Crystal structure of the complex of human epidermal growth factor and receptor extracellular domains

Structural insights into the role and targeting of EGFRvIII

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a well-known oncogenic driver in lung and other cancers. In glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), the EGFR deletion variant III (EGFRvIII) is frequently found alongside EGFR amplification. Agents targeting the EGFR axis have shown limited clinical benefits in GBM and the role of EGFRvIII in GBM is poorly understood. To shed light on the role of EGFRvIII and its potential as a therapeutic target, we determined X-ray crystal structures of a monomeric EGFRvIII extracellular region (ECR). The EGFRvIII ECR resembles the unliganded conformation of EGFR, including the orientation of the C-terminal region of domain II. Domain II is mostly disordered, but the ECR structure is compact. We selected a nanobody with preferential binding to EGFRvIII relative to EGFR and structurally defined an epitope on domain IV that is occluded in the unliganded intact EGFR. These findings suggest new avenues for EGFRvIII targeting in GBM.

The physical basis of analog-to-digital signal processing in the EGFR system-Delving into the role of the endoplasmic reticulum

Receptor tyrosine kinases exhibit ligand-induced activity and uptake into cells via endocytosis. In the case of epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR), the resulting endosomes are trafficked to the perinuclear region, where dephosphorylation of receptors occurs, which are subsequently directed to degradation. Traveling endosomes bearing phosphorylated EGFRs are subjected to the activity of cytoplasmic phosphatases as well as interactions with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The peri-nuclear region harbors ER-embedded phosphatases, a component of the EGFR-bearing endosome-ER contact site. The ER is also emerging as a central player in spatiotemporal control of endosomal motility, positioning, tubulation, and fission. Past studies strongly suggest that the physical interaction between the ER and endosomes forms a reaction "unit" for EGFR dephosphorylation. Independently, endosomes have been implicated to enable quantization of EGFR signals by modulation of the phosphorylation levels. Here, we review the distinct mechanisms by which endosomes form the logistical means for signal quantization and speculate on the role of the ER.

Targeting EGFR with molecular degraders as a promising strategy to overcome resistance to EGFR inhibitors

Abnormal activation of EGFR is often associated with various malignant tumors, making it an important target for antitumor therapy. However, traditional targeted inhibitors have several limitations, such as drug resistance and side effects. Many studies have focused on the development of EGFR degraders to overcome this resistance and enhance the therapeutic effect on tumors. Proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTAC) and Lysosome-based degradation techniques have made significant progress in degrading EGFR. This review provides a summary of the structural and function of EGFR, the resistance, particularly the research progress and activity of EGFR degraders via the proteasome and lysosome. Furthermore, this review aims to provide insights for the development of the novel EGFR degraders.

Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) Inhibitors Screened from Autodisplayed Fv-Antibody Library

Inhibitors of the epithermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) were screened from an autodisplayed Fv-antibody library using an anti-EGF antibody. The Fv-antibody library was expressed on the outer membrane of Escherichia coli, which corresponds to the heavy chain VH region of immunoglobulin G. The library was constructed by randomizing the CDR3 region of expressed VH regions (11 amino acid residues) by site-directed mutagenesis. Using an anti-EGF antibody as a screening probe, amino acid sequences (CDR3 region) with antibody binding affinity were screened from the Fv-antibody library. These amino acid sequences were considered to have similar chemical properties to EGF, which can bind to EGFR. Two autodisplayed clones with Fv-antibodies against EGFR were screened from the Fv-antibody library, and the screened Fv-antibodies were expressed as soluble proteins. The binding affinity (KD) was estimated using an SPR biosensor, and the inhibitory activity of expressed Fv-antibodies was observed for PANC-1 pancreatic tumor cells and T98G glioblastoma cells using Western blot analysis of proteins in the EGFR-mediated signaling pathway. The viability of PANC-1 and T98G cells was observed to decrease via the inhibitory activity of expressed Fv-antibodies. Finally, interactions between Fv-antibodies and EGFR were analyzed by using molecular docking simulations.

Formation of EGFRwt/EGFRvIII homo- and hetero-dimers in glioblastoma cells as detected by single molecule localization microscopy

Super-resolution microscopy has been used to show the formation of receptor clusters and adapted lipid organization of cell membranes for many members of the ErbB receptor family. The clustering behaviour depends on the receptor size and shape, possibly ligand binding or expression activity. Using single molecule localization microscopy (SMLM), we also showed this typical clustering for the epidermal growth factor receptor variant III (EGFRvIII) in glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) cells. EGFRvIII is co-expressed with the wild type (EGFRwt) and both receptors are assumed to preferentially form hetero-dimers leading to transactivation and elevated oncogenic EGFR-signalling in GBM cells. Here, we analysed EGFRvIII and EGFRwt co-localization using our already described model system of the glioblastoma cell line DKMG, displaying endogenous EGFRvIII expression. Using EGFRvIII and EGFRwt specific antibodies, EGFR localization and their potential for dimerization in a given membrane cluster were analysed by dual colour SMLM supported by novel approaches of mathematic evaluations including Ripley statistics, persistent homology and similarity algorithms. Surprisingly, cluster analysis, Ripley point-to-point distance statistics for cluster geometry and persistent homology comparing cluster topology, revealed that both EGFRvIII and EGFRwt do primarily not form hetero-dimers but the results support the hypothesis that they tend to form homo-dimers. The ratio of homo-dimers obtained by this calculation was significantly higher (>5σ, standard deviation) than expected from randomly arranged points. In comparison, hetero-dimer formation was only slightly increased. We confirmed these data by immunoprecipitation, which show no co-precipitation of EGFRvIII and EGFRwt. Furthermore, we showed that the topology of the clusters was more similar among the same type than among the different types of receptors. Taken together, these data indicate that EGFRvIII does induce oncogenic signalling by homo-dimerisation and not preferentially by hetero-dimer formation with EGFRwt. These data offer a new perspective on EGFRvIII signalling which will lead to a better understanding of this tumour associated receptor variant in GBM.

Evaluation of Cytotoxicity and Metabolic Profiling of Synechocystis sp. Extract Encapsulated in Nano-Liposomes and Nano-Niosomes Using LC-MS, Complemented by Molecular Docking Studies

Liposomes and niosomes can be considered excellent drug delivery systems due to their ability to load all compounds, whether hydrophobic or hydrophilic. In addition, they can reduce the toxicity of the loaded drug without reducing its effectiveness. Synechocystis sp. is a unicellular, freshwater cyanobacteria strain that contains many bioactive compounds that qualify its use in industrial, pharmaceutical, and many other fields. This study investigated the potential of nano-liposomes (L) and nano-niosomes (N) for delivering Synechocystis sp. extract against cancer cell lines. Four different types of nanoparticles were prepared using a dry powder formulation and ethanol extract of Synechocystis sp. in both nanovesicles (N1 and N2, respectively) and liposomes (L1 and L2, respectively). Analysis of the formed vesicles using zeta analysis, SEM morphological analysis, and visual examination confirmed their stability and efficiency. L1 and L2 in this investigation had effective diameters of 419 and 847 nm, respectively, with PDI values of 0.24 and 0.27. Furthermore, the zeta potentials were found to range from -31.6 mV to -43.7 mV. Regarding N1 and N2, their effective diameters were 541 nm and 1051 nm, respectively, with PDI values of 0.31 and 0.35, and zeta potentials reported from -31.6 mV to -22.2 mV, respectively. Metabolic profiling tentatively identified 22 metabolites (1-22) from the ethanolic extract. Its effect against representative human cancers was studied in vitro, specifically against colon (Caco2), ovarian (OVCAR4), and breast (MCF7) cancer cell lines. The results showed the potential activities of the prepared N1, N2, L1, and L2 against the three cell lines, where L1 had cytotoxicity IC50 values of 19.56, 33.52, and 9.24 µg/mL compared to 26.27, 56.23, and 19.61 µg/mL for L2 against Caco2, OVCAR4, and MCF7, respectively. On the other hand, N1 exhibited IC50 values of 9.09, 11.42, and 2.38 µg/mL, while N2 showed values of 15.57, 18.17, and 35.31 µg/mL against Caco2, OVCAR4, and MCF7, respectively. Meanwhile, the formulations showed little effect on normal cell lines (FHC, OCE1, and MCF10a). All of the compounds were evaluated in silico against the epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase (EGFR). The molecular docking results showed that compound 21 (1-hexadecanoyl-2-(9Z-hexadecenoyl)-3-(6'-sulfo-alpha-D-quinovosyl)-sn-glycerol), followed by compounds 6 (Sulfoquinovosyl monoacylgycerol), 7 (3-Hydroxymyristic acid), 8 (Glycolipid PF2), 12 (Palmitoleic acid), and 19 (Glyceryl monostearate), showed the highest binding affinities. These compounds formed good hydrogen bond interactions with the key amino acid Lys721 as the co-crystallized ligand. These results suggest that nano-liposomes and nano-niosomes loaded with Synechocystis sp. extract hold promise for future cancer treatment development. Further research should focus on clinical trials, stability assessments, and pharmacological profiles to translate this approach into effective anticancer drugs.

PREVAX: A Phase I Clinical Trial of an EGF-Based Vaccine in Moderate-to-Severe COPD Patients

BACKGROUND

EGFR has been suggested to contribute to COPD development and progression. Excessive ligand activation of the receptor leads to epithelial hyperproliferation and increased production of mucus, together with alterations in the primary cilia. The present study was designed to evaluate the safety and effect of depleting EGF in moderate-to-severe COPD patients, with an EGF-based vaccine.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A phase I trial was conducted in subjects with moderate or severe COPD. The anti-EGF vaccine schedule consisted of 4 biweekly doses followed by 4 monthly boosters. The primary endpoint was the evaluation of the safety and immunogenicity of the vaccine, together with the change in FEV1 and physical function at week 24.

RESULTS

Twenty-six patients with moderate or severe COPD were included in the trial. The vaccine was well tolerated and no serious related adverse events were reported. Ninety percent of the individuals developed a protective antibody response. The specific anti-EGF antibodies had high avidity and were able to inhibit EGFR phosphorylation. At the end of vaccination, serum EGF became undetectable. At week 24, there was a clinically significant improvement in lung function, with a mean change in trough FEV1 of 106 mL. Patients also increased their physical functioning.

CONCLUSIONS

The EGF-based vaccine was immunogenic and provoked an EGF exhaustion in patients with moderate-to-severe COPD. Depleting EGF might result in a meaningful increase in FEV1, with good tolerability. The current results provide new avenues to treat chronic inflammatory lung diseases associated with EGFR aberrant signaling.

Multiscale photocatalytic proximity labeling reveals cell surface neighbors on and between cells

Proximity labeling proteomics (PLP) strategies are powerful approaches to yield snapshots of protein neighborhoods. Here, we describe a multiscale PLP method with adjustable resolution that uses a commercially available photocatalyst, Eosin Y, which upon visible light illumination activates different photo-probes with a range of labeling radii. We applied this platform to profile neighborhoods of the oncogenic epidermal growth factor receptor and orthogonally validated more than 20 neighbors using immunoassays and AlphaFold-Multimer prediction. We further profiled the protein neighborhoods of cell-cell synapses induced by bispecific T cell engagers and chimeric antigen receptor T cells. This integrated multiscale PLP platform maps local and distal protein networks on and between cell surfaces, which will aid in the systematic construction of the cell surface interactome, revealing horizontal signaling partners and reveal new immunotherapeutic opportunities.

Effects of N361 Glycosylation on Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Biological Function

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a transmembrane tyrosine kinase that is frequently modified by glycosylation post-translationally. In cancer, EGFR amplifications and hotspot mutations such as L858R that promote proliferation have been detected in a significant fraction of non-small cell lung carcinomas and breast adenocarcinomas. Molecular dynamic simulations suggested that glycosylation at asparagine residue 361 (N361) promotes dimerization and ligand binding. We stably expressed glycosylation-deficient mutant EGFR N361A, with or without the oncogenic mutation L858R. Immunofluorescence and flow cytometry demonstrated that the mutants were each well expressed at the cell membrane. N361A decreased proliferation relative to wild-type EGFR as well as decreased sensitivity to ligands. Proximity ligation assays measuring co-localization of EGFR with its binding partner HER2 in cells revealed that N361A mutations increased co-localization. N361A, located near the binding interface for the EGFR inhibitor necitumumab, desensitized cells expressing the oncogenic EGFR L858R to antibody-based inhibition. These findings underline the critical relevance of post-translational modifications on oncogene function.

Targeted blocking of EGFR and GLUT1 by compound H reveals a new strategy for treatment of triple-negative breast cancer and nasopharyngeal carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Cytoplasmic epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is overexpressed in both nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) and triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), while clinical outcome and prognosis vary greatly among patients treated with gefitinib, and all patients eventually develop resistance to this agent. Therefore, we propose a new concept for synthesizing multitarget compounds and reveal new therapeutic strategies for NPC and TNBC expressing EGFR.

METHODS

Compound H was synthesized in our previous study. Molecular docking, and cell thermal shift assays (CETSAs) and drug affinity responsive target stability(DARTS) were used to confirm the binding of compound H to EGFR and GLUT1. Methylthiazolyldiphenyl-tetrazolium bromide(MTT), annexin V-PE assays, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) assays, and animal models were used to evaluate the inhibitory effect of compound H on TNBC cell lines. Energy metabolism tests, Western blotting, and immunofluorescence staining were performed to evaluate the synergistic effects on EGFR- and glucose transporter type 1(GLUT1)-mediated energy metabolism.

RESULTS

Compound H can simultaneously act on the EGFR tyrosine kinase ATP-binding site and inhibit GLUT1-mediated energy metabolism, resulting in reductions in ATP, MMP, intra-cellular lactic acid, and EGFR nuclear transfer. The anti-tumor activity of compound H is significantly superior to the combination of GLUT1 inhibitor BAY876 and EGFR inhibitor gefitinib. Compound H has remarkable anti-proliferative effects on TNBC MDA-MB231 cells, and importantly, no obvious toxicity effects of compound H were found in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

Synergistic effects of inhibition of EGFR- and GLUT1-mediated energy metabolism by compound H may present a new strategy for the treatment of TNBC and NPC.

A natural compound melatonin enhances the effects of Nimotuzumab via inhibiting EGFR in glioblastoma

Sleep disorders are prevalent and debilitating symptoms in primary brain tumor patients, notably those receiving radiation therapy. Nevertheless, the relationship between sleep disorders, melatonin - a circadian rhythm regulatory hormone, and gliomas is underexplored. Melatonin exhibits various biological functions, one of them being anti-tumor activity. In the context of gliomas, often overexpressing EGFR, the humanized monoclonal antibody Nimotuzumab targets this marker. Our research discovered that variations in circadian rhythm significantly influence tumor growth in mice through impacting melatonin secretion. Harnessing proteogenomic, we identified that melatonin could inhibit the phosphorylation of EGFR and its downstream effectors, key elements in angiogenesis and tumor progression. Building on structural simulations, we propose that melatonin may amplify Nimotuzumab's anti-glioma efficacy by inhibiting EGFR TK dimerization. This proposition was validated in our in vitro and in vivo studies where melatonin synergistically augmented cytotoxicity and apoptosis in Nimotuzumab-treated glioma cells. Thus, melatonin shows promise as a beneficial addition to Nimotuzumab treatment in glioma patients.

Unrevealing the multitargeted potency of 3-1-BCMIYPPA against lung cancer structural maintenance and suppression proteins through pharmacokinetics, QM-DFT, and multiscale MD simulation studies

Lung cancer, a relentless and challenging disease, demands unwavering attention in drug design research. Single-target drugs have yielded limited success, unable to effectively address this malignancy's profound heterogeneity and often developed resistance. Consequently, the clarion call for lung cancer drug design echoes louder than ever, and multitargeted drug design emerges as an imperative approach in this landscape, which is done by concurrently targeting multiple proteins and pathways and offering a beacon of hope. This study is focused on the multitargeted drug designing approach by identifying drug candidates against human cyclin-dependent kinase-2, SRC-2 domains of C-ABL, epidermal growth factor and receptor extracellular domains, and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor kinase. We performed the multitargeted molecular docking studies of Drug Bank compounds using HTVS, SP and XP algorithms and poses filter with MM\GBSA against all proteins and identified DB02504, namely [3-(1-Benzyl-3-Carbamoylmethyl-2-Methyl-1h-Indol-5-Yloxy)-Propyl-]-Phosphonic Acid (3-1-BCMIYPPA) as multitargeted lead with docking and MM\GBSA score range from -8.242 to -6.274 and -28.2 and -44.29 Kcal/mol, respectively. Further, the QikProp-based pharmacokinetic computations and QM-based DFT showed acceptance results against standard values, and interaction fingerprinting reveals that THR, MET, GLY, VAL, LEU, GLU and ASP were among the most interacting residues. The NPT ensemble-based 100ns MD simulation in a neutralised state with an SPC water model has also shown a stable performance and produced deviation and fluctuations <2Å with huge interactions, making it a promising multitargeted drug candidate-however, experimental studies are suggested.

Molecular glues and induced proximity: An evolution of tools and discovery

Small molecule molecular glues can nucleate protein complexes and rewire interactomes. Molecular glues are widely used as probes for understanding functional proximity at a systems level, and the potential to instigate event-driven pharmacology has motivated their application as therapeutics. Despite advantages such as cell permeability and the potential for low off-target activity, glues are still rare when compared to canonical inhibitors in therapeutic development. Their often simple structure and specific ability to reshape protein-protein interactions pose several challenges for widespread, designer applications. Molecular glue discovery and design campaigns can find inspiration from the fields of synthetic biology and biophysics to mine chemical libraries for glue-like molecules.

Crosstalk of growth factor receptors at plasma membrane clathrin-coated sites

Cellular communication is regulated at the plasma membrane by the interactions of receptor, adhesion, signaling, exocytic, and endocytic proteins. Yet, the composition and control of these nanoscale complexes in response to external cues remain unclear. Here, we use high-resolution and high-throughput fluorescence imaging to map the localization of growth factor receptors and related proteins at single clathrin-coated structures across the plasma membrane of human squamous HSC3 cells. We find distinct protein signatures between control cells and cells stimulated with ligands. Clathrin sites at the plasma membrane are preloaded with some receptors but not others. Stimulation with epidermal growth factor induces a capture and concentration of epidermal growth factor-, fibroblast growth factor-, and low-density lipoprotein-receptors (EGFR, FGFR, and LDLR). Regulatory proteins including ubiquitin ligase Cbl, the scaffold Grb2, and the mechanoenzyme dynamin2 are also recruited. Disrupting FGFR or EGFR individually with drugs prevents the recruitment of both EGFR and FGFR. Our data reveals novel crosstalk between multiple unrelated receptors and regulatory factors at clathrin-coated sites in response to stimulation by a single growth factor, EGF. This behavior integrates growth factor signaling and allows for complex responses to extracellular cues and drugs at the plasma membrane of human cells.

Computational Analysis of Activation of Dimerized Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Kinase Using the String Method and Markov State Model

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) activation is accompanied by dimerization. During the activation of the intracellular kinase domain, two EGFR kinases form an asymmetric dimer, and one side of the dimer (receiver) is activated. Using the string method and Markov state model (MSM), we performed a computational analysis of the structural changes in the activation of the EGFR dimer in this study. The string method reveals the minimum free-energy pathway (MFEP) from the inactive to active structure. The MSM was constructed from numerous trajectories of molecular dynamics simulations around the MFEP, which revealed the free-energy map of structural changes. In the activation of the receiver kinase, the unfolding of the activation loop (A-loop) is followed by the rearrangement of the C-helix, as observed in other kinases. However, unlike other kinases, the free-energy map of EGFR at the asymmetric dimer showed that the active state yielded the highest stability and revealed how interactions at the dimer interface induced receiver activation. As the H-helix of the activator approaches the C-helix of the receiver during activation, the A-loop unfolds. Subsequently, L782 of the receiver enters the pocket between the G- and H-helices of the activator, leading to a rearrangement of the hydrophobic residues around L782 of the receiver, which constitutes a structural rearrangement of the C-helix of the receiver from an outward to an inner position. The MSM analysis revealed long-time scale trajectories via kinetic Monte Carlo.

Locally misfolded HER2 expressed on cancer cells is a promising target for development of cancer-specific antibodies

Overexpression of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) in breast and gastric cancers is associated with a poor prognosis, making it an important therapeutic target. Here, we establish a novel cancer-specific anti-HER2 antibody, H2Mab-214. H2Mab-214 reacts with HER2 on cancer cells, but unlike the therapeutic antibody trastuzumab, it does not react with HER2 on normal cells in flow cytometry measurements. A crystal structure suggests that H2Mab-214 recognizes a structurally disrupted region in the HER2 domain IV, which normally forms a β-sheet. We show that this misfolding is inducible by site-directed mutagenesis mimicking the disulfide bond defects that also may occur in cancer cells, indicating that the local misfolding in the Cys-rich domain IV governs the cancer-specificity of H2Mab-214. Furthermore, we show that H2Mab-214 effectively suppresses tumor growth in xenograft mouse models. Our findings offer a potential strategy for developing cancer-specific therapeutic antibodies that target partially misfolded cell surface receptors.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of EGFR binding peptides for near-infrared photoimmunotherapy

Near-infrared photoimmunotherapy (NIR-PIT) is a new cancer treatment that involves photoimmunotherapy drug injection and NIR light exposure. In NIR-PIT, antibodies are commonly used as target-directed molecules carrying IRDye700DX (IR700). However, antibodies have disadvantages, such as high cost, complex development strategies, and poor tumor penetration. In contrast, peptides have lower production costs, can be easy to chemically synthesize and modify, and can also be used for tumor-targeting like antibodies. In this study, we developed a novel PIT drug using a peptide as the target-directed molecule. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) was selected as the target, and monovalent and bivalent EGFR-binding peptides were synthesized. The bivalent peptide showed sufficient binding to EGFR-positive cells, and a bivalent peptide-IR700 conjugate with a long linker induced morphological changes in EGFR-positive cells. Additionally, the drug significantly reduced cell viability in vitro in an NIR light-dose- and drug-concentration-dependent manner. These results indicate the feasibility of NIR-PIT in treating cancer using peptide-based drugs.

Marine-derived EGFR inhibitors: novel compounds targeting breast cancer growth and drug resistance

Breast cancer (BC) continues to be a major health challenge globally, ranking as the fifth leading cause of cancer mortality among women, despite advancements in cancer detection and treatment. In this study, we identified four novel compounds from marine organisms that effectively target and inhibit the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR), crucial for BC cell growth and proliferation. These compounds not only induced early apoptosis through Caspase-3 activation but also showed significant inhibitory effects on EGFR mutations associated with drug resistance (T790M, L858R, and L858R/T790M), demonstrating high EGFR kinase selectivity. Cell Thermal Shift Assay (CETSA) experiments indicated that Tandyukisin stabilizes EGFR in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, binding competition assays using surface plasmon resonance technology revealed that Tandyukisin and Trichoharzin bound to distinct sites on EGFR and that their combined use enhanced apoptosis in BC cells. This discovery may pave the way for developing new marine-derived EGFR inhibitors, offering a promising avenue for innovative cancer treatment strategies and addressing EGFR-mediated drug resistance.

CYpHER: Catalytic extracellular targeted protein degradation with high potency and durable effect

Many disease-causing proteins have multiple pathogenic mechanisms, and conventional inhibitors struggle to reliably disrupt more than one. Targeted protein degradation (TPD) can eliminate the protein, and thus all its functions, by directing a cell's protein turnover machinery towards it. Two established strategies either engage catalytic E3 ligases or drive uptake towards the endolysosomal pathway. Here we describe CYpHER (CatalYtic pH-dependent Endolysosomal delivery with Recycling) technology with potency and durability from a novel catalytic mechanism that shares the specificity and straightforward modular design of endolysosomal uptake. By bestowing pH-dependent release on the target engager and using the rapid-cycling transferrin receptor as the uptake receptor, CYpHER induces endolysosomal target delivery while re-using drug, potentially yielding increased potency and reduced off-target tissue exposure risks. The TfR-based approach allows targeting to tumors that overexpress this receptor and offers the potential for transport to the CNS. CYpHER function was demonstrated in vitro with EGFR and PD-L1, and in vivo with EGFR in a model of EGFR-driven non-small cell lung cancer.

Mastigoneme structure reveals insights into the O-linked glycosylation code of native hydroxyproline-rich helices

Hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGPs) are a ubiquitous class of protein in the extracellular matrices and cell walls of plants and algae, yet little is known of their native structures or interactions. Here, we used electron cryomicroscopy (cryo-EM) to determine the structure of the hydroxyproline-rich mastigoneme, an extracellular filament isolated from the cilia of the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The structure demonstrates that mastigonemes are formed from two HRGPs (a filament of MST1 wrapped around a single copy of MST3) that both have hyperglycosylated poly(hydroxyproline) helices. Within the helices, O-linked glycosylation of the hydroxyproline residues and O-galactosylation of interspersed serine residues create a carbohydrate casing. Analysis of the associated glycans reveals how the pattern of hydroxyproline repetition determines the type and extent of glycosylation. MST3 possesses a PKD2-like transmembrane domain that forms a heteromeric polycystin-like cation channel with PKD2 and SIP, explaining how mastigonemes are tethered to ciliary membranes.

SIBP-03, a novel anti-HER3 antibody, exerts antitumor effects and synergizes with EGFR- and HER2-targeted drugs

HER3 (human epidermal growth factor receptor 3) acts through heterodimerization with EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) or HER2 to play an essential role in activating phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and AKT signaling-a crucial pathway that promotes tumor cell survival. HER3 is a promising target for cancer therapy, and several HER3-directed antibodies have already entered into clinical trials. In this study we characterized a novel anti-HER3 monoclonal antibody, SIBP-03. SIBP-03 (0.01-10 μg/mL) specifically and concentration-dependently blocked both neuregulin (NRG)-dependent and -independent HER3 activation, attenuated HER3-mediated downstream signaling and inhibited cell proliferation. This antitumor activity was dependent, at least in part, on SIBP-03-induced, cell-mediated cytotoxicity and cellular phagocytosis. Importantly, SIBP-03 enhanced the antitumor activity of EGFR- or HER2-targeted drugs (cetuximab or trastuzumab) in vitro and in vivo. The mechanisms underlying this synergy involve increased inhibition of HER3-mediated downstream signaling. Collectively, these results demonstrated that SIBP-03, which is currently undergoing a Phase I clinical trial in China, may offer a new treatment option for patients with cancers harboring activated HER3, particularly as part of a combinational therapeutic strategy.

Construction of a bacteriophage-derived vector with potential applications in targeted drug delivery and cell imaging

There is a strong relationship between the dysregulation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and the development of epithelial-derived cancers. Therefore, EGFR has usually been considered the desired target for gene therapy. Here, we propose an approach for targeting EGFR-expressing cells by phage particles capable of displaying EGF and GFP as tumor-targeting and reporting elements, respectively. For this purpose, the superfolder GFP-EGF (sfGFP-EGF) coding sequence was inserted at the N-terminus of the pIII gene in the pIT2 phagemid. The capability of the constructed phage to recognize EGFR-overexpressing cells was monitored by fluorescence microscopy, fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), and cell-based ELISA experiments. FACS analysis showed a significant shift in the mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of the cells treated with phage displaying sfGFP-EGF compared to phage displaying only sfGFP. The binding of phage displaying sfGFP-EGF to A-431 cells, monitored by fluorescence microscopy, indicated the formation of the sfGFP-EGF-EGFR complex on the surface of the treated cells. Cell-based ELISA experiments showed that phages displaying either EGF or sfGFP-EGF can specifically bind EGFR-expressing cells. The vector constructed in the current study has the potential to be engineered for gene delivery purposes as well as cell-based imaging for tumor detection.

EGFR targeting PhosTACs as a dual inhibitory approach reveals differential downstream signaling

We recently developed a heterobifunctional approach [phosphorylation targeting chimeras (PhosTACs)] to achieve the targeted protein dephosphorylation (TPDephos). Here, we envisioned combining the inhibitory effects of receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors (RTKIs) and the active dephosphorylation by phosphatases to achieve dual inhibition of kinases. We report an example of tyrosine phosphatase-based TPDephos and the effective epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine dephosphorylation. We also used phosphoproteomic approaches to study the signaling transductions affected by PhosTAC-related molecules at the proteome-wide level. This work demonstrated the differential signaling pathways inhibited by PhosTAC compared with the TKI, gefitinib. Moreover, a covalent PhosTAC selective for mutated EGFR was developed and showed its inhibitory potential for dysregulated EGFR. Last, EGFR PhosTACs, consistent with EGFR dephosphorylation profiles, induced apoptosis and inhibited cancer cell viability during prolonged PhosTAC treatment. PhosTACs showcased their potential of modulating RTKs activity, expanding the scope of bifunctional molecule utility.

Structural dynamics of the active HER4 and HER2/HER4 complexes is finely tuned by different growth factors and glycosylation

Human Epidermal growth factor Receptor 4 (HER4 or ERBB4) carries out essential functions in the development and maintenance of the cardiovascular and nervous systems. HER4 activation is regulated by a diverse group of extracellular ligands including the neuregulin (NRG) family and betacellulin (BTC), which promote HER4 homodimerization or heterodimerization with other HER receptors. Important cardiovascular functions of HER4 are exerted via heterodimerization with its close homolog and orphan receptor, HER2. To date structural insights into ligand-mediated HER4 activation have been limited to crystallographic studies of HER4 ectodomain homodimers in complex with NRG1β. Here, we report cryo-EM structures of near full-length HER2/HER4 heterodimers and full-length HER4 homodimers bound to NRG1β and BTC. We show that the structures of the heterodimers bound to either ligand are nearly identical and that in both cases the HER2/HER4 heterodimer interface is less dynamic than those observed in structures of HER2/EGFR and HER2/HER3 heterodimers. In contrast, structures of full-length HER4 homodimers bound to NRG1β and BTC display more large-scale dynamics mirroring states previously reported for EGFR homodimers. Our structures also reveal the presence of multiple glycan modifications within HER4 ectodomains, modeled for the first time in HER receptors, that distinctively contribute to the stabilization of HER4 homodimer interfaces over those of HER2/HER4 heterodimers.

Extracellular domain mutations of the EGF receptor differentially modulate high-affinity and low-affinity responses to EGF receptor ligands

The EGF receptor is mutated in a number of cancers. In most cases, the mutations occur in the intracellular tyrosine kinase domain. However, in glioblastomas, many of the mutations are in the extracellular ligand binding domain. To determine what changes in receptor function are induced by such extracellular domain mutations, we analyzed the binding and biological response to the seven different EGF receptor ligands in three common glioblastoma mutants-R84K, A265V, and G574V. Our data indicate that all three mutations significantly increase the binding affinity of all seven ligands. In addition, the mutations increase the potency of all ligands for stimulating receptor autophosphorylation, phospholipase Cγ, Akt, and MAP kinase activity. In all mutants, the rank order of ligand potency seen at the wild-type receptor was retained, suggesting that the receptors still discriminate among the different ligands. However, the low-affinity ligands, EPR and EPG, did show larger than average enhancements of potency for stimulating Akt and MAPK but not receptor autophosphorylation and phospholipase Cγ activation. Relative to the wild-type receptor, these changes lead to an increase in the responsiveness of these mutants to physiological concentrations of ligands and an alteration in the ratio of activation of the different pathways. This may contribute to their oncogenic potential. In the context of recent findings, our data also suggest that so-called "high"-affinity biological responses arise from activation by isolated receptor dimers, whereas "low"-affinity biological responses require clustering of receptors which occurs at higher concentrations of ligand.

The Configuration of GRB2 in Protein Interaction and Signal Transduction

Growth-factor-receptor-binding protein 2 (GRB2) is a non-enzymatic adaptor protein that plays a pivotal role in precisely regulated signaling cascades from cell surface receptors to cellular responses, including signaling transduction and gene expression. GRB2 binds to numerous target molecules, thereby modulating a complex cell signaling network with diverse functions. The structural characteristics of GRB2 are essential for its functionality, as its multiple domains and interaction mechanisms underpin its role in cellular biology. The typical signaling pathway involving GRB2 is initiated by the ligand stimulation to its receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). The activation of RTKs leads to the recruitment of GRB2 through its SH2 domain to the phosphorylated tyrosine residues on the receptor. GRB2, in turn, binds to the Son of Sevenless (SOS) protein through its SH3 domain. This binding facilitates the activation of Ras, a small GTPase, which triggers a cascade of downstream signaling events, ultimately leading to cell proliferation, survival, and differentiation. Further research and exploration into the structure and function of GRB2 hold great potential for providing novel insights and strategies to enhance medical approaches for related diseases. In this review, we provide an outline of the proteins that engage with domains of GRB2, along with the function of different GRB2 domains in governing cellular signaling pathways. This furnishes essential points of current studies for the forthcoming advancement of therapeutic medications aimed at GRB2.

Crosstalk between KDEL receptor and EGF receptor mediates cell proliferation and migration via STAT3 signaling

Hostile microenvironment of cancer cells provoke a stressful condition for endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and stimulate the expression and secretion of ER chaperones, leading to tumorigenic effects. However, the molecular mechanism underlying these effects is largely unknown. In this study, we reveal that the last four residues of ER chaperones, which are recognized by KDEL receptor (KDELR), is required for cell proliferation and migration induced by secreted chaperones. By combining proximity-based mass spectrometry analysis, split venus imaging and membrane yeast two hybrid assay, we present that EGF receptor (EGFR) may be a co-receptor for KDELR on the surface. Prior to ligand addition, KDELR spontaneously oligomerizes and constantly undergoes recycling near the plasma membrane. Upon KDEL ligand binding, the interactions of KDELR with itself and with EGFR increase rapidly, leading to augmented internalization of KDELR and tyrosine phosphorylation in the C-terminus of EGFR. STAT3, which binds the phosphorylated tyrosine motif on EGFR, is subsequently activated by EGFR and mediates cell growth and migration. Taken together, our results suggest that KDELR serves as a bona fide cell surface receptor for secreted ER chaperones and transactivates EGFR-STAT3 signaling pathway.

Niosomes as promising approach for enhancing the cytotoxicity of Hemimycale sp. total crude extract supported with in-silico studies

The crude extract of Hemimycale sp. marine sponge was evaluated as a cytotoxic drug against different cell lines; whereas it exhibited promising selective activity toward the breast cancer cell line only with IC50 value 199.6 ± 0.00512 µg/ml. Moreover, its cytotoxic activity against the breast cancer cell line was reevaluated upon forming total extract-loaded niosomes. This revealed an IC50 value of 44.35 ± 0.011128 µg/ml, indicating the potential contribution of niosomes in boosting cell penetration and activity as a result. Owing to highlight the bioactive constituents responsible for the cytotoxic activity, metabolomics profiling of Hemimycale sp. was performed using liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LC-HR-ESI-MS) revealing tentative identification of phytoconstituents clusters like as, diterpenes, sesterterpenes and sterols. Additionally, the cytotoxic activity of the crude extract was explained on the molecular level, whereas the dereplicated compounds were evaluated in silico against the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor tyrosine kinase (EGFR). The sesterterpenoid derivatives phorbaketal A acetate (12) and secoepoxy ansellone A (13) together with mycalol-522 (17) showed the best binding energy.

Searching for EGF Fragments Recreating the Outer Sphere of the Growth Factor Involved in Receptor Interactions

The aims of this study were to determine whether it is possible to use peptide microarrays obtained using the SPOT technique (immobilized on cellulose) and specific polyclonal antibodies to select fragments that reconstruct the outer sphere of proteins and to ascertain whether the selected peptide fragments can be useful in the study of their protein-protein and/or peptide-protein interactions. Using this approach, epidermal growth factor (EGF) fragments responsible for the interaction with the EGF receptor were searched. A library of EGF fragments immobilized on cellulose was obtained using triazine condensing reagents. Experiments on the interactions with EGFR confirmed the high affinity of the selected peptide fragments. Biological tests on cells showed the lack of cytotoxicity of the EGF fragments. Selected EGF fragments can be used in various areas of medicine.

Distinct interactions stabilize EGFR dimers and higher-order oligomers in cell membranes

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a receptor tyrosine kinase with important roles in many cellular processes as well as in cancer and other diseases. EGF binding promotes EGFR dimerization and autophosphorylation through interactions that are well understood structurally. How these dimers relate to higher-order EGFR oligomers seen in cell membranes, however, remains unclear. Here, we used single-particle tracking (SPT) and Förster resonance energy transfer imaging to examine how each domain of EGFR contributes to receptor oligomerization and the rate of receptor diffusion in the cell membrane. Although the extracellular region of EGFR is sufficient to drive receptor dimerization, we find that the EGF-induced EGFR slowdown seen by SPT requires higher-order oligomerization-mediated in part by the intracellular tyrosine kinase domain when it adopts an active conformation. Our data thus provide important insight into the interactions required for higher-order EGFR assemblies involved in EGF signaling.

Structural dynamics of the active HER4 and HER2/HER4 complexes is finely tuned by different growth factors and glycosylation

Human Epidermal growth factor Receptor 4 (HER4 or ERBB4) carries out essential functions in the development and maintenance of the cardiovascular and nervous systems. HER4 activation is regulated by a diverse group of extracellular ligands including the neuregulin (NRG) family and betacellulin (BTC), which promote HER4 homodimerization or heterodimerization with other HER receptors. Important cardiovascular functions of HER4 are exerted via heterodimerization with its close homolog and orphan receptor, HER2. To date structural insights into ligand-mediated HER4 activation have been limited to crystallographic studies of HER4 ectodomain homodimers in complex with NRG1β. Here we report cryo-EM structures of near full-length HER2/HER4 heterodimers and full-length HER4 homodimers bound to NRG1β and BTC. We show that the structures of the heterodimers bound to either ligand are nearly identical and that in both cases the HER2/HER4 heterodimer interface is less dynamic than those observed in structures of HER2/EGFR and HER2/HER3 heterodimers. In contrast, structures of full-length HER4 homodimers bound to NRG1β and BTC display more large-scale dynamics mirroring states previously reported for EGFR homodimers. Our structures also reveal the presence of multiple glycan modifications within HER4 ectodomains, modeled for the first time in HER receptors, that distinctively contribute to the stabilization of HER4 homodimer interfaces over those of HER2/HER4 heterodimers.

EGFR/MAPK signaling pathway acts as a potential therapeutic target for sulforaphane-rescued heart tube malformation induced by various concentrations of PhIP exposure

BACKGROUND

2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo [4,5-b] pyrimidine (PhIP) is a known carcinogen generated mainly from cooking meat and environmental pollutants. It is worth exploring the potential of natural small-molecule drugs to protect against adverse effects on embryonic development.

PURPOSE

In this study, we investigated the potential toxicological effects of PhIP on embryonic heart tube formation and the effect of Sulforaphane (SFN) administration on the anti-toxicological effects of PhIP on embryonic cardiogenesis.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

First, the chicken embryo model was used to investigate the different phenotypes of embryonic heart tubes induced by various concentrations of PhIP exposure. We also proved that SFN rescues PhIP-induced embryonic heart tube malformation. Second, immunofluorescence, western blot, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and flow cytometry experiments were employed to explore the mechanisms by which SFN protects cardiac cells from oxidative damage in the presence of PhIP. We used RNA-seq analysis, molecular docking, in situ hybridization, cellular thermal shift assay and solution nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to explore whether SFN protects cardiogenesis through the EGFR/MAPK signaling pathway.

RESULTS

The study showed that PhIP might dose-dependently interfere with the C-looping heart tube (mild) or the fusion of a pair of bilateral endocardial tubes (severe) in chick embryos, while SFN administration prevented cardiac cells from oxidative damage in the presence of high-level PhIP. Furthermore, we found that excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and subsequent apoptosis were not the principal mechanisms by which low-level PhIP induced malformation of heart tubes. This is due to PhIP-disturbed Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway could be corrected by SFN administration.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provided novel insight that PhIP exposure could increase the risk of abnormalities in early cardiogenesis and that SFN could partially rescue various concentrations of PhIP-induced abnormal heart tube formation by targeting EGFR and mediating EGFR/MAPK signaling pathways.

In silico screening of chalcone derivatives as promising EGFR-TK inhibitors for the clinical treatment of cancer

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) promotes tumorigenic characteristics and activates cancer-associated signaling pathways such as Wnt/-catenin, transforming growth factor (TGF-β), and phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K). Several inhibitors have been reported to suppress the activity of EGFR and are being used in cancer treatment. However, patients in the malignant stage of cancer show resistance to those inhibitors, opening a wide space for research to discover novel inhibitors. Therefore, we carried out machine learning and virtual screening to discover novel inhibitors with high affinity against EGFR-TK. Initially, a library of 2640 chalcones were screened out using a machine-learning model developed based on the random forest algorithm, exhibiting high sensitivity and a Receiver Operating Characteristic curve (ROC area) of 0.99. Furthermore, out of the initial 2640 screened compounds, 412 compounds exhibiting potential activity are subjected to evaluation for drug-likeness properties through different filters: Blood-brain barrier penetration, Lipinski's rule, CMC-50 like rule, Veber rule, and Ghose filter, alongside Cell Line Cytotoxicity Prediction. A total of 30 compounds that successfully pass through all these filters are selected for molecular docking. Of these, 6 compounds display substantial binding affinity and closer interaction with the conserved catalytic residues of the target EGFR-TK compared to the reference molecule (erlotinib). Furthermore, molecular dynamics simulation studies were conducted on four compounds (CID-375861, CID-375862, CID-23636403, and CID-259166) to confirm the stability of the docked complexes over a 100 ns simulation trajectory. Additionally, the binding free energy calculations by MMPBSA reveal that these four chalcone compounds exhibit strong affinity towards the EGFR-TK enzyme, with binding free energies of - 65.421 kJ/mol, - 94.266 kJ/mol, - 80.044 kJ/mol, and - 79.734 kJ/mol, respectively. The findings from this investigation highlight a set of promising chalcone compounds that have the potential to be developed into effective drugs for the treatment of various cancers. Further research and development on these compounds could pave the way for novel therapeutic interventions.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-023-03858-8.

Targeted Inhibitors of EGFR: Structure, Biology, Biomarkers, and Clinical Applications

Members of the EGFR family of tyrosine kinase receptors are major regulators of cellular proliferation, differentiation, and survival. In humans, abnormal activation of EGFR is associated with the development and progression of many cancer types, which makes it an attractive target for molecular-guided therapy. Two classes of EGFR-targeted cancer therapeutics include monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), which bind to the extracellular domain of EGFR, and tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), which mostly target the intracellular part of EGFR and inhibit its activity in molecular signaling. While EGFR-specific mAbs and three generations of TKIs have demonstrated clinical efficacy in various settings, molecular evolution of tumors leads to apparent and sometimes inevitable resistance to current therapeutics, which highlights the need for deeper research in this field. Here, we tried to provide a comprehensive and systematic overview of the rationale, molecular mechanisms, and clinical significance of the current EGFR-targeting drugs, highlighting potential candidate molecules in development. We summarized the underlying mechanisms of resistance and available personalized predictive approaches that may lead to improved efficacy of EGFR-targeted therapies. We also discuss recent developments and the use of specific therapeutic strategies, such as multi-targeting agents and combination therapies, for overcoming cancer resistance to EGFR-specific drugs.

Cell surface sculpting using logic-gated protein actuators

Cell differentiation and tissue specialization lead to unique cellular surface landscapes and exacerbated or loss of expression patterns can result in further heterogenicity distinctive of pathological phenotypes1-3. Immunotherapies and emerging protein therapeutics seek to exploit such differences by engaging cell populations selectively based on their surface markers. Since a single surface antigen rarely defines a specific cell type4,5, the development of programmable molecular systems that integrate multiple cell surface features to convert on-target inputs to user-defined outputs is highly desirable. Here, we describe an autonomous decision-making protein device driven by proximity-gated protein trans-splicing that allows local generation of an active protein from two otherwise inactive fragments. We show that this protein actuator platform can perform various Boolean logic operations on cell surfaces, allowing highly selective recruitment of enzymatic and cytotoxic activities to specific cells within mixed populations. Due to its intrinsic modularity and tunability, this technology is expected to be compatible with different types of inputs, targeting modalities and functional outputs, and as such will have broad application in the synthetic biology and biotechnology areas.

Proximity extracellular protein-protein interaction analysis of EGFR using AirID-conjugated fragment of antigen binding

Receptor proteins, such as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), interact with other proteins in the extracellular region of the cell membrane to drive intracellular signalling. Therefore, analysis of extracellular protein-protein interactions (exPPIs) is important for understanding the biological function of receptor proteins. Here, we present an approach using a proximity biotinylation enzyme (AirID) fusion fragment of antigen binding (FabID) to analyse the proximity exPPIs of EGFR. AirID was C-terminally fused to the Fab fragment against EGFR (EGFR-FabID), which could then biotinylate the extracellular region of EGFR in several cell lines. Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis indicated that many known EGFR interactors were identified as proximity exPPIs, along with many unknown candidate interactors, using EGFR-FabID. Interestingly, these proximity exPPIs were influenced by treatment with EGF ligand and its specific kinase inhibitor, gefitinib. These results indicate that FabID provides accurate proximity exPPI analysis of target receptor proteins on cell membranes with ligand and drug responses.

Entanglement of MAPK pathways with gene expression and its omnipresence in the etiology for cancer and neurodegenerative disorders

Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) is one of the most well characterized cellular signaling pathways that controls fundamental cellular processes including proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. These cellular functions are consequences of transcription of regulatory genes that are influenced and regulated by the MAP-Kinase signaling cascade. MAP kinase components such as Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs) sense external cues or ligands and transmit these signals via multiple protein complexes such as RAS-RAF, MEK, and ERKs and eventually modulate the transcription factors inside the nucleus to induce transcription and other regulatory functions. Aberrant activation, dysregulation of this signaling pathway, and genetic alterations in any of these components results in the developmental disorders, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders. Over the years, the MAPK pathway has been a prime pharmacological target, to treat complex human disorders that are genetically linked such as cancer, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The current review re-visits the mechanism of MAPK pathways in gene expression regulation. Further, a current update on the progress of the mechanistic understanding of MAPK components is discussed from a disease perspective.

Molecular Docking, Pharmacokinetic and Molecular Simulation Analysis of Novel Mono-Carbonyl Curcumin Analogs as L858R/T790M/C797S Mutant EGFR Inhibitors

INTRODUCTION

Curcumin, an anticancer natural compound with multiple pharmacological activities, has a weak pharmacokinetic and instability due to diketone moiety. Curcumin's stability challenges can be overcome by removing the diketone moiety and shortening the 7-carbon chain, resulting in mono-carbonyl analogs. Cancer proliferation is caused by the activation of Epidermal Growth Factor (EGFR) pathways. Current available EGFR inhibitors have an issue of resistance.

AIM

Thus, we aimed to design new mono-carbonyl curcumin derivatives and analyse their drug likeness properties. Further, to investigate them on three distinct crystal structures, namely two wild-type and L858R/T790M/C797S mutant generations for EGFR inhibitory activity.

METHOD

Ten New Molecular Entities (NME's) were designed using literature survey. These molecules were subjected to comparative molecular docking, on the EGFR crystal structures viz. wild-type (PDB: 1M17 and 4I23) and L858R/T790M/C797S mutant (PDB: 6LUD) using Schrodinger software. The molecules were also tested for Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion and Toxicity (ADMET) properties. The docked complex of the hit molecule was studied for molecular simulation.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

In molecular docking studies, NMEs 1, 2, and 3 were found to have good binding affinity with 1st , 2nd , and 3rd generation EGFR crystal structures and a greater dock score than standard curcumin. All molecules have shown a good ADMET profile. Since L858R/T790M/C797S is currently being explored more, we decided to take the best molecule, NME 3, for molecular dynamics with 6LUD, and the results were compared with those of the co-crystallized ligand S4 (Osimertinib). It was found that the Relative mean square standard deviation (RMSD) (1.8 Å), Relative mean standard Fluctuation (RMSF) (1.45 Å) and radius of gyration (4.87 Å) values of NME 3 were much lower than those of reference S4. All these confirm that our designed NME 3 is more stable than reference S4.

CONCLUSION

NME 1 and NME 2 have shown better binding against wild type of EGFR. NME 3 have shown comparable binding and more stability as compared to Osimertinib against L858R/T790M/C797S mutated protein structure. The hit compound can be further explored for its Molecular mechanics with generalised Born and surface area solvation (MM-GBSA) and discrete Fourier transform (DFT) studies to find out the energy and atomic level study. In the future, this molecule could be taken for wet lab studies and can be tested for mutated EGFR inhibitory activity.

Exploring the repurposing potential of telmisartan drug in breast cancer: an in-silico and in-vitro approach

Anticancer drug resistance is one of the biggest hurdles in the treatment of breast cancer. Drug repurposing is a viable option fordeveloping novel medical treatment strategies since this method is more cost-efficient and rapid. Antihypertensive medicines have recently been found to have pharmacological features that could be used to treat cancer, making them effective candidates for therapeutic repurposing. The goal of our research is to find a potent antihypertensive drug that can be repurposed as adjuvant therapy for breast cancer. In this study, virtual screening was performed using a set of Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved antihypertensive drugs as ligands with selected receptor proteins (EGFR, KRAS, P53, AGTR1, AGTR2, and ACE) assuming these proteins are regarded to have a significant role in hypertension as well as breast cancer. Further, our in-silico results were further confirmed by an in-vitro experiment (cytotoxicity assay). All the compounds (enalapril, atenolol, acebutolol, propranolol, amlodipine, verapamil, doxazosin, prazosin, hydralazine, irbesartan, telmisartan, candesartan, and aliskiren) showed remarkable affinity towards the target receptor proteins. However, maximum affinity was displayed by telmisartan. Cell-based cytotoxicity study of telmisartan in MCF7 (breast cancer cell line) confirmed the anticancer effect of telmisartan. IC50 of the drug was calculated to be 7.75 µM and at this concentration, remarkable morphological alterations were observed in the MCF7 cells confirming its cytotoxicity in breast cancer cells. Based on both in-silico and in-vitro studies, we can conclude that telmisartan appears to be a promising drug repurposing candidate for the therapeutic treatment of breast cancer.

Multi-scale photocatalytic proximity labeling reveals cell surface neighbors on and between cells

The cell membrane proteome is the primary biohub for cell communication, yet we are only beginning to understand the dynamic protein neighborhoods that form on the cell surface and between cells. Proximity labeling proteomics (PLP) strategies using chemically reactive probes are powerful approaches to yield snapshots of protein neighborhoods but are currently limited to one single resolution based on the probe labeling radius. Here, we describe a multi-scale PLP method with tunable resolution using a commercially available histological dye, Eosin Y, which upon visible light illumination, activates three different photo-probes with labeling radii ranging from ∼100 to 3000 Å. We applied this platform to profile neighborhoods of the oncogenic epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and orthogonally validated >20 neighbors using immuno-assays and AlphaFold-Multimer prediction that generated plausible binary interaction models. We further profiled the protein neighborhoods of cell-cell synapses induced by bi-specific T-cell engagers (BiTEs) and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)T cells at longer length scales. This integrated multi-scale PLP platform maps local and distal protein networks on cell surfaces and between cells. We believe this information will aid in the systematic construction of the cell surface interactome and reveal new opportunities for immunotherapeutics.

Paralemnalia thyrsoides-associated fungi: phylogenetic diversity, cytotoxic potential, metabolomic profiling and docking analysis

BACKGROUND

Cancer continues to be one of the biggest causes of death that affects human health. Chemical resistance is still a problem in conventional cancer treatments. Fortunately, numerous natural compounds originating from different microbes, including fungi, possess cytotoxic characteristics that are now well known. This study aims to investigate the anticancer prospects of five fungal strains that were cultivated and isolated from the Red Sea soft coral Paralemnalia thyrsoides. The in vitro cytotoxic potential of the ethyl acetate extracts of the different five isolates were evaluated using MTS assay against four cancer cell lines; A549, CT-26, MDA-MB-231, and U87. Metabolomics profiling of the different extracts using LC-HR-ESI-MS, besides molecular docking studies for the dereplicated compounds were performed to unveil the chemical profile and the cytotoxic mechanism of the soft coral associated fungi.

RESULTS

The five isolated fungal strains were identified as Penicillium griseofulvum (RD1), Cladosporium sphaerospermum (RD2), Cladosporium liminiforme (RD3), Penicillium chrysogenum (RD4), and Epicoccum nigrum (RD5). The in vitro study showed that the ethyl acetate extract of RD4 exhibited the strongest cytotoxic potency against three cancer cell lines A549, CT-26 and MDA-MB-231 with IC50 values of 1.45 ± 8.54, 1.58 ± 6.55 and 1.39 ± 2.0 µg/mL, respectively, also, RD3 revealed selective cytotoxic potency against A549 with IC50 value of 6.99 ± 3.47 µg/mL. Docking study of 32 compounds dereplicated from the metabolomics profiling demonstrated a promising binding conformation with EGFR tyrosine kinase that resembled its co-crystallized ligand albeit with better binding energy score.

CONCLUSION

Our results highlight the importance of soft coral-associated fungi as a promising source for anticancer metabolites for future drug discovery.

The ErbB Signaling Network and Its Potential Role in Endometrial Cancer

Endometrial cancer (EC) is the second most common malignancy of the female reproductive system worldwide. The updated EC classification emphasizes the significant role of various signaling pathways such as PIK3CA-PIK3R1-PTEN and RTK/RAS/β-catenin in EC pathogenesis. Some of these pathways are part of the EGF system signaling network, which becomes hyperactivated by various mechanisms and participates in cancer pathogenesis. In EC, the expression of ErbB receptors is significantly different, compared with the premenopausal and postmenopausal endometrium, mainly because of the increased transcriptional activity of ErbB encoding genes in EC cells. Moreover, there are some differences in ErbB-2 receptor profile among EC subgroups that could be explained by the alterations in pathophysiology and clinical behavior of various EC histologic subtypes. The fact that ErbB-2 receptor expression is more common in aggressive EC histologic subtypes (papillary serous and clear cell) could indicate a future role of ErbB-targeted therapies in well-defined EC subgroups with overexpression of ErbB receptors.

Scaling eukaryotic cell-free protein synthesis achieved with the versatile and high-yielding tobacco BY-2 cell lysate

Eukaryotic cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) can accelerate expression and high-throughput analysis of complex proteins with functionally relevant post-translational modifications (PTMs). However, low yields and difficulties scaling such systems have prevented their widespread adoption in protein research and manufacturing. Here, we provide detailed demonstrations for the capabilities of a CFPS system derived from Nicotiana tabacum BY-2 cell culture (BY-2 lysate; BYL). BYL is able to express diverse, functional proteins at high yields in 48 h, complete with native disulfide bonds and N-glycosylation. An optimized version of the technology is commercialized as ALiCE® and advances in scaling of BYL production methodologies now allow scaling of eukaryotic CFPS reactions. We show linear, lossless scale-up of batch mode protein expression from 100 µL microtiter plates to 10 and 100 mL volumes in Erlenmeyer flasks, culminating in preliminary data from a litre-scale reaction in a rocking-type bioreactor. Together, scaling across a 20,000x range is achieved without impacting product yields. Production of multimeric virus-like particles from the BYL cytosolic fraction were then shown, followed by functional expression of multiple classes of complex, difficult-to-express proteins using the native microsomes of the BYL CFPS. Specifically: a dimeric enzyme; a monoclonal antibody; the SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain; a human growth factor; and a G protein-coupled receptor membrane protein. Functional binding and activity are demonstrated, together with in-depth PTM characterization of purified proteins through disulfide bond and N-glycan analysis. Taken together, BYL is a promising end-to-end R&D to manufacturing platform with the potential to significantly reduce the time-to-market for high value proteins and biologics.

Ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complexes with visible light-enhanced anticancer activity and multimodal cell imaging

Ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complexes have drawn growing attention due to their photophysical properties and anticancer activity. Herein we report four ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complexes [(N^N)2RuII(L)]2+ (1-4, L = 4-anilinoquinazoline derivatives, N^N = bidentate ligands with bis-nitrogen donors) as multi-functional anticancer agents. The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is overexpressed in a broad range of cancer cells and related to many kinds of malignance. EGFR inhibitors, such as gefitinib and erlotinib, have been approved as clinical anticancer drugs. The EGFR-inhibiting 4-anilinoquinazoline ligands greatly enhanced the in vitro anticancer activity of these ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complexes against a series of human cancer cell lines compared to [Ru(bpy)2(phen)], but interestingly, these complexes were actually not potent EGFR inhibitors. Further mechanism studies revealed that upon irradiation with visible light, complexes 3 and 4 generated a high level of singlet oxygen (1O2), and their in vitro anticancer activities against human non-small-cell lung (A549), cervical (HeLa) and squamous (A431) cancer cells were significantly improved. Specifically, complex 3 displayed potent phototoxicity upon irradiation with blue light, of which the photo-toxicity indexes (PIs) against HeLa and A431 cells were 11 and 8.3, respectively. These complexes exhibited strong fluorescence emission at ca. 600 nm upon excitation at about 450 nm. A subcellular distribution study by fluorescence microscopy imaging and secondary ion mass spectrometry imaging (ToF-SIMS) demonstrated that complex 3 mainly localized at the cytoplasm and complex 4 mainly localized in the nuclei of cells. Competitive binding with ctDNA showed that complex 4 was more favorable to bind to the DNA minor groove than complex 3. These differences support that complex 3 possibly exerts its anticancer activities majorly by photo-induced 1O2 generation and complex 4 by binding to DNA.

Selection of optimised ligands by fluorescence-activated bead sorting

The chemistry of aptamers is largely limited to natural nucleotides, and although modifications of nucleic acids can enhance target aptamer affinity, there has not yet been a technology for selecting the right modifications in the right locations out of the vast number of possibilities, because enzymatic amplification does not transmit sequence-specific modification information. Here we show the first method for the selection of specific nucleoside modifications that increase aptamer binding efficacy, using the oncoprotein EGFR as a model target. Using fluorescence-activated bead sorting (FABS), we have successfully selected optimized aptamers from a library of >65 000 variations. Hits were identified by tandem mass spectrometry and validated by using an EGFR binding assay and computational docking studies. Our results provide proof of concept for this novel strategy for the selection of chemically optimised aptamers and offer a new method for rapidly synthesising and screening large aptamer libraries to accelerate diagnostic and drug discovery.

EGFR trafficking: effect of dimerization, dynamics, and mutation

Spontaneous dimerization of EGF receptors (EGFR) and dysregulation of EGFR signaling has been associated with the development of different cancers. Under normal physiological conditions and to maintain homeostatic cell growth, once EGFR signaling occurs, it needs to be attenuated. Activated EGFRs are rapidly internalized, sorted through early endosomes, and ultimately degraded in lysosomes by a process generally known as receptor down-regulation. Through alterations to EGFR trafficking, tumors develop resistance to current treatment strategies, thus highlighting the necessity for combination treatment strategies that target EGFR trafficking. This review covers EGFR structure, trafficking, and altered surface expression of EGFR receptors in cancer, with a focus on how therapy targeting EGFR trafficking may aid tyrosine kinase inhibitor treatment of cancer.

The design of functional proteins using tensorized energy calculations

In protein design, the energy associated with a huge number of sequence-conformer perturbations has to be routinely estimated. Hence, enhancing the throughput and accuracy of these energy calculations can profoundly improve design success rates and enable tackling more complex design problems. In this work, we explore the possibility of tensorizing the energy calculations and apply them in a protein design framework. We use this framework to design enhanced proteins with anti-cancer and radio-tracing functions. Particularly, we designed multispecific binders against ligands of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), where the tested design could inhibit EGFR activity in vitro and in vivo. We also used this method to design high-affinity Cu2+ binders that were stable in serum and could be readily loaded with copper-64 radionuclide. The resulting molecules show superior functional properties for their respective applications and demonstrate the generalizable potential of the described protein design approach.

Combination of Pinocembrin and Epidermal Growth Factor Enhances the Proliferation and Survival of Human Keratinocytes

Re-epithelialization is delayed in aged skin due to a slow rate of keratinocyte proliferation, and this may cause complications. Thus, there has been development of new therapies that increase treatment efficacy for skin wounds. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) has been clinically used, but this agent is expensive, and its activity is less stable. Therefore, a stable compound possessing EGF-like properties may be an effective therapy, especially when combined with EGF. The current study discovered that pinocembrin (PC) effectively synergized with EGF in increasing keratinocyte viability. The combination of PC and EGF significantly enhanced the proliferation and wound closure rate of the keratinocyte monolayer through activating the phosphorylation of ERK and Akt. Although these effects of PC were like those of EGF, we clearly proved that PC did not transactivate EGFR. Recent data from a previous study revealed that PC activates G-protein-coupled receptor 120 which further activates ERK1/2 and Akt phosphorylation. Therefore, this clearly indicates that PC possesses a unique property to stimulate the growth and survival of keratinocytes through activating a different receptor, which subsequently conveys the signal to cross-talk with the effector kinases downstream of the EGFR, suggesting that PC is a potential compound to be combined with EGF.

V3: an enigmatic isoform of the proteoglycan versican

V3 is an isoform of the extracellular matrix (ECM) proteoglycan (PG) versican generated through alternative splicing of the versican gene such that the two major exons coding for sequences in the protein core that support chondroitin sulfate (CS) glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chain attachment are excluded. Thus, versican V3 isoform carries no GAGs. A survey of PubMed reveals only 50 publications specifically on V3 versican, so it is a very understudied member of the versican family, partly because to date there are no antibodies that can distinguish V3 from the CS-carrying isoforms of versican, that is, to facilitate functional and mechanistic studies. However, a number of in vitro and in vivo studies have identified the expression of the V3 transcript during different phases of development and in disease, and selective overexpression of V3 has shown dramatic phenotypic effects in "gain and loss of function" studies in experimental models. Thus, we thought it would be useful and instructive to discuss the discovery, characterization, and the putative biological importance of the enigmatic V3 isoform of versican.

Development of 177Lu-Cetuximab-PAMAM dendrimeric nanosystem: a novel theranostic radioimmunoconjugate

PURPOSE

Epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFRs) are overexpressed in a wide range of tumors and are attractive candidates to target in targeted therapies. This study aimed to introduce a novel radiolabeled compound, 177Lu-cetuximab-PAMAM G4, for the treatment of EGFR-expressing tumors.

METHODS

In this study, the cetuximab mAb was bound to PAMAM G4 and labeled with 177Lu via DTPA-CHX chelator. The synthesized nanosystem was confirmed by different analyses such as DLS, FT-IR, TEM, and RT-LC. Cell viability of the radioimmunoconjugate was assessed over the EGFR-expressing cell line of SW480. The biodistribution of 177Lu-Cetuximab-PAMAMG4 was determined in different intervals after injection of the radiolabeled compound in normal and tumoral nude mice via scarification and SPECT images.

RESULTS

The average size of PAMAM G4 and PAMAM-Cetuximab-DTPA-CHX nanoparticles were 2 and 70 nm, respectively. 177Lu-Cetuximab-PAMAMG4 was prepared with radiochemical purity of more than 98%. The survival rates of SW480 cells at 24, 48, and 72 h post-treatment with177Lu-Cetuximab-PAMAMG4 (500 nM) were 18%, 15%, and 14%, respectively. The biodistribution studies showed a significant accumulation of 177Lu-Cetuximab-PAMAM in the EGFR-expressing tumor.

CONCLUSION

According to the results, this new agent can be considered as an efficient therapeutic complex for tumors expressing EGFR receptors.