treatment with either nor-BNI or naloxone. These studies suggest that the vagal afferent-mediated antinociceptive and cardiovascular effects of i.v. morphine are primarily mediated by interactions with low affinity mu 2 opioid receptors.

Hematological status of male runners in relation to the extent of physical training

Blood biochemical indices of iron status were measured in venous blood from 20 runners and 6 control subjects. All subjects were male, ages 20 to 40 years, and stable with regard to body weight and degree of physical activity. Dietary analysis was undertaken using a 7-day weighed food intake. There was no evidence of iron deficiency: hemoglobin concentrations and serum ferritin levels were within the normal population range for all individuals. However, serum ferritin was negatively correlated with the amount of training. Daily iron intake appeared to be adequate; iron intake was correlated with protein intake but not related to training or energy intake. Serum ferritin, an indicator of iron status, was significantly correlated with vitamin C intake but not iron intake. Serum transferrin concentration was higher in the group of athletes undertaking a high weekly training load compared with the control subjects, suggesting an alteration in iron metabolism although there was no evidence of increased erythropoiesis. The biological significance of this is unclear.

Noninvasive in vivo percutaneous absorption measurements using X-ray fluorescence

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) has been used to determine in vivo the percutaneous absorption of 5-iodouracil (5IU) in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) on female Sprague-Dawley rats. An average absorption rate constant of 122 +/- 34 micrograms/cm2-hr was obtained from the XRF measurements on four rats. A comparative study was performed with radiolabeled (125I) 5IU in which the absorption rate constant was determined to be 126 +/- 20 micrograms/cm2-hr. The XRF system described provides a simple, noninvasive means of measuring the percutaneous absorption rate of select compounds by the surface disappearance method.

Intravenous morphine-induced activation of vagal afferents: peripheral, spinal, and CNS substrates mediating inhibition of spinal nociception and cardiovascular responses

1. Intravenous administration of 1.0 mg/kg of morphine produces inhibition of the nociceptive tail-flick (TF) reflex, hypotension, and bradycardia in the pentobarbital-anesthetized rat. The present experiments examined peripheral, spinal, and supraspinal relays for inhibition of the TF reflex and cardiovascular responses produced by morphine (1.0 mg/kg iv) in the pentobarbital-anesthetized rat using 1) bilateral cervical vagotomy, 2) spinal cold block or mechanical lesions of the dorsolateral funiculi (DLFs), or 3) nonselective local anesthesia or soma-selective lesions of specific CNS regions. Intravenous morphine-induced inhibition of responses of unidentified, ascending, and spinothalamic tract (STT) lumbosacral spinal dorsal horn neurons to noxious heating of the hindpaw were also examined in intact and bilateral cervical vagotomized rats. 2. Bilateral cervical vagotomy significantly attenuated inhibition of the TF reflex and bradycardia produced by intravenous administration of morphine. Bilateral cervical vagogtomy changed the normal depressor response produced by morphine into a sustained pressor response. Inhibition of the TF reflex in intact rats was not due to changes in tail temperature. 3. Spinal cold block significantly attenuated inhibition of the TF reflex, the depressor response, and the bradycardia produced by intravenous administration of morphine. However, bilateral mechanical transections of the DLFs failed to significantly affect either inhibition of the TF reflex or cardiovascular responses produced by this dose of intravenous morphine. 4. Microinjection of either lidocaine or ibotenic acid into the nuclei tracti solitarii (NTS), rostromedial medulla (RMM), or ventrolateral pontine tegmentum (VLPT) attenuated morphine-induced inhibition of the TF reflex. Similar microinjections into either the periaqueductal gray (PAG) or the dorsolateral pons (DLP) failed to affect morphine-induced inhibition of the TF reflex. 5. Microinjection of either lidocaine or ibotenic acid into the NTS, RMM, VLPT, DLP, or rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) attenuated the depressor response produced by morphine, although baseline arterial blood pressure (ABP) was affected by ibotenic acid microinjections in the DLP. In all these cases, the microinjections failed to reveal a sustained pressor response as was observed with bilateral cervical vagotomy. Similar microinjections into the PAG failed to affect the depressor response produced by morphine. 6. The lidocaine and ibotenic acid microinjection treatments also showed that the bradycardic response produced by morphine depends on the integrity of the NTS, RMM, RVLM, and possibly the DLP, but not the PAG or VLPT.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Increased blood antioxidant systems of runners in response to training load

1. Blood antioxidants were measured in venous blood samples from 20 runners and six sedentary individuals. All subjects were male, between 20 and 40 years old, and in steady state with respect to body weight and physical activity patterns. Dietary analysis was undertaken using a 7-day weighed food intake. Correlations were sought between antioxidants in blood and (1) weekly training distance and (2) maximum oxygen uptake. In addition, 12 runners could be classified into two groups undertaking either low (range 16-43 km, n = 6) or high (80-147 km, n = 6) weekly training. 2. Body weight (range 55.3-90.0 kg) and percentage body fat (range 7-19%) both showed negative correlations with the weekly training distance (both P less than 0.001). Energy intake and maximum oxygen uptake were both correlated with the weekly training distance (both P less than 0.001). 3. Plasma creatine kinase activity, an indicator of muscle damage, was significantly correlated with the weekly training distance (P less than 0.01), whereas the plasma concentration of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, an indicator of free-radical-mediated lipid peroxidation, decreased with increased maximum oxygen uptake (P less than 0.01). 4. Erythrocyte alpha-tocopherol content was greater in the two running groups (P less than 0.05) compared with the sedentary group, and lymphocyte ascorbic acid concentration was significantly elevated in the high-training group (P less than 0.01) compared with the low-training group. 5. Erythrocyte activities of the antioxidant enzymes, glutathione peroxidase and catalase, were significantly and positively correlated with the weekly training distance (P less than 0.01 and P less than 0.05, respectively).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Central administration of a specific angiotensin II receptor antagonist on baroreflex function in spontaneously hypertensive rats

To determine whether the increase in baroreflex sensitivity previously reported in lifetime captopril-treated spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) was due to an inhibition of brain angiotensin II mechanisms, we tested the effect of intracerebroventricular administration of an angiotensin II receptor antagonist on baroreflex control of heart rate in lifetime captopril-treated and untreated male and female SHR. Baroreceptor reflex control of heart rate was assessed by the slope of the relationship between changes in mean arterial pressure (delta MAP, mmHg) and changes in pulse interval (delta PI, ms). MAP was raised and lowered with infusions of phenylephrine and nitroprusside, respectively. Following basal assessment of baroreflex control of heart rate, rats received an intracerebroventricular injection (100 pmol) of Sar1Thr8 angiotensin II (sarthran) and reflex control of heart rate was reassessed. Adequacy of blockade was tested with central and peripheral administration of angiotensin II. Captopril-treated male (130 +/- 7 mmHg) and female (123 +/- 4 mmHg) rats had significantly lower MAP than untreated rats (174 +/- 4 and 173 +/- 8 mmHg, respectively) and enhanced bradycardia in response to increases in MAP. Intracerebroventricular administration of sarthran had no effect on basal blood pressure or heart rate but enhanced the bradycardia in response to increases in MAP in both untreated and captopril-treated rats. The increase in the slope of the line relating delta MAP to delta PT was greater for untreated than captopril-treated SHR (male untreated 2.7-fold versus captopril-treated 1.5-fold; female untreated 1.6-fold versus captopril-treated 1.5-fold).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Blood antioxidant status and erythrocyte lipid peroxidation following distance running

The relationship between prolonged exercise, oxidative stress, and the protective capacity of the antioxidant defense system has been determined. Venous blood samples were removed from seven trained athletes before and up to 120 h after completion of a half-marathon for measurements of blood antioxidants, antioxidant enzymes, and indices of lipid peroxidation. Plasma creatine kinase (CK) activity, an index of muscle damage, increased (P less than 0.05) to a maximum 24 h after the race but this was not accompanied by changes in conjugated dienes and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), which are indices of lipid peroxidation. An increase (P less than 0.05) in plasma cholesterol concentration (4%) immediately after the race was similar to the change in plasma volume (6%). However, transient increases (P less than 0.05) immediately postrace in the plasma concentrations of uric acid (24%), vitamin A (18%), and vitamin C (34%) were only partly accounted for by the fluid shifts. The immediate postrace increases in alpha- and gamma-tocopherol did not attain statistical significance. Erythrocyte antioxidant enzyme activities were unaffected by the exercise but the alpha- and gamma-tocopherol concentrations progressively increased (P less than 0.001 and P less than 0.05, respectively) up to 48 h postrace. Paradoxically, 24 h after the race erythrocyte susceptibility to in vitro peroxidation was markedly elevated (P less than 0.01). This enhanced susceptibility to peroxidation was maintained even at 120 h postrace and did not correspond to changes in the age of the red cell population. A decrease (P less than 0.001) in total erythrocyte glutathione immediately after the half-marathon was mainly due to a reduction in the reduced form (GSH). The results show that when trained athletes run a comparatively short distance sufficient to result in some degree of muscle damage but which is insufficient to cause elevations in plasma indices of lipid peroxidation, significant alterations in erythrocyte antioxidant status do occur.

Vomiting associated with pentostatin and pentostatin plus alpha-interferon: unique pattern and potential mechanisms

Pentostatin (2'-deoxycoformycin) is a unique antineoplastic agent that has proven valuable in the treatment of a number of lymphoid malignancies. Dose-limiting toxicities observed in clinical trials include central nervous system (CNS) effects and acute renal failure. Information regarding the incidence, duration, and severity of nausea and vomiting from published reports is conflicting and insufficient to provide recommendations for optimal supportive measures. We report the results of a phase I study where pentostatin was associated with a 20% incidence of vomiting following courses one and two (pentostatin alone). The third course of pentostatin administered concurrently with alpha interferon resulted in a 29% incidence of vomiting and by course four had increased to 50%. Grade of severity was similarly increased, and nausea and vomiting was the dose-limiting toxicity in 6 of 15 patients. Forty-two percent of all episodes of vomiting were delayed in onset (onset 24 hr after drug administration) and in over 80% of cases persisted for greater than 48 hr in duration. Potential mechanisms that may account for these findings, as well as recommendations regarding antiemetic therapy are provided.

An Oxidative Decarboxylation of 7-Oxopodocarpic Acid Derivatives

Treatment of the 7-oxopodocarpic acid derivatives (1) and (3) with 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyanobenzoquinone affords the conjugated dienones (5) and (6) directly. The latter compounds have potential as optically active relays for the synthesis of 3-oxygenated diterpenoids . The stereochemistry of an epoxide (7) formed from the dienone (5) has been confirmed by X-ray crystallography.

Brain angiotensin II and baroreceptor reflex function in spontaneously hypertensive rats

We examined whether the increase in baroreceptor reflex function previously reported in lifetime - captopril-treated spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) was due to an inhibition of brain angiotensin II mechanisms. Pregnant and lactating SHR were given oral captopril (100 mg/kg/day). After weaning, pups were maintained on captopril (50 mg/kg/day) until the study (19-21 weeks). Control rats received tap water. One week before study captopril-treated and control SHR were given an intracerebroventricular infusion of angiotensin II (7.5 ng/hr, osmotic pump) or vehicle (artificial cerebrospinal fluid). Baroreceptor reflex control of heart rate was assessed by the slope of the relation between the change in mean arterial pressure (mm Hg) versus the change in pulse interval (msec beat-1). Arterial pressure was raised or lowered by intravenous bolus injections of phenylephrine or nitroprusside, respectively. Central infusion of angiotensin II had no significant effect on mean arterial pressure in captopril or control SHR (captopril-angiotensin II 125 +/- 4 vs. captopril-vehicle 121 +/- 2; control-angiotensin II 169 +/- 5 vs. control-vehicle 173 +/- 7 mm Hg), but it produced a significant rise in basal heart rate (captopril-angiotensin II 371 +/- 10 vs. captopril-vehicle 323 +/- 8, p less than 0.0002; control-angiotensin II 338 +/- 7 vs. control-vehicle 312 +/- 8 beats/min, p less than 0.0183) and in daily water intake (captopril-angiotensin II 20.7 +/- 2.2 vs. captopril-vehicle 9.8 +/- 0.7, p less than 0.0426; control-angiotensin II 33.1 +/- 3.8 vs. control-vehicle 9.0 +/- 0.6 ml/100 g body wt, p less than 0.0001).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Distribution of gap junctions and square array junctions in the mammalian lens

The morphology of membrane specializations of the cortex and nucleus of bovine lenses has been analyzed for both isolated membrane fractions and intact tissue fragments. Fractions of fiber cell membranes isolated from the outer cortex and the inner nucleus of lenses have been compared using x-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, SDS polyacrylamide gels and Western blots. Each fraction has distinctive structural characteristics. In x-ray experiments, the cortical fraction gives no sharp equatorial reflections (from the plane of the membrane), whereas the nuclear fraction gives sharp equatorial reflections which index on a square lattice of 6.6 nm. In thin-section electron micrographs, the cortical fraction is composed primarily of closed vesicles and flat membrane sheets, some of which contain pentalamellar structures similar in appearance to the 16-18 nm thick gap junctions found in other tissues. The nuclear fraction contains mostly undulating membrane pairs which often show 11-14 nm pentalamellar profiles and occasionally thicker junctions. In freeze-fracture images the cortical membranes display irregular clusters of intramembrane particles which resemble gap junctions, whereas the nuclear membranes contain numerous large square arrays with a 6.6 nm repeat and few irregular clusters or individual intramembrane particles. Images of fragments of intact lenses used in the membrane isolations give similar results; in the cortex the area covered by gap junctions is over 50 times the area covered by square lattices, whereas nuclear fiber cell membranes contain large square arrays. Thus, cortical and nuclear fiber cell membranes have quite different morphologies. In particular, the size of the square arrays of protein increases as the fiber cells mature. SDS polyacrylamide gels from cortical and nuclear fractions are similar in that they both contain MP26 as the major band. However, Western blot analysis shows increasing quantities of lower molecular weight, 25 kD and 22 kD, cleavage products as one progresses from the cortex to the nucleus. These data indicate that MP26 and/or its cleavage products form square crystalline arrays in nuclear fibers. The morphology of these arrays suggests a role for MP26 in cell-to-cell adhesion.

Fluid homoeostasis during prolonged low-intensity walking on consecutive days

1. The effect on fluid homoeostasis of walking 37 km on each of 4 consecutive relatively cool days was studied in six male subjects. The daily exercise intensity was consistent and was equivalent to 17(1)% [mean (SE)] of maximum oxygen uptake for these subjects. 2. The diet during the study consisted of a mainly carbohydrate breakfast, consumed immediately before each day's exercise, and unrestricted access to a normal mixed diet after completion of each day's exercise. Water was allowed ad libitum during the walk. Food and fluid intake were recorded. 3. Body weight remained constant over the 4-day walk. The difference between total daily fluid intake and the corresponding 24 h urine output was 1684 (250) ml, 1621 (522) ml, 1107 (252) ml and 1406 (208) ml, respectively, on each of the 4 exercise days. 4. There was a calculated increase of 21.3(6.6)% in plasma volume over the 4-day walk; the largest daily change [11.3(2.9)%] occurred during the walk on day 1. The increase in plasma volume was maintained for at least 4 days after completion of the walk. 5. From day 2, serum sodium concentration tended to increase during the exercise period and fell to the pre-exercise concentration during the overnight rest periods. The concentration of the other measured serum constituents remained relatively constant, and serum osmolality did not alter over the study period.

Changes in red cell density and related indices in response to distance running

The red cell population in peripheral venous blood was characterised in 7 young males before and up to 16 days after a 21.1 km road race. There was a 1.9 +/- 2.4% (mean +/- SD) reduction in plasma volume immediately post race (p less than 0.05), an increase in serum osmolality from 277 +/- 4 mOsm.kg-1 to 291 +/- 14 mOsm.kg-1 (p less than 0.05) and a reduction in red cell water (64.4 +/- 0.3% to 63.4 +/- 0.4%, p less than 0.001). The latter was consistent with alterations in the manually derived MCV and MCHC values although the same Coulter derived values were unaltered. A concomitant increase in median red cell density in whole blood (1.1045 +/- 0.0009 g.ml-1 pre race to 1.1057 +/- 0.012 g.ml-1 immediate post race, p less than 0.05) was recorded by centrifugation through phthalate esters of different density. The changes in creatine content of the red cells suggested that during the race younger cells were released into the circulation but that 24 h to 72 h after the race the mean red cell age had increased. Similarly, fractionation of the red cells on discontinuous Percoll density gradients indicated that the cell population was significantly denser in all post race samples up to 72 h but had normalized by a 16 day sample; the osmotic fragility was similarly affected.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Influence of exercise on ascorbic acid status in man

1. The response of circulating leucocytes with regard to changes in number, proportion of granulocytes and lymphocytes, as well as changes in the ascorbic acid (AA) concentration of plasma and isolated lymphocytes, were studied in nine men who ran a 21 km race. A marked leucocytosis was noted 5 min after the race, the predominant increase being in granulocytes (P less than 0.001) with smaller relative increases in circulating lymphocytes (P less than 0.01) and platelets (P less than 0.001). Numbers of leucocytes and platelets returned to pre-exercise levels within 24 h after the race. 2. The concentration of AA in plasma increased from 52.7 +/- 4.1 mumol/l before the race to 67.0 +/- 5.3 mumol/l within 5 min after the race (P less than 0.001). This increase in plasma AA concentration was positively correlated with the rise in plasma cortisol concentration during the race (r = 0.89; P less than 0.01). However, within 24 h after the race the plasma concentration of AA fell 20 +/- 4% below pre-exercise values (P less than 0.01) and remained low for at least the next 2 days (P less than 0.05). 3. Lymphocyte AA concentration increased from 15.6 +/- 0.6 to 19.7 +/- 0.9 mumol/g of lymphocyte protein during the race (P less than 0.01) but returned to normal levels within 2 days after the race. 4. It is suggested that the adrenal gland may be the major source of AA efflux into the circulation during exercise.

Faecal blood loss in response to exercise

Recently qualitative tests have indicated that gastrointestinal bleeding during exercise may be an important contributory factor in sports anaemia. In six healthy men who walked 37 km on four consecutive days faecal haemoglobin content remained normal (reference range 0.10-2.53 mg/g faeces) with no significant differences between values. In 28 marathon runners who refrained from taking drugs or food containing blood the median faecal haemoglobin content increased by 0.42 mg/g faeces (95% confidence interval 0.12 to 0.83 mg/g) from 1.06 (0.86 to 1.31) mg/g before the race. In 13 runners who had taken drugs before the race the corresponding increase in the median faecal haemoglobin content was 0.87 (-0.03 to 2.20) mg/g from the value before the race of 0.93 (0.46 to 1.55) mg/g. Prolonged walking had no effect on gastrointestinal blood loss. Intense endurance exercise in the form of marathon running induced a significant but clinically unimportant increase. This may be exaggerated by the ingestion of drugs and assume importance in causing iron deficiency and sports anaemia. The use of drugs, particularly analgesics, by marathon runners should be actively discouraged.