Root transcriptional dynamics induced by beneficial rhizobacteria and microbial immune elicitors reveal signatures of adaptation to mutualists

Mechanisms of ROS-mediated interactions between Bacillus aryabhattai LAD and maize roots to promote plant growth

BACKGROUND

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), as a group of environmentally friendly bacteria growing in the rhizosphere of plants, play an important role in plant growth and development and resistance to environmental stresses. However, their limited understanding has led to the fact that their large-scale use in agriculture is still scarce, and the mechanisms by which beneficial bacteria are selected by plants and how they interact with them are still unclear.

METHOD

In this study, we investigated the interaction between the auxin-producing strain Bacillus aryabhattai LAD and maize roots, and performed transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses of Bacillus aryabhattai LAD after treatment with maize root secretions(RS).

RESULTS

Our results show that there is a feedback effect between the plant immune system and bacterial auxin. Bacteria activate the immune response of plant roots to produce reactive oxygen species(ROS), which in turn stimulates bacteria to synthesize IAA, and the synthesized IAA further promotes plant growth. Under the condition of co-culture with LAD, the main root length, seedling length, root surface area and root volume of maize increased by 197%, 107%, 89% and 75%, respectively. In addition, the results of transcriptome metabolome analysis showed that LAD was significantly enriched in amino acid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism and lipid metabolism pathways after RS treatment, including 93 differentially expressed genes and 45 differentially accumulated metabolites.

CONCLUSION

Our findings not only provide a relevant model for exploring the effects of plant-soil microbial interactions on plant defense functions and thereby promoting plant growth, but also lay a solid foundation for the future large-scale use of PGPR in agriculture for sustainable agricultural development.

From trade-off to synergy: microbial insights into enhancing plant growth and immunity

The reduction in crop yield caused by pathogens and pests presents a significant challenge to global food security. Genetic engineering, which aims to bolster plant defence mechanisms, emerges as a cost-effective solution for disease control. However, this approach often incurs a growth penalty, known as the growth-defence trade-off. The precise molecular mechanisms governing this phenomenon are still not completely understood, but they generally fall under two main hypotheses: a "passive" redistribution of metabolic resources, or an "active" regulatory choice to optimize plant fitness. Despite the knowledge gaps, considerable practical endeavours are in the process of disentangling growth from defence. The plant microbiome, encompassing both above- and below-ground components, plays a pivotal role in fostering plant growth and resilience to stresses. There is increasing evidence which indicates that plants maintain intimate associations with diverse, specifically selected microbial communities. Meta-analyses have unveiled well-coordinated, two-way communications between plant shoots and roots, showcasing the capacity of plants to actively manage their microbiota for balancing growth with immunity, especially in response to pathogen incursions. This review centers on successes in making use of specific root-associated microbes to mitigate the growth-defence trade-off, emphasizing pivotal advancements in unravelling the mechanisms behind plant growth and defence. These findings illuminate promising avenues for future research and practical applications.

Plant-Driven Assembly of Disease-Suppressive Soil Microbiomes

Plants have coevolved together with the microbes that surround them and this assemblage of host and microbes functions as a discrete ecological unit called a holobiont. This review outlines plant-driven assembly of disease-suppressive microbiomes. Plants are colonized by microbes from seed, soil, and air but selectively shape the microbiome with root exudates, creating microenvironment hot spots where microbes thrive. Using plant immunity for gatekeeping and surveillance, host-plant genetic properties govern microbiome assembly and can confer adaptive advantages to the holobiont. These advantages manifest in disease-suppressive soils, where buildup of specific microbes inhibits the causal agent of disease, that typically develop after an initial disease outbreak. Based on disease-suppressive soils such as take-all decline, we developed a conceptual model of how plants in response to pathogen attack cry for help and recruit plant-protective microbes that confer increased resistance. Thereby, plants create a soilborne legacy that protects subsequent generations and forms disease-suppressive soils.

Harnessing the plant microbiome for sustainable crop production

Global research on the plant microbiome has enhanced our understanding of the complex interactions between plants and microorganisms. The structure and functions of plant-associated microorganisms, as well as the genetic, biochemical, physical and metabolic factors that influence the beneficial traits of plant microbiota have also been intensively studied. Harnessing the plant microbiome has led to the development of various microbial applications to improve crop productivity in the face of a range of challenges, for example, climate change, abiotic and biotic stresses, and declining soil properties. Microorganisms, particularly nitrogen-fixing rhizobia as well as mycorrhizae and biocontrol agents, have been applied for decades to improve plant nutrition and health. Still, there are limitations regarding efficacy and consistency under field conditions. Also, the wealth of expanding knowledge on microbiome diversity, functions and interactions represents a huge source of information to exploit for new types of application. In this Review, we explore plant microbiome functions, mechanisms, assembly and types of interaction, and discuss current applications and their pitfalls. Furthermore, we elaborate on how the latest findings in plant microbiome research may lead to the development of new or more advanced applications. Finally, we discuss research gaps to fully leverage microbiome functions for sustainable plant production.

AtSNU13 modulates pre-mRNA splicing of RBOHD and ALD1 to regulate plant immunity

Pre-mRNA splicing is a significant step for post-transcriptional modifications and functions in a wide range of physiological processes in plants. Human NHP2L binds to U4 snRNA during spliceosome assembly; it is involved in RNA splicing and mediates the development of human tumors. However, no ortholog has yet been identified in plants. Therefore, we report At4g12600 encoding the ortholog NHP2L protein, and AtSNU13 associates with the component of the spliceosome complex; the atsnu13 mutant showed compromised resistance in disease resistance, indicating that AtSNU13 is a positive regulator of plant immunity. Compared to wild-type plants, the atsnu13 mutation resulted in altered splicing patterns for defense-related genes and decreased expression of defense-related genes, such as RBOHD and ALD1. Further investigation shows that AtSNU13 promotes the interaction between U4/U6.U5 tri-snRNP-specific 27 K and the motif in target mRNAs to regulate the RNA splicing. Our study highlights the role of AtSNU13 in regulating plant immunity by affecting the pre-mRNA splicing of defense-related genes.

NRT1.1B mediates rice plant growth and soil microbial diversity under different nitrogen conditions

Interactions between microorganisms and plants can stimulate plant growth and promote nitrogen cycling. Nitrogen fertilizers are routinely used in agriculture to improve crop growth and yield; however, poor use efficiency impairs the optimal utilization of such fertilizers. Differences in the microbial diversity and plant growth of rice soil under different nitrogen application conditions and the expression of nitrogen-use efficiency-related genes have not been previously investigated. Therefore, this study investigates how nitrogen application and nitrogen-use efficiency-related gene NRT1.1B expression affect the soil microbial diversity and growth indices of two rice varieties, Huaidao 5 and Xinhuai 5. In total, 103,463 and 98,427 operational taxonomic units were detected in the soils of the Huaidao 5 and Xinhuai 5 rice varieties, respectively. The Shannon and Simpson indices initially increased and then decreased, whereas the Chao and abundance-based coverage estimator indices decreased after the application of nitrogen fertilizer. Nitrogen fertilization also reduced soil bacterial diversity and richness, as indicated by the reduced abundances of Azotobacter recorded in the soils of both rice varieties. Nitrogen application initially increased and then decreased the grain number per panicle, yield per plant, root, stem, and leaf nitrogen, total nitrogen content, glutamine synthetase, nitrate reductase, urease, and root activities of both varieties. Plant height showed positive linear trends in response to nitrogen application, whereas thousand-grain weights showed a negative trend. Our findings may be used to optimize nitrogen fertilizer use for rice cultivation and develop crop-variety-specific strategies for nitrogen fertilizer application.

Streptomyces-triggered coordination between rhizosphere microbiomes and plant transcriptome enables watermelon Fusarium wilt resistance

The use of microbial inoculant is a promising strategy to improve plant health, but their efficiency often faces challenges due to difficulties in successful microbial colonization in soil environments. To this end, the application of biostimulation products derived from microbes is expected to resolve these barriers via direct interactions with plants or soil pathogens. However, their effectiveness and mechanisms for promoting plant growth and disease resistance remain elusive. In this study, we showed that root irrigation with the extracts of Streptomyces ahygroscopicus strain 769 (S769) solid fermentation products significantly reduced watermelon Fusarium wilt disease incidence by 30% and increased the plant biomass by 150% at a fruiting stage in a continuous cropping field. S769 treatment led to substantial changes in both bacterial and fungal community compositions, and induced a highly interconnected microbial association network in the rhizosphere. The root transcriptome analysis further suggested that S769 treatment significantly improved the expression of the MAPK signalling pathway, plant hormone signal transduction and plant-pathogen interactions, particular those genes related to PR-1 and ethylene, as well as genes associated with auxin production and reception. Together, our study provides mechanistic and empirical evidences for the biostimulation products benefiting plant health through coordinating plant and rhizosphere microbiome interaction.

MAPK Cascades in Plant Microbiota Structure and Functioning

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades are highly conserved signaling modules that coordinate diverse biological processes such as plant innate immunity and development. Recently, MAPK cascades have emerged as pivotal regulators of the plant holobiont, influencing the assembly of normal plant microbiota, essential for maintaining optimal plant growth and health. In this review, we provide an overview of current knowledge on MAPK cascades, from upstream perception of microbial stimuli to downstream host responses. Synthesizing recent findings, we explore the intricate connections between MAPK signaling and the assembly and functioning of plant microbiota. Additionally, the role of MAPK activation in orchestrating dynamic changes in root exudation to shape microbiota composition is discussed. Finally, our review concludes by emphasizing the necessity for more sophisticated techniques to accurately decipher the role of MAPK signaling in establishing the plant holobiont relationship.

Harnessing root exudates for plant microbiome engineering and stress resistance in plants

A wide range of abiotic and biotic stresses adversely affect plant's growth and production. Under stress, one of the main responses of plants is the modulation of exudates excreted in the rhizosphere, which consequently leads to alterations in the resident microbiota. Thus, the exudates discharged into the rhizospheric environment play a preponderant role in the association and formation of plant-microbe interactions. In this review, we aimed to provide a synthesis of the latest and most pertinent literature on the diverse biochemical and structural compositions of plant root exudates. Also, this work investigates into their multifaceted role in microbial nutrition and intricate signaling processes within the rhizosphere, which includes quorum-sensing molecules. Specifically, it explores the contributions of low molecular weight compounds, such as carbohydrates, phenolics, organic acids, amino acids, and secondary metabolites, as well as the significance of high molecular weight compounds, including proteins and polysaccharides. It also discusses the state-of-the-art omics strategies that unveil the vital role of root exudates in plant-microbiome interactions, including defense against pathogens like nematodes and fungi. We propose multiple challenges and perspectives, including exploiting plant root exudates for host-mediated microbiome engineering. In this discourse, root exudates and their derived interactions with the rhizospheric microbiota should receive greater attention due to their positive influence on plant health and stress mitigation.

Commensal lifestyle regulated by a negative feedback loop between Arabidopsis ROS and the bacterial T2SS

Despite the plant health-promoting effects of plant microbiota, these assemblages also comprise potentially detrimental microbes. How plant immunity controls its microbiota to promote plant health under these conditions remains largely unknown. We find that commensal bacteria isolated from healthy Arabidopsis plants trigger diverse patterns of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production dependent on the immune receptors and completely on the NADPH oxidase RBOHD that selectively inhibited specific commensals, notably Xanthomonas L148. Through random mutagenesis, we find that L148 gspE, encoding a type II secretion system (T2SS) component, is required for the damaging effects of Xanthomonas L148 on rbohD mutant plants. In planta bacterial transcriptomics reveals that RBOHD suppresses most T2SS gene expression including gspE. L148 colonization protected plants against a bacterial pathogen, when gspE was inhibited by ROS or mutation. Thus, a negative feedback loop between Arabidopsis ROS and the bacterial T2SS tames a potentially detrimental leaf commensal and turns it into a microbe beneficial to the host.

Root-associated Streptomyces produce galbonolides to modulate plant immunity and promote rhizosphere colonization

The rhizosphere, which serves as the primary interface between plant roots and the soil, constitutes an ecological niche for a huge diversity of microbial communities. Currently, there is little knowledge on the nature and the function of the different metabolites released by rhizospheric microbes to facilitate colonization of this highly competitive environment. Here, we demonstrate how the production of galbonolides, a group of polyene macrolides that inhibit plant and fungal inositol phosphorylceramide synthase (IPCS), empowers the rhizospheric Streptomyces strain AgN23, to thrive in the rhizosphere by triggering the plant's defence mechanisms. Metabolomic analysis of AgN23-inoculated Arabidopsis roots revealed a strong induction in the production of an indole alkaloid, camalexin, which is a major phytoalexin in Arabidopsis. By using a plant mutant compromised in camalexin synthesis, we show that camalexin production is necessary for the successful colonization of the rhizosphere by AgN23. Conversely, hindering galbonolides biosynthesis in AgN23 knock-out mutant resulted in loss of inhibition of IPCS, a deficiency in plant defence activation, notably the production of camalexin, and a strongly reduced development of the mutant bacteria in the rhizosphere. Together, our results identified galbonolides as important metabolites mediating rhizosphere colonization by Streptomyces.

RAF-like protein kinases mediate a deeply conserved, rapid auxin response

The plant-signaling molecule auxin triggers fast and slow cellular responses across land plants and algae. The nuclear auxin pathway mediates gene expression and controls growth and development in land plants, but this pathway is absent from algal sister groups. Several components of rapid responses have been identified in Arabidopsis, but it is unknown if these are part of a conserved mechanism. We recently identified a fast, proteome-wide phosphorylation response to auxin. Here, we show that this response occurs across 5 land plant and algal species and converges on a core group of shared targets. We found conserved rapid physiological responses to auxin in the same species and identified rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma (RAF)-like protein kinases as central mediators of auxin-triggered phosphorylation across species. Genetic analysis connects this kinase to both auxin-triggered protein phosphorylation and rapid cellular response, thus identifying an ancient mechanism for fast auxin responses in the green lineage.

B. subtilis CNBG-PGPR-1 induces methionine to regulate ethylene pathway and ROS scavenging for improving salt tolerance of tomato

Soil salinity severely threatens plant growth and crop yields. The utilization of PGPR is an effective strategy for enhancing plant salt tolerance, but the mechanisms involved in this process have rarely been reported. In this study, we investigated the effects of Bacillus subtilis CNBG-PGPR-1 on improving plant salt tolerance and elucidated the molecular pathways involved. The results showed that CNBG-PGPR-1 significantly improved the cellular homeostasis and photosynthetic efficiency of leaves and reduced ion toxicity and osmotic stress caused by salt in tomato. Transcriptome analysis uncovered that CNBG-PGPR-1 enhanced plant salt tolerance through the activation of complex molecular pathways, with plant hormone signal transduction playing an important role. Comparative analysis and pharmacological experiments confirmed that the ethylene pathway was closely related to the beneficial effect of CNBG-PGPR-1 on improving plant salt tolerance. Furthermore, we found that methionine, a precursor of ethylene synthesis, significantly accumulated in response to CNBG-PGPR-1 in tomato. Exogenous L-methionine largely mimicked the beneficial effects of CNBG-PGPR-1 and activated the expression of ethylene pathway-related genes, indicating CNBG-PGPR-1 induces methionine accumulation to regulate the ethylene pathway in tomato. Finally, CNBG-PGPR-1 reduced salt-induced ROS by activating ROS scavenger-encoding genes, mainly involved in GSH metabolism and POD-related genes, which were also closely linked to methionine metabolism. Overall, our studies demonstrate that CNBG-PGPR-1-induced methionine is a key regulator in enhancing plant salt tolerance through the ethylene pathway and ROS scavenging, providing a novel understanding of the mechanism by which beneficial microbes improve plant salt tolerance.

Arabidopsis thaliana Early Foliar Proteome Response to Root Exposure to the Rhizobacterium Pseudomonas simiae WCS417

Pseudomonas simiae WCS417 is a plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium that improves plant health and development. In this study, we investigate the early leaf responses of Arabidopsis thaliana to WCS417 exposure and the possible involvement of formate dehydrogenase (FDH) in such responses. In vitro-grown A. thaliana seedlings expressing an FDH::GUS reporter show a significant increase in FDH promoter activity in their roots and shoots after 7 days of indirect exposure (without contact) to WCS417. After root exposure to WCS417, the leaves of FDH::GUS plants grown in the soil also show an increased FDH promoter activity in hydathodes. To elucidate early foliar responses to WCS417 as well as FDH involvement, the roots of A. thaliana wild-type Col and atfdh1-5 knock-out mutant plants grown in soil were exposed to WCS417, and proteins from rosette leaves were subjected to proteomic analysis. The results reveal that chloroplasts, in particular several components of the photosystems PSI and PSII, as well as members of the glutathione S-transferase family, are among the early targets of the metabolic changes induced by WCS417. Taken together, the alterations in the foliar proteome, as observed in the atfdh1-5 mutant, especially after exposure to WCS417 and involving stress-responsive genes, suggest that FDH is a node in the early events triggered by the interactions between A. thaliana and the rhizobacterium WCS417. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Microbiota and the plant immune system work together to defend against pathogens

Plants are exposed to a myriad of microorganisms, which can range from helpful bacteria to deadly disease-causing pathogens. The ability of plants to distinguish between helpful bacteria and dangerous pathogens allows them to continuously survive under challenging environments. The investigation of the modulation of plant immunity by beneficial microbes is critical to understand how they impact plant growth improvement and defense against invasive pathogens. Beneficial bacterial populations can produce significant impact on plant immune responses, including regulation of immune receptors activity, MITOGEN-ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE (MAPK) activation, transcription factors, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling. To establish themselves, beneficial bacterial populations likely reduce plant immunity. These bacteria help plants to recover from various stresses and resume a regular growth pattern after they have been established. Contrarily, pathogens prevent their colonization by releasing toxins into plant cells, which have the ability to control the local microbiota via as-yet-unidentified processes. Intense competition among microbial communities has been found to be advantageous for plant development, nutrient requirements, and activation of immune signaling. Therefore, to protect themselves from pathogens, plants may rely on the beneficial microbiota in their environment and intercommunity competition amongst microbial communities.

Co-evolution within the plant holobiont drives host performance

Plants interact with a diversity of microorganisms that influence their growth and resilience, and they can therefore be considered as ecological entities, namely "plant holobionts," rather than as singular organisms. In a plant holobiont, the assembly of above- and belowground microbiota is ruled by host, microbial, and environmental factors. Upon microorganism perception, plants activate immune signaling resulting in the secretion of factors that modulate microbiota composition. Additionally, metabolic interdependencies and antagonism between microbes are driving forces for community assemblies. We argue that complex plant-microbe and intermicrobial interactions have been selected for during evolution and may promote the survival and fitness of plants and their associated microorganisms as holobionts. As part of this process, plants evolved metabolite-mediated strategies to selectively recruit beneficial microorganisms in their microbiota. Some of these microbiota members show host-adaptation, from which mutualism may rapidly arise. In the holobiont, microbiota members also co-evolved antagonistic activities that restrict proliferation of microbes with high pathogenic potential and can therefore prevent disease development. Co-evolution within holobionts thus ultimately drives plant performance.

Effectiveness of Phosphate and Zinc Solubilizing Paenarthrobacter nitroguajacolicus P1 as Halotolerant Rhizobacterium with Growth-Promoting Activity on Pistacia vera L

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are beneficial microorganisms to develop microbial fertilizers. Biofertilizers can accelerate plant growth and enhance crop yields. The current research aimed to isolate and identify rhizobacterium with plant growth-promoting activity in the rhizospheric region of pistachio trees in arid and salty region of Iran. In the present study, 26 bacterial isolates were isolated from the rhizospheric region of the pistachio trees. Plant growth-promoting characteristics of isolated bacteria, including the ability to solubilize phosphate and zinc, produce hydrolyzing enzymes, and hydrogen cyanide (HCN), as well as synthesize indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) were evaluated through in vitro assays. Based on these activities, five multifunctional bacterial strains designated P1, P10, P11, P17, and P19 were then applied and their effect was studied on the growth and physiological properties of Pistacia vera L. seedlings by pot experiments under normal conditions. Finally, the most efficient strain has been identified by analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequence. According to the results, all the isolated bacteria exhibited considerable plant growth-promoting properties. They could produce amylase (n = 26, 2 ± 0.00-13 ± 0.42 mm), lipase (n = 24, 2 ± 0.00-9 ± 0.23 mm), protease (n = 20, 1 ± 0.00-17 ± 0.0 mm), indole-3-acetic acid (n = 26, ranging from 5.05 ± 0.08 to 11.5 ± 0.11 μg/mL) and HCN (n = 24). Six isolates showed significant growth at 20% w/v NaCl. Inoculation of P1, P17, and P19 increased chlorophyll, carotenoid, and phenolic content in treated Pistacia vera L. seedlings. P1 and P11 inoculated plants showed an enhanced level of anthocyanin and proline. These most effective strains were catalase and Gram-positive bacterium and showed antibiotic sensitivity. They can consider as halotolerant PGPR, due to the growth in the presence of NaCl (20% w/v). Finally, P1 inoculated plants exhibited higher levels of sugar content. This strain showed the most similarity (99.92%-1322 bp) to Paenarthrobacter nitroguajacolicus based on 16S rRNA gene sequence. Based on the results, Paenarthrobacter nitroguajacolicus P1 with multiple PGPR can be applied as a promising candidate in the soil-Pistacia vera L. system to improve their productivity and health by increasing available nutrient content, improving photosynthetic parameters, and producing phytohormones and HCN.

Harnessing the action mechanisms of microbial endophytes for enhancing plant performance and stress tolerance: current understanding and future perspectives

Microbial endophytes are microorganisms that reside within plant tissues without causing any harm to their hosts. These microorganisms have been found to confer a range of benefits to plants, including increased growth and stress tolerance. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in our understanding of the mechanisms by which microbial endophytes confer abiotic and biotic stress tolerance to their host plants. Specifically, we focus on the roles of endophytes in enhancing nutrient uptake, modulating plant hormones, producing secondary metabolites, and activating plant defence responses. We also discuss the challenges associated with developing microbial endophyte-based products for commercial use, including product refinement, toxicology analysis, and prototype formulation. Despite these challenges, there is growing interest in the potential applications of microbial endophytes in agriculture and environmental remediation. With further research and development, microbial endophyte-based products have the potential to play a significant role in sustainable agriculture and environmental management.

The Use of Synthetic Microbial Communities to Improve Plant Health

Despite the numerous benefits plants receive from probiotics, maintaining consistent results across applications is still a challenge. Cultivation-independent methods associated with reduced sequencing costs have considerably improved the overall understanding of microbial ecology in the plant environment. As a result, now, it is possible to engineer a consortium of microbes aiming for improved plant health. Such synthetic microbial communities (SynComs) contain carefully chosen microbial species to produce the desired microbiome function. Microbial biofilm formation, production of secondary metabolites, and ability to induce plant resistance are some of the microbial traits to consider when designing SynComs. Plant-associated microbial communities are not assembled randomly. Ecological theories suggest that these communities have a defined phylogenetic organization structured by general community assembly rules. Using machine learning, we can study these rules and target microbial functions that generate desired plant phenotypes. Well-structured assemblages are more likely to lead to a stable SynCom that thrives under environmental stressors as compared with the classical selection of single microbial activities or taxonomy. However, ensuring microbial colonization and long-term plant phenotype stability is still one of the challenges to overcome with SynComs, as the synthetic community may change over time with microbial horizontal gene transfer and retained mutations. Here, we explored the advances made in SynCom research regarding plant health, focusing on bacteria, as they are the most dominant microbial form compared with other members of the microbiome and the most commonly found in SynCom studies.

Cell-type-specific transcriptomics reveals that root hairs and endodermal barriers play important roles in beneficial plant-rhizobacterium interactions

Growth- and health-promoting bacteria can boost crop productivity in a sustainable way. Pseudomonas simiae WCS417 is such a bacterium that efficiently colonizes roots, modifies the architecture of the root system to increase its size, and induces systemic resistance to make plants more resistant to pests and pathogens. Our previous work suggested that WCS417-induced phenotypes are controlled by root cell-type-specific mechanisms. However, it remains unclear how WCS417 affects these mechanisms. In this study, we transcriptionally profiled five Arabidopsis thaliana root cell types following WCS417 colonization. We found that the cortex and endodermis have the most differentially expressed genes, even though they are not in direct contact with this epiphytic bacterium. Many of these genes are associated with reduced cell wall biogenesis, and mutant analysis suggests that this downregulation facilitates WCS417-driven root architectural changes. Furthermore, we observed elevated expression of suberin biosynthesis genes and increased deposition of suberin in the endodermis of WCS417-colonized roots. Using an endodermal barrier mutant, we showed the importance of endodermal barrier integrity for optimal plant-beneficial bacterium association. Comparison of the transcriptome profiles in the two epidermal cell types that are in direct contact with WCS417-trichoblasts that form root hairs and atrichoblasts that do not-implies a difference in potential for defense gene activation. While both cell types respond to WCS417, trichoblasts displayed both higher basal and WCS417-dependent activation of defense-related genes compared with atrichoblasts. This suggests that root hairs may activate root immunity, a hypothesis that is supported by differential immune responses in root hair mutants. Taken together, these results highlight the strength of cell-type-specific transcriptional profiling to uncover "masked" biological mechanisms underlying beneficial plant-microbe associations.

Conservation and divergence of flg22, pep1 and nlp20 in activation of immune response and inhibition of root development

Many pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) and their corresponding ligands have been identified. However, it is largely unknown how similar and different these ligands are in inducing plant innate immunity and affecting plant development. In this study, we examined three well characterized ligands in Arabidopsis thaliana, namely flagellin 22 (flg22), plant elicitor peptide 1 (pep1) and a conserved 20-amino-acid fragment found in most necrosis and ethylene-inducing peptide 1-like proteins (nlp20). Our quantitative analyses detected the differences in amplitude in the early immune responses of these ligands, with nlp20-induced responses typically being slower than those mediated by flg22 and pep1. RNA sequencing showed the shared differentially expressed genes (DEGs) was mostly enriched in defense response, whereas nlp20-regulated genes represent only a fraction of those genes differentially regulated by flg22 and pep1. The three elicitors all inhibited primary root growth, especially pep1, which inhibited both auxin transport and signaling pathway. In addition, pep1 significantly inhibited the cell division and genes involved in cell cycle. Compared with flg22 and nlp20, pep1 induced much stronger expression of its receptor in roots, suggesting a potential positive feedback regulation in the activation of immune response. Despite PRRs and their co-receptor BAK1 were necessary for both PAMP induced immune response and root growth inhibition, bik1 mutant only showed impaired defense response but relatively normal root growth inhibition, suggesting BIK1 acts differently in these two biological processes.

Role of microbial inoculants as bio fertilizers for improving crop productivity: A review

The world's population is increasing and is anticipated to spread 10 billion by 2050, and the issue of food security is becoming a global concern. To maintain global food security, it is essential to increase crop productivity under changing climatic conditions. Conventional agricultural practices frequently use artificial/chemical fertilizers to enhance crop productivity, but these have numerous negative effects on the environment and people's health. To address these issues, researchers have been concentrating on substitute crop fertilization methods for many years, and biofertilizers as a crucial part of agricultural practices are quickly gaining popularity all over the globe. Biofertilizers are living formulations made of indigenous plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) which are substantial, environment-friendly, and economical biofertilizers for amassing crop productivity by enhancing plant development either directly or indirectly, and are the renewable source of plant nutrients and sustainable agronomy. The review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on microbial inoculants as biofertilizers, including their types, mechanisms of action, effects on crop productivity, challenges, and limitations associated with the use of microbial inoculants. In this review, we focused on the application of biofertilizers to agricultural fields in plant growth development by performing several activities like nitrogen fixation, siderophore production, phytohormone production, nutrient solubilization, and facilitating easy uptake by crop plants. Further, we discussed the indirect mechanism of PGPRs, in developing induced system resistance against pest and diseases, and as a biocontrol agent for phytopathogens. This review article presents a brief outline of the ideas and uses of microbial inoculants in improving crop productivity as well as a discussion of the challenges and limitations to use microbial inoculants.

Unveiling the duality of Pantoea dispersa: A mini review

Pantoea dispersa is a Gram-negative bacterium that exists in a variety of environments and has potential in many commercial and agricultural applications, such as biotechnology, environmental protection, soil bioremediation, and plant growth stimulation. However, P. dispersa is also a harmful pathogen to both humans and plants. This "double-edged sword" phenomenon is not uncommon in nature. To ensure survival, microorganisms respond to both environmental and biological stimuli, which could be beneficial or detrimental to other species. Therefore, to harness the full potential of P. dispersa, while minimizing potential harm, it is imperative to unravel its genetic makeup, understand its ecological interactions and underlying mechanisms. This review aims to provide a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of the genetic and biological characteristics of P. dispersa, in addition to potential impacts on plants and humans, as well as to provide insights into potential applications.

Two Medicago truncatula growth-promoting rhizobacteria capable of limiting in vitro growth of the Fusarium soil-borne pathogens modulate defense genes expression

MAIN CONCLUSION

PGPRs: P. fluorescens Ms9N and S. maltophilia Ll4 inhibit in vitro growth of three legume fungal pathogens from the genus Fusarium. One or both trigger up-regulation of some genes (CHIT, GLU, PAL, MYB, WRKY) in M. truncatula roots and leaves in response to soil inoculation. Pseudomonas fluorescens (referred to as Ms9N; GenBank accession No. MF618323, not showing chitinase activity) and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia (Ll4; GenBank accession No. MF624721, showing chitinase activity), previously identified as promoting growth rhizobacteria of Medicago truncatula, were found, during an in vitro experiment, to exert an inhibitory effect on three soil-borne fungi: Fusarium culmorum Cul-3, F. oxysporum 857 and F. oxysporum f. sp. medicaginis strain CBS 179.29, responsible for serious diseases of most legumes including M. truncatula. S. maltophilia was more active than P. fluorescens in suppressing the mycelium growth of two out of three Fusarium strains. Both bacteria showed β-1,3-glucanase activity which was about 5 times higher in P. fluorescens than in S. maltophilia. Upon soil treatment with a bacterial suspension, both bacteria, but particularly S. maltophilia, brought about up-regulation of plant genes encoding chitinases (MtCHITII, MtCHITIV, MtCHITV), glucanases (MtGLU) and phenylalanine ammonia lyases (MtPAL2, MtPAL4, MtPAL5). Moreover, the bacteria up-regulate some genes from the MYB (MtMYB74, MtMYB102) and WRKY (MtWRKY6, MtWRKY29, MtWRKY53, MtWRKY70) families which encode TFs in M. truncatula roots and leaves playing multiple roles in plants, including a defense response. The effect depended on the bacterium species and the plant organ. This study provides novel information about effects of two M. truncatula growth-promoting rhizobacteria strains and suggests that both have a potential to be candidates for PGPR inoculant products on account of their ability to inhibit in vitro growth of Fusarium directly and indirectly by up-regulation of some defense priming markers such as CHIT, GLU and PAL genes in plants. This is also the first study of the expression of some MYB and WRKY genes in roots and leaves of M. truncatula upon soil treatment with two PGPR suspensions.

The Arabidopsis chromatin regulator MOM1 is a negative component of the defense priming induced by AZA, BABA and PIP

In plants, the establishment of broad and long-lasting immunity is based on programs that control systemic resistance and immunological memory or "priming". Despite not showing activated defenses, a primed plant induces a more efficient response to recurrent infections. Priming might involve chromatin modifications that allow a faster/stronger activation of defense genes. The Arabidopsis chromatin regulator "Morpheus Molecule 1" (MOM1) has been recently suggested as a priming factor affecting the expression of immune receptor genes. Here, we show that mom1 mutants exacerbate the root growth inhibition response triggered by the key defense priming inducers azelaic acid (AZA), β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) and pipecolic acid (PIP). Conversely, mom1 mutants complemented with a minimal version of MOM1 (miniMOM1 plants) are insensitive. Moreover, miniMOM1 is unable to induce systemic resistance against Pseudomonas sp. in response to these inducers. Importantly, AZA, BABA and PIP treatments reduce the MOM1 expression, but not miniMOM1 transcript levels, in systemic tissues. Consistently, several MOM1-regulated immune receptor genes are upregulated during the activation of systemic resistance in WT plants, while this effect is not observed in miniMOM1. Taken together, our results position MOM1 as a chromatin factor that negatively regulates the defense priming induced by AZA, BABA and PIP.

Duplicated Flagellins in Pseudomonas Divergently Contribute to Motility and Plant Immune Elicitation

Flagellins are the main constituents of the flagellar filaments that provide bacterial motility, chemotactic ability, and host immune elicitation ability. Although the functions of flagellins have been extensively studied in bacteria with a single flagellin-encoding gene, the function of multiple flagellin-encoding genes in a single bacterial species is largely unknown. Here, the model plant-growth-promoting bacterium Pseudomonas kilonensis F113 was used to decipher the divergent functions of duplicated flagellins. We demonstrate that the two flagellins (FliC-1 and FliC-2) in 12 Pseudomonas strains, including F113, are evolutionarily distinct. Only the fliC-1 gene but not the fliC-2 gene in strain F113 is responsible for flagellar biogenesis, motility, and plant immune elicitation. The transcriptional expression of fliC-2 was significantly lower than that of fliC-1 in medium and in planta, most likely due to variations in promoter activity. In silico prediction revealed that all fliC-2 genes in the 12 Pseudomonas strains have a poorly conserved promoter motif. Compared to the Flg22-2 epitope (relative to FliC-2), Flg22-1 (relative to FliC-1) induced stronger FLAGELLIN SENSING 2 (FLS2)-mediated microbe-associated molecular pattern-triggered immunity and significantly inhibited plant root growth. A change in the 19th amino acid in Flg22-2 reduced its binding affinity to the FLS2/brassinosteroid insensitive 1-associated kinase 1 complex. Also, Flg22-2 epitopes in the other 11 Pseudomonas strains were presumed to have low binding affinity due to the same change in the 19th amino acid. These findings suggest that Pseudomonas has evolved duplicate flagellins, with only FliC-1 contributing to motility and plant immune elicitation. IMPORTANCE Flagellins have emerged as important microbial patterns. This work focuses on flagellin duplication in some plant-associated Pseudomonas. Our findings on the divergence of duplicated flagellins provide a conceptual framework for better understanding the functional determinant flagellin and its peptide in multiple-flagellin plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria.

The Arabidopsis LHT1 Amino Acid Transporter Contributes to Pseudomonas simiae-Mediated Plant Growth Promotion by Modulating Bacterial Metabolism in the Rhizosphere

The root microbiome structure ensures optimal plant host health and fitness, and it is, at least in part, defined by the plant genotype. It is well documented that root-secreted amino acids promote microbial chemotaxis and growth in the rhizosphere. However, whether the plant-mediated re-uptake of amino acids contributes to maintaining optimal levels of amino acids in the root exudates, and, in turn, microbial growth and metabolism, remains to be established. Here, we show that Lysine-Histidine Transporter-1 (LHT1), an amino acid inward transporter expressed in Arabidopsis thaliana roots, limits the growth of the plant-growth-promoting bacteria Pseudomonas simiae WCS417r (Ps WCS417r). The amino acid profiling of the lht1 mutant root exudates showed increased levels of glutamine, among other amino acids. Interestingly, lht1 exudates or Gln-supplemented wild-type exudates enhance Ps WCS417r growth. However, despite promoting bacterial growth and robust root colonization, lht1 exudates and Gln-supplemented wild-type exudates inhibited plant growth in a Ps WCS417r-dependent manner. The transcriptional analysis of defense and growth marker genes revealed that plant growth inhibition was not linked to the elicitation of plant defense but likely to the impact of Ps WCS417r amino acids metabolism on auxin signaling. These data suggest that an excess of amino acids in the rhizosphere impacts Ps WCS417r metabolism, which, in turn, inhibits plant growth. Together, these results show that LHT1 regulates the amino-acid-mediated interaction between plants and Ps WCS417r and suggest a complex relationship between root-exuded amino acids, root colonization by beneficial bacteria, bacterial metabolism, and plant growth promotion.

The involvement of AtMKK1 and AtMKK3 in plant-deleterious microbial volatile compounds-induced defense responses

Plant-deleterious microbial volatiles activate the transactivation of hypoxia, MAMPs and wound responsive genes in Arabidopsis thaliana. AtMKK1 and AtMKK3 are involved in the plant-deleterious microbial volatiles-induced defense responses. Microbial volatile compounds (mVCs) are a collection of volatile metabolites from microorganisms with biological effects on all living organisms. mVCs function as gaseous modulators of plant growth and plant health. In this study, the defense events induced by plant-deleterious mVCs were investigated. Enterobacter aerogenes VCs lead to growth inhibition and immune responses in Arabidopsis thaliana. E. aerogenes VCs negatively regulate auxin response and transport gene expression in the root tip, as evidenced by decreased expression of DR5::GFP, PIN3::PIN3-GFP and PIN4::PIN4-GFP. Data from transcriptional analysis suggests that E. aerogenes VCs trigger hypoxia response, innate immune responses and metabolic processes. In addition, the transcript levels of the genes involved in the synthetic pathways of antimicrobial metabolites camalexin and coumarin are increased after the E. aerogenes VCs exposure. Moreover, we demonstrate that MKK1 serves as a regulator of camalexin biosynthesis gene expression in response to E. aerogenes VCs, while MKK3 is the regulator of coumarin biosynthesis gene expression. Additionally, MKK1 and MKK3 mediate the E. aerogenes VCs-induced callose deposition. Collectively, these studies provide molecular insights into immune responses by plant-deleterious mVCs.

Foliar Pathogen Infection Manipulates Soil Health through Root Exudate-Modified Rhizosphere Microbiome

Negative plant-soil feedback (NPSF) due to the buildup of soilborne pathogens in soil is a major obstacle in sustainable agricultural systems. Beneficial rhizosphere microfloras are recruited by plants, and mediating this has become a strategic priority to manipulate plant health. Here, we found that foliar infection of Panax notoginseng by Alternaria panax changed plant-soil feedback from negative to positive. Foliar infection modified the rhizosphere soil microbial community and reversed the direction of the buildup of the soilborne pathogen Ilyonectria destructans and beneficial microbes, including Trichoderma, Bacillus, and Streptomyces, in rhizosphere soil. These beneficial microbes not only showed antagonistic ability against the pathogen I. destructans but also enhanced the resistance of plants to A. panax. Foliar infection enhanced the exudation of short- and long-chain organic acids, sugars, and amino acids from roots. In vitro and in vivo experiments validated that short- and long-chain organic acids and sugars play dual roles in simultaneously suppressing pathogens but enriching beneficial microbes. In summary, foliar infection could change root secretion to drive shifts in the rhizosphere microbial community to enhance soil health, providing a new strategy to alleviate belowground disease in plants through aboveground inducement. IMPORTANCE Belowground soilborne disease is the main factor limiting sustainable agricultural production and is difficult to manage due to the complexity of the soil environment. Here, we found that aboveground parts of plants infected by foliar pathogens could enhance the secretion of organic acids, sugars, and amino acids in root exudates to suppress soilborne pathogens and enrich beneficial microbes, eventually changing the plant and soil feedback from negative to positive and alleviating belowground soilborne disease. This is an exciting strategy by which to achieve belowground soilborne disease management by manipulating the aboveground state through aboveground stimulation.

Development specifies, diversifies and empowers root immunity

Roots are a highly organised plant tissue consisting of different cell types with distinct developmental functions defined by cell identity networks. Roots are the target of some of the most devastating diseases and possess a highly effective immune system. The recognition of microbe- or plant-derived molecules released in response to microbial attack is highly important in the activation of complex immunity gene networks. Development and immunity are intertwined, and immunity activation can result in growth inhibition. In turn, by connecting immunity and cell identity regulators, cell types are able to launch a cell type-specific immunity based on the developmental function of each cell type. By this strategy, fundamental developmental processes of each cell type contribute their most basic functions to drive cost-effective but highly diverse and, thus, efficient immune responses. This review highlights the interdependence of root development and immunity and how the developmental age of root cells contributes to positive and negative outcomes of development-immunity cross-talk.

Pathways to engineering the phyllosphere microbiome for sustainable crop production

Current disease resistance breeding, which is largely dependent on the exploitation of resistance genes in host plants, faces the serious challenges of rapidly evolving phytopathogens. The phyllosphere is the largest biological surface on Earth and an untapped reservoir of functional microbiomes. The phyllosphere microbiome has the potential to defend against plant diseases. However, the mechanisms of how the microbiota assemble and function in the phyllosphere remain largely elusive, and this restricts the exploitation of the targeted beneficial microbes in the field. Here we review the endogenous and exogenous cues impacting microbiota assembly in the phyllosphere and how the phyllosphere microbiota in turn facilitate the disease resistance of host plants. We further construct a holistic framework by integrating of holo-omics, genetic manipulation, culture-dependent characterization and emerging artificial intelligence techniques, such as deep learning, to engineer the phyllosphere microbiome for sustainable crop production.

Application of ecosystem-specific reference databases for increased taxonomic resolution in soil microbial profiling

Intensive agriculture systems have paved the way for a growing human population. However, the abundant use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides may negatively impact nutrient cycles and biodiversity. One potential alternative is to harness beneficial relationships between plants and plant-associated rhizobacteria to increase nutrient-use efficiency and provide pathogen resistance. Plant-associated microbiota profiling can be achieved using high-throughput 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. However, interrogation of these data is limited by confident taxonomic classifications at high taxonomic resolution (genus- or species level) with the commonly applied universal reference databases. High-throughput full-length 16S rRNA gene sequencing combined with automated taxonomy assignment (AutoTax) can be used to create amplicon sequence variant resolved ecosystems-specific reference databases that are superior to the traditional universal reference databases. This approach was used here to create a custom reference database for bacteria and archaea based on 987,353 full-length 16S rRNA genes from Askov and Cologne soils. We evaluated the performance of the database using short-read amplicon data and found that it resulted in the increased genus- and species-level classification compared to commonly use universal reference databases. The custom database was utilized to evaluate the ecosystem-specific primer bias and taxonomic resolution of amplicon primers targeting the V5–V7 region of the 16S rRNA gene commonly used within the plant microbiome field. Finally, we demonstrate the benefits of custom ecosystem-specific databases through the analysis of V5–V7 amplicon data to identify new plant-associated microbes for two legumes and two cereal species.

Evolution of manipulative microbial behaviors in the rhizosphere

The rhizosphere has been called "one of the most complex ecosystems on earth" because it is a hotspot for interactions among millions of microbial cells. Many of these are microbes are also participating in a dynamic interplay with host plant tissues, signaling pathways, and metabolites. Historically, breeders have employed a plant-centric perspective when trying to harness the potential of microbiome-derived benefits to improve productivity and resilience of economically important plants. This is potentially problematic because: (i) the evolution of the microbes themselves is often ignored, and (ii) it assumes that the fitness of interacting plants and microbes is strictly aligned. In contrast, a microbe-centric perspective recognizes that putatively beneficial microbes are still under selection to increase their own fitness, even if there are costs to the host. This can lead to the evolution of sophisticated, potentially subtle, ways for microbes to manipulate the phenotype of their hosts, as well as other microbes in the rhizosphere. We illustrate this idea with a review of cases where rhizosphere microbes have been demonstrated to directly manipulate host root growth, architecture and exudation, host nutrient uptake systems, and host immunity and defense. We also discuss indirect effects, whereby fitness outcomes for the plant are a consequence of ecological interactions between rhizosphere microbes. If these consequences are positive for the plant, they can potentially be misconstrued as traits that have evolved to promote host growth, even if they are a result of selection for unrelated functions. The ubiquity of both direct microbial manipulation of hosts and context-dependent, variable indirect effects leads us to argue that an evolutionary perspective on rhizosphere microbial ecology will become increasingly important as we continue to engineer microbial communities for crop production.

Friend or foe: Hybrid proline-rich proteins determine how plants respond to beneficial and pathogenic microbes

Plant plastids generate signals, including some derived from lipids, that need to be mobilized to effect signaling. We used informatics to discover potential plastid membrane proteins involved in microbial responses in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Among these are proteins co-regulated with the systemic immunity component AZELAIC ACID INDUCED 1, a hybrid proline-rich protein (HyPRP), and HyPRP superfamily members. HyPRPs have a transmembrane domain, a proline-rich region (PRR), and a lipid transfer protein domain. The precise subcellular location(s) and function(s) are unknown for most HyPRP family members. As predicted by informatics, a subset of HyPRPs has a pool of proteins that target plastid outer envelope membranes via a mechanism that requires the PRR. Additionally, two HyPRPs may be associated with thylakoid membranes. Most of the plastid- and nonplastid-localized family members also have pools that localize to the endoplasmic reticulum, plasma membrane, or plasmodesmata. HyPRPs with plastid pools regulate, positively or negatively, systemic immunity against the pathogen Pseudomonas syringae. HyPRPs also regulate the interaction with the plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria Pseudomonas simiae WCS417 in the roots to influence colonization, root system architecture, and/or biomass. Thus, HyPRPs have broad and distinct roles in immunity, development, and growth responses to microbes and reside at sites that may facilitate signal molecule transport.

Plant latent defense response to microbial non-pathogenic factors antagonizes compatibility

Unlike microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) that are readily targeted by host immunity, microbial non-pathogenic factors (NPFs) appear negligible as they do not elicit defense. Little is known about whether and how NPFs may be monitored by hosts to control compatibility. Herein, a forward genetic screening isolated an Arabidopsis mutant with a loss of plant-rhizobacteria mutualism, leading to the disclosure of a plant latent defense response (LDR) to NPFs. The activation of LDR in the mutant, named rol1 for regulator of LDR 1, is triggered by several non-pathogenic volatile organic compounds and antagonizes plant compatibility with the beneficial bacterium Bacillus amyloliquefaciens GB03. The activation of LDR in rol1 is mediated through the prokaryotic pathway of chloroplastic lipid biosynthesis. The rol1 root microbiome showed a reduced proportion of the Bacillaceae family. We propose that, parallel to the forefront immunity to MAMPs, LDR to certain NPFs provides a hidden layer of defense for controlling compatibility with commensal or beneficial microbes.

The receptor kinase SRF3 coordinates iron-level and flagellin dependent defense and growth responses in plants

Iron is critical for host–pathogen interactions. While pathogens seek to scavenge iron to spread, the host aims at decreasing iron availability to reduce pathogen virulence. Thus, iron sensing and homeostasis are of particular importance to prevent host infection and part of nutritional immunity. While the link between iron homeostasis and immunity pathways is well established in plants, how iron levels are sensed and integrated with immune response pathways remains unknown. Here we report a receptor kinase SRF3, with a role in coordinating root growth, iron homeostasis and immunity pathways via regulation of callose synthases. These processes are modulated by iron levels and rely on SRF3 extracellular and kinase domains which tune its accumulation and partitioning at the cell surface. Mimicking bacterial elicitation with the flagellin peptide flg22 phenocopies SRF3 regulation upon low iron levels and subsequent SRF3-dependent responses. We propose that SRF3 is part of nutritional immunity responses involved in sensing external iron levels.

Iron homeostasis is known to influence plant immune signaling. Here the authors characterize SRF3, a receptor kinase that acts as a negative regulator of callose synthesis, that is required for root responses to iron deficiency and pathogen signals.

Priming of camalexin accumulation in induced systemic resistance by beneficial bacteria against Botrytis cinerea and Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000

Plants harbor various beneficial microbes that modulate their innate immunity, resulting in induced systemic resistance (ISR) against a broad range of pathogens. Camalexin is an integral part of Arabidopsis innate immunity, but the contribution of its biosynthesis in ISR is poorly investigated. We focused on camalexin accumulation primed by two beneficial bacteria, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis, and its role in ISR against Botrytis cinerea and Pseudomonas syringae Pst DC3000. Our data show that colonization of Arabidopsis thaliana roots by beneficial bacteria triggers ISR against both pathogens and primes plants for enhanced accumulation of camalexin and CYP71A12 transcript in leaf tissues. Pseudomonas fluorescens induced the most efficient ISR response against B. cinerea, while B. subtilis was more efficient against Pst DC3000. Analysis of cyp71a12 and pad3 mutants revealed that loss of camalexin synthesis affected ISR mediated by both bacteria against B. cinerea. CYP71A12 and PAD3 contributed significantly to the pathogen-triggered accumulation of camalexin, but PAD3 does not seem to contribute to ISR against Pst DC3000. This indicated a significant contribution of camalexin in ISR against B. cinerea, but not always against Pst DC3000. Experiments with Arabidopsis mutants compromised in different hormonal signaling pathways highlighted that B. subtilis stimulates similar signaling pathways upon infection with both pathogens, since salicylic acid (SA), but not jasmonic acid (JA) or ethylene, is required for ISR camalexin accumulation. However, P. fluorescens-induced ISR differs depending on the pathogen; both SA and JA are required for camalexin accumulation upon B. cinerea infection, while camalexin is not necessary for priming against Pst DC3000.

Camalexin accumulation as a component of plant immunity during interactions with pathogens and beneficial microbes

This review provides an overview on the role of camalexin in plant immunity taking into account various plant-pathogen and beneficial microbe interactions, regulation mechanisms and the contribution in basal and induced plant resistance. In a hostile environment, plants evolve complex and sophisticated defense mechanisms to counteract invading pathogens and herbivores. Several lines of evidence support the assumption that secondary metabolites like phytoalexins which are synthesized de novo, play an important role in plant defenses and contribute to pathogens' resistance in a wide variety of plant species. Phytoalexins are synthesized and accumulated in plants upon pathogen challenge, root colonization by beneficial microbes, following treatment with chemical elicitors or in response to abiotic stresses. Their protective properties against pathogens have been reported in various plant species as well as their contribution to human health. Phytoalexins are synthesized through activation of particular sets of genes encoding specific pathways. Camalexin (3'-thiazol-2'-yl-indole) is the primary phytoalexin produced by Arabidopsis thaliana after microbial infection or abiotic elicitation and an iconic representative of the indole phytoalexin family. The synthesis of camalexin is an integral part of cruciferous plant defense mechanisms. Although the pathway leading to camalexin has been largely elucidated, the regulatory networks that control the induction of its biosynthetic steps by pathogens with different lifestyles or by beneficial microbes remain mostly unknown. This review thus presents current knowledge regarding camalexin biosynthesis induction during plant-pathogen and beneficial microbe interactions as well as in response to microbial compounds and provides an overview on its regulation and interplay with signaling pathways. The contribution of camalexin to basal and induced plant resistance and its detoxification by some pathogens to overcome host resistance are also discussed.

Knowing me, knowing you: Self and non-self recognition in plant immunity

Perception of non-self molecules known as microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) by host pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) activates plant pattern-triggered immunity (PTI). Pathogen infections often trigger the release of modified-self molecules, termed damage- or danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), which modulate MAMP-triggered signaling to shape the frontline of plant immune responses against infections. In the context of advances in identifying MAMPs and DAMPs, cognate receptors, and their signaling, here, we focus on the most recent breakthroughs in understanding the perception and role of non-self and modified-self patterns. We highlight the commonalities and differences of MAMPs from diverse microbes, insects, and parasitic plants, as well as the production and perception of DAMPs upon infections. We discuss the interplay between MAMPs and DAMPs for emerging themes of the mutual potentiation and attenuation of PTI signaling upon MAMP and DAMP perception during infections.

Plant iron nutrition: the long road from soil to seeds

Iron (Fe) is an essential plant micronutrient since many cellular processes including photosynthesis, respiration, and the scavenging of reactive oxygen species depend on adequate Fe levels; however, non-complexed Fe ions can be dangerous for cells, as they can act as pro-oxidants. Hence, plants possess a complex homeostatic control system for safely taking up Fe from the soil and transporting it to its various cellular destinations, and for its subcellular compartmentalization. At the end of the plant's life cycle, maturing seeds are loaded with the required amount of Fe needed for germination and early seedling establishment. In this review, we discuss recent findings on how the microbiota in the rhizosphere influence and interact with the strategies adopted by plants to take up iron from the soil. We also focus on the process of seed-loading with Fe, and for crop species we also consider its associated metabolism in wild relatives. These two aspects of plant Fe nutrition may provide promising avenues for a better comprehension of the long pathway of Fe from soil to seeds.

Genomic Variations and Mutational Events Associated with Plant-Pathogen Interactions

Phytopathologists are actively researching the molecular basis of plant-pathogen interactions. The mechanisms of responses to pathogens have been studied extensively in model crop plant species and natural populations. Today, with the rapid expansion of genomic technologies such as DNA sequencing, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, as well as the development of new methods and protocols, data analysis, and bioinformatics, it is now possible to assess the role of genetic variation in plant-microbe interactions and to understand the underlying molecular mechanisms of plant defense and microbe pathogenicity with ever-greater resolution and accuracy. Genetic variation is an important force in evolution that enables organisms to survive in stressful environments. Moreover, understanding the role of genetic variation and mutational events is essential for crop breeders to produce improved cultivars. This review focuses on genetic variations and mutational events associated with plant-pathogen interactions and discusses how these genome compartments enhance plants' and pathogens' evolutionary processes.

Non-host plants: Are they mycorrhizal networks players?

Common mycorrhizal networks (CMNs) that connect individual plants of the same or different species together play important roles in nutrient and signal transportation, and plant community organization. However, about 10% of land plants are non-mycorrhizal species with roots that do not form any well-recognized types of mycorrhizas; and each mycorrhizal fungus can only colonize a limited number of plant species, resulting in numerous non-host plants that could not establish typical mycorrhizal symbiosis with a specific mycorrhizal fungus. If and how non-mycorrhizal or non-host plants are able to involve in CMNs remains unclear. Here we summarize studies focusing on mycorrhizal-mediated host and non-host plant interaction. Evidence has showed that some host-supported both arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (EM) hyphae can access to non-host plant roots without forming typical mycorrhizal structures, while such non-typical mycorrhizal colonization often inhibits the growth but enhances the induced system resistance of non-host plants. Meanwhile, the host growth is also differentially affected, depending on plant and fungi species. Molecular analyses suggested that the AMF colonization to non-hosts is different from pathogenic and endophytic fungi colonization, and the hyphae in non-host roots may be alive and have some unknown functions. Thus we propose that non-host plants are also important CMNs players. Using non-mycorrhizal model species Arabidopsis, tripartite culture system and new technologies such as nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry and multi-omics, to study nutrient and signal transportation between host and non-host plants via CMNs may provide new insights into the mechanisms underlying benefits of intercropping and agro-forestry systems, as well as plant community establishment and stability.

Impacts of the Biocontrol Strain Pseudomonas simiae PICF7 on the Banana Holobiont: Alteration of Root Microbial Co-occurrence Networks and Effect on Host Defense Responses

The impact of the versatile biocontrol and plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria Pseudomonas simiae PICF7 on the banana holobiont under controlled conditions was investigated. We examine the fate of this biological control agent (BCA) upon introduction in the soil, the effect on the banana root microbiota, and the influence on specific host genetic defense responses. While the presence of strain PICF7 significantly altered neither the composition nor the structure of the root microbiota, a significant shift in microbial community interactions through co-occurrence network analysis was observed. Despite the fact that PICF7 did not constitute a keystone, the topology of this network was significantly modified-the BCA being identified as a constituent of one of the main network modules in bacterized plants. Gene expression analysis showed the early suppression of several systemic acquired resistance and induced systemic resistance (ISR) markers. This outcome occurred at the time in which the highest relative abundance of PICF7 was detected. The absence of major and permanent changes on the banana holobiont upon PICF7 introduction poses advantages regarding the use of this beneficial rhizobacteria under field conditions. Indeed a BCA able to control the target pathogen while altering as little as possible the natural host-associated microbiome should be a requisite when developing effective bio-inoculants.

How Plants Recalibrate Cellular Iron Homeostasis

Insufficient iron supply poses severe constraints on plants, restricting species with inefficient iron uptake mechanisms from habitats with low iron availability and causing yield losses in agricultural ecosystems. Iron deficiency also poses a severe threat on human health. Anemia resulting from insufficient iron intake is affecting one of four people in the world. It is, therefore, imperative to understand the mechanisms by which plants acquire iron against a huge soil-cell gradient and how iron is distributed within the plant to develop strategies that increase its concentration in edible plant parts. Research into the processes that are employed by plants to adjust cellular iron homeostasis revealed an astonishingly complex puzzle of signaling nodes and circuits, which are intertwined with the perception and communication of other environmental cues such as pathogens, light, nutrient availability and edaphic factors such as pH. In a recent Spotlight issue in this journal, a collection of review articles summarized the state-of-the-art in plant iron research, covering the most active and, debatably, most important topics in this field. Here, we highlight breakthroughs that were reported after the publication date of this review collection, focusing on exciting and potentially influential studies that have changed our understanding of plant iron nutrition.

Gnotobiotic Plant Systems for Reconstitution and Functional Studies of the Root Microbiota

Healthy plants host a multi-kingdom community of microbes, which is known as the plant microbiota. Amplicon sequencing technologies for microbial genomic markers were a milestone in revealing the taxonomic composition of the microbiota and its variation associated with a plant host in natural environments. However, this method alone does not allow conclusions to be drawn about functions of these microbial assemblages for the plant. The development of culture collections, which recapitulate natural microbial communities in their diversity, and multiple gnotobiotic plant systems therefore represent a breakthrough in plant-microbiota research such that plants can be inoculated with defined communities to study proposed microbiota functions. These systems provided, for the root microbiota, first insights into mechanisms underlying microbial community establishment and contributions of its microbial members to indirect pathogen protection and mineral nutrition of the host. We argue that the choice of a gnotobiotic system for microbiota reconstitution and subsequent functional analysis depends on the particular plant trait that is influenced by the microbiota. We start by discussing the advantages and limitations of using individual gnotobiotic systems and then describe the general procedures for preparing bacterial cultures from the Arabidopsis thaliana At-R-SPHERE culture collection for inoculation and cocultivation in two gnotobiotic plant growth systems using agar and perlite matrix. Additionally, a protocol for inoculation of plants with opportunistic Pseudomonas pathogens is provided. Lastly, we describe a high-throughput system for visual assessment of roots after inoculation with individual mutants of a transposon library generated from a root-derived bacterial commensal. © 2022 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Preparation of bacterial cultures from At-R-SPHERE Support Protocol 1: Validation of strains by sequencing hypervariable regions of the 16S rRNA gene Basic Protocol 2: Coinoculation of plants grown on an agar matrix with microbial elicitor and a defined microbial community Alternate Protocol: Inoculation of plants cultivated in a perlite-based growth system Support Protocol 2: Surface sterilization of Arabidopsis thaliana seeds Basic Protocol 3: Inoculation using a Pseudomonas opportunistic pathogen Basic Protocol 4: Assessment of commensal-mediated root phenotypes using phytostrips.

Bridging the Gap: Type III Secretion Systems in Plant-Beneficial Bacteria

Type III secretion systems (T3SSs) are bacterial membrane-embedded nanomachines translocating effector proteins into the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. They have been intensively studied for their important roles in animal and plant bacterial diseases. Over the past two decades, genome sequencing has unveiled their ubiquitous distribution in many taxa of Gram-negative bacteria, including plant-beneficial ones. Here, we discuss the distribution and functions of the T3SS in two agronomically important bacterial groups: the symbiotic nodule-forming nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and the free-living plant-beneficial Pseudomonas spp. In legume-rhizobia symbiosis, T3SSs and their cognate effectors play important roles, including the modulation of the plant immune response and the initiation of the nodulation process in some cases. In plant-beneficial Pseudomonas spp., the roles of T3SSs are not fully understood, but pertain to plant immunity suppression, biocontrol against eukaryotic plant pathogens, mycorrhization facilitation, and possibly resistance against protist predation. The diversity of T3SSs in plant-beneficial bacteria points to their important roles in multifarious interkingdom interactions in the rhizosphere. We argue that the gap in research on T3SSs in plant-beneficial bacteria must be bridged to better understand bacteria/eukaryotes rhizosphere interactions and to support the development of efficient plant-growth promoting microbial inoculants.

Direct inhibition of phosphate transport by immune signaling in Arabidopsis

Soil availability of inorganic ortho-phosphate (PO₄^3-, P_i) is a key determinant of plant growth and fitness.¹ Plants regulate the capacity of their roots to take up inorganic phosphate by adapting the abundance of H⁺-coupled phosphate transporters of the PHOSPHATE TRANSPORTER 1 (PHT1) family² at the plasma membrane (PM) through transcriptional and post-translational changes driven by the genetic network of the phosphate starvation response (PSR).^3-8 Increasing evidence also shows that plants integrate immune responses to alleviate phosphate starvation stress through the association with beneficial microbes.^9-11 Whether and how such phosphate transport is regulated upon activation of immune responses is yet uncharacterized. To address this question, we first developed quantitative assays based on changes in the electrical PM potential to measure active P_i transport in roots in real time. By inserting micro-electrodes into bulging root hairs, we were able to determine key characteristics of phosphate transport in intact Arabidopsis thaliana (hereafter Arabidopsis) seedlings. The fast P_i-induced depolarization observed was dependent on the activity of the major phosphate transporter PHT1;4. Notably, we observed that this PHT1;4-mediated phosphate uptake is repressed upon activation of pattern-triggered immunity. This inhibition depended on the receptor-like cytoplasmic kinases BOTRYTIS-INDUCED KINASE 1 (BIK1) and PBS1-LIKE KINASE 1 (PBL1), which both phosphorylated PHT1;4. As a corollary to this negative regulation of phosphate transport by immune signaling, we found that PHT1;4-mediated phosphate uptake normally negatively regulates anti-bacterial immunity in roots. Collectively, our results reveal a mechanism linking plant immunity and phosphate homeostasis, with BIK1/PBL1 providing a molecular integration point between these two important pathways.

Efficiency of microbial bio-agents as elicitors in plant defense mechanism under biotic stress: A review

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MBCAs played beneficial role to protect plants from harmful pathogens to control plant diseases.

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MBCAs also support in plant growth promotion and stress tolerance.

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MBCAs act as elicitors to induce a signal to stimulate the plant defense mechanism against pathogens.

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Reticine A-induced hypersensitive reaction, systemic accumulation of H₂O₂ and salicylic acid.

Numerous harmful microorganisms and insect pests have the ability to cause plant infections or damage, which is mostly controlled by toxic chemical agents. These chemical compounds and their derivatives exhibit hazardous effects on habitats and human life too. Hence, there's a need to develop novel, more effective and safe bio-control agents. A variety of microbes such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi possess a great potential to fight against phytopathogens and thus can be used as bio-control agents instead of harmful chemical compounds. These naturally occurring microorganisms are applied to the plants in order to control phytopathogens. Moreover, practicing them appropriately for agriculture management can be a way towards a sustainable approach. The MBCAs follow various modes of action and act as elicitors where they induce a signal to activate plant defense mechanisms against a variety of pathogens. MBCAs control phytopathogens and help in disease suppression through the production of enzymes, antimicrobial compounds, antagonist activity involving hyper-parasitism, induced resistance, competitive inhibition, etc. Efficient recognition of pathogens and prompt defensive response are key factors of induced resistance in plants. This resistance phenomenon is pertaining to a complex cascade that involves an increased amount of defensive proteins, salicylic acid (SA), or induction of signaling pathways dependent on plant hormones. Although, there's a dearth of information about the exact mechanism of plant-induced resistance, the studies conducted at the physiological, biochemical and genetic levels. These studies tried to explain a series of plant defensive responses triggered by bio-control agents that may enhance the defensive capacity of plants. Several natural and recombinant microorganisms are commercially available as bio-control agents that mainly include strains of Bacillus, Pseudomonads and Trichoderma. However, the complete understanding of microbial bio-control agents and their interactions at cellular and molecular levels will facilitate the screening of effective and eco-friendly bio-agents, thereby increasing the scope of MBCAs. This article is a comprehensive review that highlights the importance of microbial agents as elicitors in the activation and regulation of plant defense mechanisms in response to a variety of pathogens.

Coordinated bacterial and plant sulfur metabolism in Enterobacter sp. SA187-induced plant salt stress tolerance

Although plant growth–promoting bacteria (PGPB) enhance the performance of plants, only a few mechanisms have been identified so far. We show that the sulfur metabolisms in both PGPB Enterobacter sp. SA187 and Arabidopsis plants play a key role in plant salt stress tolerance. Salt stress induces a sulfur starvation response in plants that is attenuated by SA187. Arabidopsis sulfur metabolic mutants are hypersensitive to salt stress but can be rescued by SA187. Most plant sulfur metabolism occurs in chloroplasts and is linked to stress-induced accumulation of reactive oxygen species that is suppressed by SA187. This work reveals that plant salt stress tolerance requires the coordinated regulation of the sulfur metabolic pathways in both beneficial microbe and host plant.

Enterobacter sp. SA187 is a root endophytic bacterium that maintains growth and yield of plants under abiotic stress conditions. In this work, we compared the metabolic wirings of Arabidopsis and SA187 in the free-living and endophytic interaction states. The interaction of SA187 with Arabidopsis induced massive changes in bacterial gene expression for chemotaxis, flagellar biosynthesis, quorum sensing, and biofilm formation. Besides modification of the bacterial carbon and energy metabolism, various nutrient and metabolite transporters and the entire sulfur pathway were up-regulated. Under salt stress, Arabidopsis resembled plants under sulfate starvation but not when colonized by SA187, which reprogramed the sulfur regulon of Arabidopsis. In accordance, salt hypersensitivity of multiple Arabidopsis sulfur metabolism mutants was partially or completely rescued by SA187 as much as by the addition of sulfate, L-cysteine, or L-methionine. Many components of the sulfur metabolism that are localized in the chloroplast were partially rescued by SA187. Finally, salt-induced accumulation of reactive oxygen species as well as the hypersensitivity of LSU mutants were suppressed by SA187. LSUs encode a central regulator linking sulfur metabolism to chloroplast superoxide dismutase activity. The coordinated regulation of the sulfur metabolic pathways in both the beneficial microorganism and the host plant is required for salt stress tolerance in Arabidopsis and might be a common mechanism utilized by different beneficial microbes to mitigate the harmful effects of different abiotic stresses on plants.