1
|
Delaney J, Nathani S, Tan V, Chavez C, Orr A, Paek J, Faraji M, Setlow B, Urs NM. Enhanced cognitive flexibility and phasic striatal dopamine dynamics in a mouse model of low striatal tonic dopamine. Neuropsychopharmacology 2024; 49:1600-1608. [PMID: 38698264 PMCID: PMC11319590 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-024-01868-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
The catecholamine neuromodulators dopamine and norepinephrine are implicated in motor function, motivation, and cognition. Although roles for striatal dopamine in these aspects of behavior are well established, the specific roles for cortical catecholamines in regulating striatal dopamine dynamics and behavior are less clear. We recently showed that elevating cortical dopamine but not norepinephrine suppresses hyperactivity in dopamine transporter knockout (DAT-KO) mice, which have elevated striatal dopamine levels. In contrast, norepinephrine transporter knockout (NET-KO) mice have a phenotype distinct from DAT-KO mice, as they show elevated extracellular cortical catecholamines but reduced baseline striatal dopamine levels. Here we evaluated the consequences of altered catecholamine levels in NET-KO mice on cognitive flexibility and striatal dopamine dynamics. In a probabilistic reversal learning task, NET-KO mice showed enhanced reversal learning, which was consistent with larger phasic dopamine transients (dLight) in the dorsomedial striatum (DMS) during reward delivery and reward omission, compared to WT controls. Selective depletion of dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) norepinephrine in WT mice did not alter performance on the reversal learning task but reduced nestlet shredding. Surprisingly, NET-KO mice did not show altered breakpoints in a progressive ratio task, suggesting intact food motivation. Collectively, these studies show novel roles of cortical catecholamines in the regulation of tonic and phasic striatal dopamine dynamics and cognitive flexibility, updating our current views on dopamine regulation and informing future therapeutic strategies to counter multiple psychiatric disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jena Delaney
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Sanya Nathani
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Victor Tan
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Carson Chavez
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Alexander Orr
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Joon Paek
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Mojdeh Faraji
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Barry Setlow
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Nikhil M Urs
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Panzer E, Guimares-Olmo I, Pereira de Vasconcelos A, Stéphan A, Cassel JC. In relentless pursuit of the white whale: A role for the ventral midline thalamus in behavioral flexibility and adaption? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 163:105762. [PMID: 38857666 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024]
Abstract
The reuniens (Re) nucleus is located in the ventral midline thalamus. It has fostered increasing interest, not only for its participation in a variety of cognitive functions (e.g., spatial working memory, systemic consolidation, reconsolidation, extinction of fear or generalization), but also for its neuroanatomical positioning as a bidirectional relay between the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the hippocampus (HIP). In this review we compile and discuss recent studies having tackled a possible implication of the Re nucleus in behavioral flexibility, a major PFC-dependent executive function controlling goal-directed behaviors. Experiments considered explored a possible role for the Re nucleus in perseveration, reversal learning, fear extinction, and set-shifting. They point to a contribution of this nucleus to behavioral flexibility, mainly by its connections with the PFC, but possibly also by those with the hippocampus, and even with the amygdala, at least for fear-related behavior. As such, the Re nucleus could be a crucial crossroad supporting a PFC-orchestrated ability to cope with new, potentially unpredictable environmental contingencies, and thus behavioral flexibility and adaption.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elodie Panzer
- Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives et Adaptatives, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg F-67000, France; LNCA, UMR 7364 - CNRS, Strasbourg F-67000, France
| | - Isabella Guimares-Olmo
- Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives et Adaptatives, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg F-67000, France; LNCA, UMR 7364 - CNRS, Strasbourg F-67000, France
| | - Anne Pereira de Vasconcelos
- Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives et Adaptatives, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg F-67000, France; LNCA, UMR 7364 - CNRS, Strasbourg F-67000, France
| | - Aline Stéphan
- Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives et Adaptatives, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg F-67000, France; LNCA, UMR 7364 - CNRS, Strasbourg F-67000, France
| | - Jean-Christophe Cassel
- Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives et Adaptatives, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg F-67000, France; LNCA, UMR 7364 - CNRS, Strasbourg F-67000, France.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ashton SE, Sharalla P, Kang N, Brockett AT, McCarthy MM, Roesch MR. Distinct Action Signals by Subregions in the Nucleus Accumbens during STOP-Change Performance. J Neurosci 2024; 44:e0020242024. [PMID: 38897724 PMCID: PMC11255435 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0020-24.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The nucleus accumbens (NAc) is thought to contribute to motivated behavior by signaling the value of reward-predicting cues and the delivery of anticipated reward. The NAc is subdivided into core and shell, with each region containing different populations of neurons that increase or decrease firing to rewarding events. While there are numerous theories of functions pertaining to these subregions and cell types, most are in the context of reward processing, with fewer considering that the NAc might serve functions related to action selection more generally. We recorded from single neurons in the NAc as rats of both sexes performed a STOP-change task that is commonly used to study motor control and impulsivity. In this task, rats respond quickly to a spatial cue on 80% of trials (GO) and must stop and redirect planned movement on 20% of trials (STOP). We found that the activity of reward-excited neurons signaled accurate response direction on GO, but not STOP, trials and that these neurons exhibited higher precue firing after correct trials. In contrast, reward-inhibited neurons significantly represented response direction on STOP trials at the time of the instrumental response. Finally, the proportion of reward-excited to reward-inhibited neurons and the strength of precue firing decreased as the electrode traversed the NAc. We conclude that reward-excited cells (more common in core) promote proactive action selection, while reward-inhibited cells (more common in shell) contribute to accurate responding on STOP trials that require reactive suppression and redirection of behavior.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sydney E Ashton
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742
| | - Paul Sharalla
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742
| | - Naru Kang
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742
| | - Adam T Brockett
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742
| | - Margaret M McCarthy
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
- University of Maryland-Medicine Institute for Neuroscience Discovery (UM-MIND), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
| | - Matthew R Roesch
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Koloski MF, O'Hearn CM, Frankot M, Giesler LP, Ramanathan DS, Vonder Haar C. Behavioral Interventions Can Improve Brain Injury-Induced Deficits in Behavioral Flexibility and Impulsivity Linked to Impaired Reward-Feedback Beta Oscillations. J Neurotrauma 2024; 41:e1721-e1737. [PMID: 38450560 PMCID: PMC11339556 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2023.0448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects a large population, resulting in severe cognitive impairments. Although cognitive rehabilitation is an accepted treatment for some deficits, studies in patients are limited in ability to probe physiological and behavioral mechanisms. Therefore, animal models are needed to optimize strategies. Frontal TBI in a rat model results in robust and replicable cognitive deficits, making this an ideal candidate for investigating various behavioral interventions. In this study, we report three distinct frontal TBI experiments assessing behavior well into the chronic post-injury period using male Long-Evans rats. First, we evaluated the impact of frontal injury on local field potentials recorded simultaneously from 12 brain regions during a probabilistic reversal learning (PbR) task. Next, a set of rats were tested on a similar PbR task or an impulsivity task (differential reinforcement of low-rate behavior [DRL]) and half received salient cues associated with reinforcement contingencies to encourage engagement in the target behavior. After intervention on the PbR task, brains were stained for markers of activity. On the DRL task, cue relevance was decoupled from outcomes to determine if beneficial effects persisted on impulsive behavior. TBI decreased the ability to detect reinforced outcomes; this was evident in task performance and reward-feedback signals occurring at beta frequencies in lateral orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and associated frontostriatal regions. The behavioral intervention improved flexibility and increased OFC activity. Intervention also reduced impulsivity, even after cues were decoupled, which was partially mediated by improvements in timing behavior. The current study established a platform to begin investigating cognitive rehabilitation in rats and identified a strong role for dysfunctional OFC signaling in probabilistic learning after frontal TBI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miranda F. Koloski
- Mental Health, VA San Diego Medical Center, San Diego, California, USA
- Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, San Diego, California, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California-San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | | | - Michelle Frankot
- Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
- Injury and Recovery Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Lauren P. Giesler
- Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Dhakshin S. Ramanathan
- Mental Health, VA San Diego Medical Center, San Diego, California, USA
- Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, San Diego, California, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California-San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Cole Vonder Haar
- Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
- Injury and Recovery Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Webb J, Steffan P, Hayden BY, Lee D, Kemere C, McGinley M. Foraging Under Uncertainty Follows the Marginal Value Theorem with Bayesian Updating of Environment Representations. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.30.587253. [PMID: 38585964 PMCID: PMC10996644 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.30.587253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Foraging theory has been a remarkably successful approach to understanding the behavior of animals in many contexts. In patch-based foraging contexts, the marginal value theorem (MVT) shows that the optimal strategy is to leave a patch when the marginal rate of return declines to the average for the environment. However, the MVT is only valid in deterministic environments whose statistics are known to the forager; naturalistic environments seldom meet these strict requirements. As a result, the strategies used by foragers in naturalistic environments must be empirically investigated. We developed a novel behavioral task and a corresponding computational framework for studying patch-leaving decisions in head-fixed and freely moving mice. We varied between-patch travel time, as well as within-patch reward depletion rate, both deterministically and stochastically. We found that mice adopt patch residence times in a manner consistent with the MVT and not explainable by simple ethologically motivated heuristic strategies. Critically, behavior was best accounted for by a modified form of the MVT wherein environment representations were updated based on local variations in reward timing, captured by a Bayesian estimator and dynamic prior. Thus, we show that mice can strategically attend to, learn from, and exploit task structure on multiple timescales simultaneously, thereby efficiently foraging in volatile environments. The results provide a foundation for applying the systems neuroscience toolkit in freely moving and head-fixed mice to understand the neural basis of foraging under uncertainty.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James Webb
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Paul Steffan
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Benjamin Y. Hayden
- Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Daeyeol Lee
- The Zanvyl Krieger Mind/Brain Institute, The Solomon H Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Caleb Kemere
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Matthew McGinley
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Cieslik-Starkiewicz A, Noworyta K, Solich J, Korlatowicz A, Faron-Górecka A, Rygula R. Identification of genes regulated by trait sensitivity to negative feedback and prolonged alcohol consumption in rats. Pharmacol Rep 2024; 76:207-215. [PMID: 38172401 PMCID: PMC10830829 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-023-00563-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The results of our previous studies demonstrated that low sensitivity to negative feedback (NF) is associated with increased vulnerability to the development of compulsive alcohol-seeking in rats. In the present study, we investigated the molecular underpinnings of this relationship. METHODS Using TaqMan Gene Expression Array Cards, we analyzed the expression of the genes related to NF sensitivity and alcohol metabolism in three cortical regions (medial prefrontal cortex [mPFC], anterior cingulate cortex [ACC], orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]) and two subcortical regions (nucleus accumbens [Nacc], amygdala [Amy]). Gene expression differences were confirmed at the protein level with Western blot. RESULTS Sensitivity to NF was characterized by differences in Gad2, Drd2, and Slc6a4 expression in the ACC, Maoa in the mPFC, and Gria1, Htr3a, and Maoa in the OFC. Chronic alcohol consumption was associated with differences in the expression of Comt and Maoa in the ACC, Comt, Adh1, and Htr2b in the mPFC, Adh1, and Slc6a4 in the Nacc, Gad2, and Htr1a in the OFC, and Drd2 in the Amy. Interactions between the sensitivity to NF and alcohol consumption were observed in the expression of Gabra1, Gabbr2, Grin2a, Grin2b, and Grm3 in the ACC, and Grin2a in the OFC. The observed differences were confirmed at the protein level for MAO-A in the mPFC, and ADH1 in the mPFC and Nacc. CONCLUSIONS Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the relationship between trait sensitivity to NF and compulsive alcohol consumption.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Agata Cieslik-Starkiewicz
- Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna Street, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Karolina Noworyta
- Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna Street, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Joanna Solich
- Biochemical Pharmacology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna Street, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Agata Korlatowicz
- Biochemical Pharmacology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna Street, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Agata Faron-Górecka
- Biochemical Pharmacology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna Street, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Rafal Rygula
- Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna Street, 31-343, Kraków, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Faraji M, Viera-Resto OA, Setlow B, Bizon JL. Effects of reproductive experience on cost-benefit decision making in female rats. Front Behav Neurosci 2024; 18:1304408. [PMID: 38352625 PMCID: PMC10863065 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2024.1304408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Many individuals undergo mating and/or other aspects of reproductive experience at some point in their lives, and pregnancy and childbirth in particular are associated with alterations in the prevalence of several psychiatric disorders. Research in rodents shows that maternal experience affects spatial learning and other aspects of hippocampal function. In contrast, there has been little work in animal models concerning how reproductive experience affects cost-benefit decision making, despite the relevance of this aspect of cognition for psychiatric disorders. To begin to address this issue, reproductively experienced (RE) and reproductively naïve (RN) female Long-Evans rats were tested across multiple tasks that assess different forms of cost-benefit decision making. In a risky decision-making task, in which rats chose between a small, safe food reward and a large food reward accompanied by variable probabilities of punishment, RE females chose the large risky reward significantly more frequently than RN females (greater risk taking). In an intertemporal choice task, in which rats chose between a small, immediate food reward and a large food reward delivered after a variable delay period, RE females chose the large reward less frequently than RN females. Together, these results show distinct effects of reproductive experience on different forms of cost-benefit decision making in female rats, and highlight reproductive status as a variable that could influence aspects of cognition relevant for psychiatric disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mojdeh Faraji
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Omar A. Viera-Resto
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Barry Setlow
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Jennifer L. Bizon
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Cieslik-Starkiewicz A, Noworyta K, Solich J, Korlatowicz A, Faron-Górecka A, Rygula R. Trait sensitivity to positive feedback is a predisposing factor for several aspects of compulsive alcohol drinking in male rats: behavioural, physiological, and molecular correlates. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2024; 241:33-47. [PMID: 37682294 PMCID: PMC10774643 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-023-06460-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/27/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is one of the most common psychiatric disorders and a leading cause of mortality worldwide. While the pathophysiology underlying AUD is relatively well known, the cognitive mechanisms of an individual's susceptibility to the development of alcohol dependence remain poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the theoretical claim that sensitivity to positive feedback (PF), as a stable and enduring behavioural trait, can predict individual susceptibility to the acquisition and maintenance of alcohol-seeking behaviour in rats. METHODS Trait sensitivity to PF was assessed using a series of probabilistic reversal learning tests. The escalation of alcohol intake in rats was achieved by applying a mix of intermittent free access and instrumental paradigms of alcohol drinking. The next steps included testing the influence of sensitivity to PF on the acquisition of compulsive alcohol-seeking behaviour in the seeking-taking punishment task, measuring motivation to seek alcohol, and comparing the speed of extinction and reinstatement of alcohol-seeking after a period of abstinence between rats expressing trait insensitivity and sensitivity to PF. Finally, trait differences in the level of stress hormones and in the expression of genes and proteins in several brain regions of interest were measured to identify potential physiological and neuromolecular mechanisms of the observed interactions. RESULTS We showed that trait sensitivity to PF in rats determines the level of motivation to seek alcohol following the experience of its negative consequences. They also revealed significant differences between animals classified as insensitive and sensitive to PF in their propensity to reinstate alcohol-seeking behaviours after a period of forced abstinence. The abovementioned effects were accompanied by differences in blood levels of stress hormones and differences in the cortical and subcortical expression of genes and proteins related to dopaminergic, serotonergic, and GABAergic neurotransmission. CONCLUSION Trait sensitivity to PF can determine the trajectory of alcohol addiction in rats. This effect is, at least partially, mediated via distributed physiological and molecular changes within cortical and subcortical regions of the brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Agata Cieslik-Starkiewicz
- Department of Pharmacology, Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Karolina Noworyta
- Department of Pharmacology, Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Joanna Solich
- Department of Pharmacology, Biochemical Pharmacology Laboratory, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Agata Korlatowicz
- Department of Pharmacology, Biochemical Pharmacology Laboratory, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Agata Faron-Górecka
- Department of Pharmacology, Biochemical Pharmacology Laboratory, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Rafal Rygula
- Department of Pharmacology, Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343, Krakow, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Wheeler AR, Truckenbrod LM, Cooper EM, Betzhold SM, Setlow B, Orsini CA. Effects of fentanyl self-administration on risk-taking behavior in male rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2023; 240:2529-2544. [PMID: 37612455 PMCID: PMC10878692 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-023-06447-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Individuals with opioid use disorder (OUD) exhibit impaired decision making and elevated risk-taking behavior. In contrast to the effects of natural and semi-synthetic opioids, however, the impact of synthetic opioids on decision making is still unknown. OBJECTIVES The objective of the current study was to determine how chronic exposure to the synthetic opioid fentanyl alters risk-based decision making in adult male rats. METHODS Male rats underwent 14 days of intravenous fentanyl or oral sucrose self-administration. After 3 weeks of abstinence, rats were tested in a decision-making task in which they chose between a small, safe food reward and a large food reward accompanied by variable risk of footshock punishment. Following testing in the decision-making task, rats were tested in control assays that assessed willingness to work for food and shock reactivity. Lastly, rats were tested on a probabilistic reversal learning task to evaluate enduring effects of fentanyl on behavioral flexibility. RESULTS Relative to rats in the sucrose group, rats in the fentanyl group displayed greater choice of the large, risky reward (risk taking), an effect that was present as long as 7 weeks into abstinence. This increased risk taking was driven by enhanced sensitivity to the large rewards and diminished sensitivity to punishment. The fentanyl-induced elevation in risk taking was not accompanied by alterations in food motivation or shock reactivity or impairments in behavioral flexibility. CONCLUSIONS Results from the current study reveal that the synthetic opioid fentanyl leads to long-lasting increases in risk taking in male rats. Future experiments will extend this work to females and identify neural mechanisms that underlie these drug-induced changes in risk taking.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexa-Rae Wheeler
- Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Leah M Truckenbrod
- Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Emily M Cooper
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Sara M Betzhold
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Barry Setlow
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Caitlin A Orsini
- Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
- Department of Neurology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
- Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Addiction Research, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
- Department of Psychology & Neurology, Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Addiction Research, The University of Texas at Austin, 1601B Trinity Street, Austin, TX, 78712, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Frankot M, Mueller PM, Young ME, Vonder Haar C. Statistical power and false positive rates for interdependent outcomes are strongly influenced by test type: Implications for behavioral neuroscience. Neuropsychopharmacology 2023; 48:1612-1622. [PMID: 37142665 PMCID: PMC10516944 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-023-01592-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Statistical errors in preclinical science are a barrier to reproducibility and translation. For instance, linear models (e.g., ANOVA, linear regression) may be misapplied to data that violate assumptions. In behavioral neuroscience and psychopharmacology, linear models are frequently applied to interdependent or compositional data, which includes behavioral assessments where animals concurrently choose between chambers, objects, outcomes, or types of behavior (e.g., forced swim, novel object, place/social preference). The current study simulated behavioral data for a task with four interdependent choices (i.e., increased choice of a given outcome decreases others) using Monte Carlo methods. 16,000 datasets were simulated (1000 each of 4 effect sizes by 4 sample sizes) and statistical approaches evaluated for accuracy. Linear regression and linear mixed effects regression (LMER) with a single random intercept resulted in high false positives (>60%). Elevated false positives were attenuated in an LMER with random effects for all choice-levels and a binomial logistic mixed effects regression. However, these models were underpowered to reliably detect effects at common preclinical sample sizes. A Bayesian method using prior knowledge for control subjects increased power by up to 30%. These results were confirmed in a second simulation (8000 datasets). These data suggest that statistical analyses may often be misapplied in preclinical paradigms, with common linear methods increasing false positives, but potential alternatives lacking power. Ultimately, using informed priors may balance statistical requirements with ethical imperatives to minimize the number of animals used. These findings highlight the importance of considering statistical assumptions and limitations when designing research studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Frankot
- Injury and Recovery Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Peyton M Mueller
- Injury and Recovery Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Michael E Young
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Cole Vonder Haar
- Injury and Recovery Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Youngblood B, Medina JC, Gehlert DR, Schwartz N. EPD1504: a novel μ-opioid receptor partial agonist attenuates obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)-like behaviors. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1170541. [PMID: 37457777 PMCID: PMC10349350 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1170541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Low doses of μ-opioid receptor (MOR) agonists rapidly ameliorate symptoms in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) patients (10-50% of OCD patients). However, the utility of MOR agonists is limited by their safety liabilities. We developed a novel MOR partial agonist (EPD1540) that has an improved respiratory safety profile when compared to buprenorphine. Buprenorphine is a MOR partial agonist primarily used in the treatment of opiate-use disorder, which in investigator-led trials, has been shown to rapidly ameliorate symptoms in treatment-resistant OCD patients. In this study, we show that doses of EPD1504 and buprenorphine that occupy small fractions of MORs in the CNS (approximately 20%) are as effective as fluoxetine at ameliorating OCD-like behaviors in two different rat models (an operant probabilistic reversal task and marble burying). Importantly, effective doses of EPD1504 did not impair either locomotor activity, or respiration under normoxic or hypercapnic conditions. Additionally, EPD1504 had effects comparable to buprenorphine in the conditioned place preference assay. These results indicate that EPD1504 may provide a safer alternative to buprenorphine for the treatment of OCD patients.
Collapse
|
12
|
Barnes SA, Dillon DG, Young JW, Thomas ML, Faget L, Yoo JH, Der-Avakian A, Hnasko TS, Geyer MA, Ramanathan DS. Modulation of ventromedial orbitofrontal cortical glutamatergic activity affects the explore-exploit balance and influences value-based decision-making. Cereb Cortex 2023; 33:5783-5796. [PMID: 36472411 PMCID: PMC10183731 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhac459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The balance between exploration and exploitation is essential for decision-making. The present study investigated the role of ventromedial orbitofrontal cortex (vmOFC) glutamate neurons in mediating value-based decision-making by first using optogenetics to manipulate vmOFC glutamate activity in rats during a probabilistic reversal learning (PRL) task. Rats that received vmOFC activation during informative feedback completed fewer reversals and exhibited reduced reward sensitivity relative to rats. Analysis with a Q-learning computational model revealed that increased vmOFC activity did not affect the learning rate but instead promoted maladaptive exploration. By contrast, vmOFC inhibition increased the number of completed reversals and increased exploitative behavior. In a separate group of animals, calcium activity of vmOFC glutamate neurons was recorded using fiber photometry. Complementing our results above, we found that suppression of vmOFC activity during the latter part of rewarded trials was associated with improved PRL performance, greater win-stay responding and selecting the correct choice on the next trial. These data demonstrate that excessive vmOFC activity during reward feedback disrupted value-based decision-making by increasing the maladaptive exploration of lower-valued options. Our findings support the premise that pharmacological interventions that normalize aberrant vmOFC glutamate activity during reward feedback processing may attenuate deficits in value-based decision-making.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel A Barnes
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
- Department of Mental Health, VA San Diego Healthcare System, 3350 La Jolla Village Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - Daniel G Dillon
- Center for Depression, Anxiety and Stress Research, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St, Belmont, MA 02478, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, 401 Park Drive, Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - Jared W Young
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
- Department of Mental Health, VA San Diego Healthcare System, 3350 La Jolla Village Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - Michael L Thomas
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
- Department of Psychology, 1876 Campus Delivery, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, United States
| | - Lauren Faget
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - Ji Hoon Yoo
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - Andre Der-Avakian
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - Thomas S Hnasko
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
- Research Service, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, 92161, United States
| | - Mark A Geyer
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
- Department of Mental Health, VA San Diego Healthcare System, 3350 La Jolla Village Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - Dhakshin S Ramanathan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
- Department of Mental Health, VA San Diego Healthcare System, 3350 La Jolla Village Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
- Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, VA San Diego Healthcare System, 3350 La Jolla Village Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Age-Related Changes in Risky Decision Making and Associated Neural Circuitry in a Rat Model. eNeuro 2023; 10:ENEURO.0385-22.2022. [PMID: 36596593 PMCID: PMC9840382 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0385-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Altered decision making at advanced ages can have a significant impact on an individual's quality of life and the ability to maintain personal independence. Relative to young adults, older adults make less impulsive and less risky choices; although these changes in decision making could be considered beneficial, they can also lead to choices with potentially negative consequences (e.g., avoidance of medical procedures). Rodent models of decision making have been invaluable for dissecting cognitive and neurobiological mechanisms that contribute to age-related changes in decision making, but they have predominantly used costs related to timing or probability of reward delivery and have not considered other equally important costs, such as the risk of adverse consequences. The current study therefore used a rat model of decision making involving risk of explicit punishment to examine age-related changes in this form of choice behavior in male rats, and to identify potential cognitive and neurobiological mechanisms that contribute to these changes. Relative to young rats, aged rats displayed greater risk aversion, which was not attributable to reduced motivation for food, changes in shock sensitivity, or impaired cognitive flexibility. Functional MRI analyses revealed that, overall, functional connectivity was greater in aged rats compared with young rats, particularly among brain regions implicated in risky decision making such as basolateral amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventral tegmental area. Collectively, these findings are consistent with greater risk aversion found in older humans, and reveal age-related changes in brain connectivity.
Collapse
|
14
|
Cognitive flexibility assessment with a new Reversal learning task paradigm compared with the Wisconsin card sorting test exploring the moderating effect of gender and stress. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2022; 87:1439-1453. [DOI: 10.1007/s00426-022-01763-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
|
15
|
Latuske P, von Heimendahl M, Deiana S, Wotjak CT, du Hoffmann J. Sustained MK-801 induced deficit in a novel probabilistic reversal learning task. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:898548. [PMID: 36313373 PMCID: PMC9614101 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.898548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive flexibility, the ability to adapt to unexpected changes, is critical for healthy environmental and social interactions, and thus to everyday functioning. In neuropsychiatric diseases, cognitive flexibility is often impaired and treatment options are lacking. Probabilistic reversal learning (PRL) is commonly used to measure cognitive flexibility in rodents and humans. In PRL tasks, subjects must sample choice options and, from probabilistic feedback, find the current best choice which then changes without warning. However, in rodents, pharmacological models of human cognitive impairment tend to disrupt only the first (or few) of several contingency reversals, making quantitative assessment of behavioral effects difficult. To address this limitation, we developed a novel rat PRL where reversals occur at relatively long intervals in time that demonstrates increased sensitivity to the non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801. Here, we quantitively compare behavior in time-based PRL with a widely used task where reversals occur based on choice behavior. In time-based PRL, MK-801 induced sustained reversal learning deficits both in time and across reversal blocks but, at the same dose, only transient weak effects in performance-based PRL. Moreover, time-based PRL yielded better estimates of behavior and reinforcement learning model parameters, which opens meaningful pharmacological windows to efficiently test and develop novel drugs preclinically with the goal of improving cognitive impairment in human patients.
Collapse
|
16
|
Macpherson T, Kim JY, Hikida T. Nucleus Accumbens Core Dopamine D2 Receptor-Expressing Neurons Control Reversal Learning but Not Set-Shifting in Behavioral Flexibility in Male Mice. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:885380. [PMID: 35837123 PMCID: PMC9275008 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.885380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to use environmental cues to flexibly guide responses is crucial for adaptive behavior and is thought to be controlled within a series of cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loops. Previous evidence has indicated that different prefrontal cortical regions control dissociable aspects of behavioral flexibility, with the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) necessary for the ability to shift attention to a novel strategy (set-shifting) and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) necessary for shifting attention between learned stimulus-outcome associations (reversal learning). The nucleus accumbens (NAc) is a major downstream target of both the mPFC and the OFC; however, its role in controlling reversal learning and set-shifting abilities is still unclear. Here we investigated the contribution of the two major NAc neuronal populations, medium spiny neurons expressing either dopamine D1 or D2 receptors (D1-/D2-MSNs), in guiding reversal learning and set-shifting in an attentional set-shifting task (ASST). Persistent inhibition of neurotransmitter release from NAc D2-MSNs, but not D1-MSNs, resulted in an impaired ability for reversal learning, but not set-shifting in male mice. These findings suggest that NAc D2-MSNs play a critical role in suppressing responding toward specific learned cues that are now associated with unfavorable outcomes (i.e., in reversal stages), but not in the suppression of more general learned strategies (i.e., in set-shifting). This study provides further evidence for the anatomical separation of reversal learning and set-shifting abilities within cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loops.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tom Macpherson
- Laboratory for Advanced Brain Functions, Institute for Protein Research, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
- Medical Innovation Center, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- *Correspondence: Tom Macpherson,
| | - Ji Yoon Kim
- Laboratory for Advanced Brain Functions, Institute for Protein Research, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Takatoshi Hikida
- Laboratory for Advanced Brain Functions, Institute for Protein Research, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
- Medical Innovation Center, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- Takatoshi Hikida,
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Vonder Haar C, Frankot MA, Reck AM, Milleson V, Martens KM. Large-N Rat Data Enables Phenotyping of Risky Decision-Making: A Retrospective Analysis of Brain Injury on the Rodent Gambling Task. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:837654. [PMID: 35548692 PMCID: PMC9084609 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.837654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Decision-making is substantially altered after brain injuries. Patients and rats with brain injury are more likely to make suboptimal, and sometimes risky choices. Such changes in decision-making may arise from alterations in how sensitive individuals are to outcomes. To assess this, we compiled and harmonized a large dataset from four studies of TBI, each of which evaluated behavior on the Rodent Gambling Task (RGT). We then determined whether the following were altered: (1) sensitivity to overall contingencies, (2) sensitivity to immediate outcomes, or (3) general choice phenotypes. Overall sensitivity was evaluated using the matching law, immediate sensitivity by looking at the probability of switching choices given a win or loss, and choice phenotypes by k-means clustering. We found significant reductions in sensitivity to the overall outcomes and a bias toward riskier alternatives in TBI rats. However, the substantial individual variability led to poor overall fits in matching analyses. We also found that TBI caused a significant reduction in the tendency to repeatedly choose a given option, but no difference in win- or loss-specific sensitivity. Finally, clustering revealed 5 distinct decision-making phenotypes and TBI reduced membership in the "optimal" type. The current findings support a hypothesis that TBI reduces sensitivity to contingencies. However, in the case of tasks such as the RGT, this is not a simple shift to indiscriminate or less discriminate responding. Rather, TBI rats are more likely to develop suboptimal preferences and frequently switch choices. Treatments will have to consider how this behavior might be corrected.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cole Vonder Haar
- Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Michelle A. Frankot
- Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States
| | - A. Matthew Reck
- Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States
| | - Virginia Milleson
- Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States
| | - Kris M. Martens
- Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Kesby JP, Murray GK, Knolle F. Neural Circuitry of Salience and Reward Processing in Psychosis. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY GLOBAL OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 3:33-46. [PMID: 36712572 PMCID: PMC9874126 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsgos.2021.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The processing of salient and rewarding stimuli is integral to engaging our attention, stimulating anticipation for future events, and driving goal-directed behaviors. Widespread impairments in these processes are observed in psychosis, which may be associated with worse functional outcomes or mechanistically linked to the development of symptoms. Here, we summarize the current knowledge of behavioral and functional neuroimaging in salience, prediction error, and reward. Although each is a specific process, they are situated in multiple feedback and feedforward systems integral to decision making and cognition more generally. We argue that the origin of salience and reward processing dysfunctions may be centered in the subcortex during the earliest stages of psychosis, with cortical abnormalities being initially more spared but becoming more prominent in established psychotic illness/schizophrenia. The neural circuits underpinning salience and reward processing may provide targets for delaying or preventing progressive behavioral and neurobiological decline.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James P. Kesby
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia,QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia,Address correspondence to James Kesby, Ph.D.
| | - Graham K. Murray
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia,Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom,Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Franziska Knolle
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom,Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Neuroradiology, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany,Franziska Knolle, Ph.D.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
HIV Transgenic Rats Demonstrate Superior Task Acquisition and Intact Reversal Learning in the Within-Session Probabilistic Reversal Learning Task. COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2021; 21:1207-1221. [PMID: 34312815 PMCID: PMC9815827 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-021-00926-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The HIV transgenic (HIVtg) rat is a commonly used animal model of chronic HIV infection that exhibits a wide range of cognitive deficits. To date, relatively little work has been conducted on these rats' capacity for reversal learning, an assay of executive function and cognitive flexibility used in humans. The present study sought to determine the impact of HIV genotype on probabilistic reversal learning, effortful motivation, and spontaneous locomotion/exploration in rats. Male (n = 8) and female (n = 8) HIVtg rats and wildtype (WT) controls were utilized. Cognitive flexibility was assessed via the Probabilistic Reversal Learning Task (PRLT), which reinforced responses to two stimuli on differential probabilistic schedules that periodically reversed. Effortful motivation and locomotor/exploratory behavior were assessed via the Progressive Ratio Breakpoint Task (PRBT) and the Behavioral Pattern Monitor (BPM), respectively. Regardless of sex, HIVtg rats required fewer trials to ascertain initial PRLT reward schedules than WT rats, and completed the same number of reversals. Secondary behaviors suggested that HIVtg PRLT performance was facilitated by a speed-accuracy tradeoff strategy. No main or interactive effects of genotype were observed in the PRBT or BPM. Relative to WT controls, HIVtg rats exhibited superior probabilistic reinforcement learning. Reversal learning was unaffected by HIV genotype, as was effortful motivation and exploratory behavior. These findings contrast with previous characterizations of the HIVtg rat, thus indicating a nuanced cognitive profile that is dependent upon such task specifications as within- versus between-session assessment and probabilistic versus deterministic reward schedules.
Collapse
|
20
|
Trepka E, Spitmaan M, Bari BA, Costa VD, Cohen JY, Soltani A. Entropy-based metrics for predicting choice behavior based on local response to reward. Nat Commun 2021; 12:6567. [PMID: 34772943 PMCID: PMC8590026 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-26784-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
For decades, behavioral scientists have used the matching law to quantify how animals distribute their choices between multiple options in response to reinforcement they receive. More recently, many reinforcement learning (RL) models have been developed to explain choice by integrating reward feedback over time. Despite reasonable success of RL models in capturing choice on a trial-by-trial basis, these models cannot capture variability in matching behavior. To address this, we developed metrics based on information theory and applied them to choice data from dynamic learning tasks in mice and monkeys. We found that a single entropy-based metric can explain 50% and 41% of variance in matching in mice and monkeys, respectively. We then used limitations of existing RL models in capturing entropy-based metrics to construct more accurate models of choice. Together, our entropy-based metrics provide a model-free tool to predict adaptive choice behavior and reveal underlying neural mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ethan Trepka
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Mehran Spitmaan
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Bilal A Bari
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Brain Science Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Vincent D Costa
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Jeremiah Y Cohen
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Brain Science Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Alireza Soltani
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Noworyta K, Cieslik A, Rygula R. Reinforcement-based cognitive biases as vulnerability factors in alcohol addiction: From humans to animal models. Br J Pharmacol 2021; 179:4265-4280. [PMID: 34232505 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is one of the most common, but still poorly treated, psychiatric conditions. Developing new treatments requires a better understanding of the aetiology of symptoms and evaluation of novel therapeutic targets in preclinical studies. Recent developments in our understanding of the reinforcement-based cognitive biases (RBCBs) that contribute to the development of AUD and its treatment offer new opportunities for both clinical and preclinical research. In this review, we first briefly describe psychological and cognitive theories that involve various aspects of reinforcement sensitivity in the development, maintenance, and recurrence of alcohol addiction. Furthermore, in separate sections, we describe studies investigating RBCBs and their neural, neurochemical, and pharmacological correlates, and we discuss possible interactions between RBCBs and trajectories of AUD. Finally, we describe how recent translational studies using state-of-the-art animal models can facilitate our understanding of the role of reinforcement sensitivity and RBCBs in various aspects of AUD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Noworyta
- Department of Pharmacology, Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Agata Cieslik
- Department of Pharmacology, Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Rafal Rygula
- Department of Pharmacology, Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Hernandez CM, Orsini CA, Blaes SL, Bizon JL, Febo M, Bruijnzeel AW, Setlow B. Effects of repeated adolescent exposure to cannabis smoke on cognitive outcomes in adulthood. J Psychopharmacol 2021; 35:848-863. [PMID: 33295231 PMCID: PMC8187454 DOI: 10.1177/0269881120965931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cannabis (marijuana) is the most widely used illicit drug in the USA, and consumption among adolescents is rising. Some animal studies show that adolescent exposure to delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol or synthetic cannabinoid receptor 1 agonists causes alterations in affect and cognition that can persist into adulthood. It is less clear, however, whether similar alterations result from exposure to cannabis via smoke inhalation, which remains the most frequent route of administration in humans. AIMS To begin to address these questions, a rat model was used to determine how cannabis smoke exposure during adolescence affects behavioral and cognitive outcomes in adulthood. METHODS Adolescent male Long-Evans rats were assigned to clean air, placebo smoke, or cannabis smoke groups. Clean air or smoke exposure sessions were conducted daily during adolescence (from P29-P49 days of age ) for a total of 21 days, and behavioral testing began on P70. RESULTS Compared to clean air and placebo smoke conditions, cannabis smoke significantly attenuated the normal developmental increase in body weight, but had no effects on several measures of either affect/motivation (open field activity, elevated plus maze, instrumental responding under a progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement) or cognition (set shifting, reversal learning, intertemporal choice). Surprisingly, however, in comparison to clean air controls rats exposed to either cannabis or placebo smoke in adolescence exhibited enhanced performance on a delayed response working memory task. CONCLUSIONS These findings are consistent with a growing body of evidence for limited long-term adverse cognitive and affective consequences of adolescent exposure to relatively low levels of cannabinoids.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caesar M Hernandez
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Department of Cellular, Development, and Integrative Biology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, USA
| | - Caitlin A Orsini
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, USA
| | - Shelby L Blaes
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Jennifer L Bizon
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Marcelo Febo
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Adriaan W Bruijnzeel
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Barry Setlow
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Medial orbitofrontal cortex dopamine D 1/D 2 receptors differentially modulate distinct forms of probabilistic decision-making. Neuropsychopharmacology 2021; 46:1240-1251. [PMID: 33452435 PMCID: PMC8134636 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-020-00931-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Efficient decision-making involves weighing the costs and benefits associated with different actions and outcomes to maximize long-term utility. The medial orbitofrontal cortex (mOFC) has been implicated in guiding choice in situations involving reward uncertainty, as inactivation in rats alters choice involving probabilistic rewards. The mOFC receives considerable dopaminergic input, yet how dopamine (DA) modulates mOFC function has been virtually unexplored. Here, we assessed how mOFC D1 and D2 receptors modulate two forms of reward seeking mediated by this region, probabilistic reversal learning and probabilistic discounting. Separate groups of well-trained rats received intra-mOFC microinfusions of selective D1 or D2 antagonists or agonists prior to task performance. mOFC D1 and D2 blockade had opposing effects on performance during probabilistic reversal learning and probabilistic discounting. D1 blockade impaired, while D2 blockade increased the number of reversals completed, both mediated by changes in errors and negative feedback sensitivity apparent during the initial discrimination of the task, which suggests changes in probabilistic reinforcement learning rather than flexibility. Similarly, D1 blockade reduced, while D2 blockade increased preference for larger/risky rewards. Excess D1 stimulation had no effect on either task, while excessive D2 stimulation impaired probabilistic reversal performance, and reduced both profitable risky choice and overall task engagement. These findings highlight a previously uncharacterized role for mOFC DA, showing that D1 and D2 receptors play dissociable and opposing roles in different forms of reward-related action selection. Elucidating how DA biases behavior in these situations will expand our understanding of the mechanisms regulating optimal and aberrant decision-making.
Collapse
|
24
|
Differential effects of d- and l-enantiomers of govadine on distinct forms of cognitive flexibility and a comparison with dopaminergic drugs. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2021; 238:1069-1085. [PMID: 33432392 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05754-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE There is an urgent need for novel drugs for treating cognitive deficits that are defining features of schizophrenia. The individual d- and l-enantiomers of the tetrahydroprotoberberine (THPB) d,l-govadine have been proposed for the treatment of cognitive deficiencies and positive symptoms of schizophrenia, respectively. OBJECTIVES We examined the effects of d-, l-, or d,l-govadine on two distinct forms of cognitive flexibility perturbed in schizophrenia and compared them to those induced by a selective D1 receptor agonist and D2 receptor antagonist. METHODS Male rats received d-, l-, or d,l-govadine (0.3, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/kg), D1 agonist SKF81297(0.1, 0.3, and 1.0 mg/kg), or D2 antagonist haloperidol (0.1-0.2 mg/kg). Experiment 1 used a strategy set-shifting task (between-subjects). In experiment 2, well-trained rats were tested on a probabilistic reversal task (within-subjects). RESULTS d-Govadine improved set-shifting across all doses, whereas higher doses of l-govadine impaired set-shifting. SKF81297 reduced perseverative errors at the lowest dose. Low/high doses of haloperidol increased/decreased set-shifting errors, the latter "improvement" attributable to impaired retrieval of a previous acquired rule. Probabilistic reversal performance was less affected by these drugs, but d-govadine reduced errors during the first reversal, whereas l-govadine impaired initial discrimination learning. d,l-Govadine had no reliable cognitive effects but caused psychomotor slowing like l-govadine and haloperidol. CONCLUSIONS These findings further highlight differences between two enantiomers of d,l-govadine that may reflect differential modulation of D1 and D2 receptors. These preclinical findings give further impetus to formal clinical evaluation of d-govadine as a treatment for cognitive deficiencies related to schizophrenia.
Collapse
|
25
|
Ye T, Bartlett MJ, Sherman SJ, Falk T, Cowen SL. Spectral signatures of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia depend on L-DOPA dose and are suppressed by ketamine. Exp Neurol 2021; 340:113670. [PMID: 33662379 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
L-DOPA-induced dyskinesias (LID) are debilitating motor symptoms of dopamine-replacement therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD) that emerge after years of L-DOPA treatment. While there is an abundance of research into the cellular and synaptic origins of LID, less is known about how LID impacts systems-level circuits and neural synchrony, how synchrony is affected by the dose and duration of L-DOPA exposure, or how potential novel treatments for LID, such as sub-anesthetic ketamine, alter this activity. Sub-anesthetic ketamine treatments have recently been shown to reduce LID, and ketamine is known to affect neural synchrony. To investigate these questions, we measured movement and local-field potential (LFP) activity from the motor cortex (M1) and the striatum of preclinical rodent models of PD and LID. In the first experiment, we investigated the effect of the LID priming procedures and L-DOPA dose on neural signatures of LID. Two common priming procedures were compared: a high-dose procedure that exposed unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats to 12 mg/kg L-DOPA for 7 days, and a low-dose procedure that exposed rats to 7 mg/kg L-DOPA for 21 days. Consistent with reports from other groups, 12 mg/kg L-DOPA triggered LID and 80-Hz oscillations; however, these 80-Hz oscillations were not observed after 7 mg/kg administration despite clear evidence of LID, indicating that 80-Hz oscillations are not an exclusive signature of LID. We also found that weeks-long low-dose priming resulted in the emergence of non-oscillatory broadband gamma activity (> 30 Hz) in the striatum and theta-to-high-gamma cross-frequency coupling (CFC) in M1. In a second set of experiments, we investigated how ketamine exposure affects spectral signatures of low-dose L-DOPA priming. During each neural recording session, ketamine was delivered through 5 injections (20 mg/kg, i.p.) administered every 2 h. We found that ketamine exposure suppressed striatal broadband gamma associated with LID but enhanced M1 broadband activity. We also found that M1 theta-to-high-gamma CFC associated with the LID on-state was suppressed by ketamine. These results suggest that ketamine's therapeutic effects are region specific. Our findings also have clinical implications, as we are the first to report novel oscillatory signatures of the common low-dose LID priming procedure that more closely models dopamine replacement therapy in individuals with PD. We also identify neural correlates of the anti-dyskinetic activity of sub-anesthetic ketamine treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tony Ye
- Department of Neurology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ, United States of America.
| | - Mitchell J Bartlett
- Department of Neurology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ, United States of America; Department of Pharmacology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ, United States of America.
| | - Scott J Sherman
- Department of Neurology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ, United States of America.
| | - Torsten Falk
- Department of Neurology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ, United States of America; Department of Pharmacology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ, United States of America.
| | - Stephen L Cowen
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States of America.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Jin C, Chen W, Cao Y, Xu Z, Tan Z, Zhang X, Deng L, Zheng C, Zhou J, Shi H, Feng J. Development and evaluation of an artificial intelligence system for COVID-19 diagnosis. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5088. [PMID: 33037212 DOI: 10.1101/823377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Early detection of COVID-19 based on chest CT enables timely treatment of patients and helps control the spread of the disease. We proposed an artificial intelligence (AI) system for rapid COVID-19 detection and performed extensive statistical analysis of CTs of COVID-19 based on the AI system. We developed and evaluated our system on a large dataset with more than 10 thousand CT volumes from COVID-19, influenza-A/B, non-viral community acquired pneumonia (CAP) and non-pneumonia subjects. In such a difficult multi-class diagnosis task, our deep convolutional neural network-based system is able to achieve an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 97.81% for multi-way classification on test cohort of 3,199 scans, AUC of 92.99% and 93.25% on two publicly available datasets, CC-CCII and MosMedData respectively. In a reader study involving five radiologists, the AI system outperforms all of radiologists in more challenging tasks at a speed of two orders of magnitude above them. Diagnosis performance of chest x-ray (CXR) is compared to that of CT. Detailed interpretation of deep network is also performed to relate system outputs with CT presentations. The code is available at https://github.com/ChenWWWeixiang/diagnosis_covid19 .
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Jin
- Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Weixiang Chen
- Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Yukun Cao
- Department of Radiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhanwei Xu
- Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Zimeng Tan
- Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- Department of Radiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan, China
| | - Lei Deng
- Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Chuansheng Zheng
- Department of Radiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan, China
| | - Jie Zhou
- Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Heshui Shi
- Department of Radiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan, China.
| | - Jianjiang Feng
- Department of Automation, Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Manning EE, Bradfield LA, Iordanova MD. Adaptive behaviour under conflict: Deconstructing extinction, reversal, and active avoidance learning. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 120:526-536. [PMID: 33035525 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In complex environments, organisms must respond adaptively to situations despite conflicting information. Under natural (i.e. non-laboratory) circumstances, it is rare that cues or responses are consistently paired with a single outcome. Inconsistent pairings are more common, as are situations where cues and responses are associated with multiple outcomes. Such inconsistency creates conflict, and a response that is adaptive in one scenario may not be adaptive in another. Learning to adjust responses accordingly is important for species to survive and prosper. Here we review the behavioural and brain mechanisms of responding under conflict by focusing on three popular behavioural procedures: extinction, reversal learning, and active avoidance. Extinction involves adapting from reinforcement to non-reinforcement, reversal learning involves swapping the reinforcement of cues or responses, and active avoidance involves performing a response to avoid an aversive outcome, which may conflict with other defensive strategies. We note that each of these phenomena relies on somewhat overlapping neural circuits, suggesting that such circuits may be critical for the general ability to respond appropriately under conflict.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth E Manning
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Suite 223, 450 Technology Drive, Pittsburgh, PA, 15224, USA; School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, MS306, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia.
| | - Laura A Bradfield
- Centre for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, University of Technology Sydney (St. Vincent's Campus), 405 Liverpool St, Darlinghurst, NSW, 2010, Australia; St. Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research, St. Vincent's Hospital Sydney Limited, 405 Liverpool St, Darlinghurst, NSW, 2010, Australia.
| | - Mihaela D Iordanova
- Department of Psychology/Centre for Studies in Behavioural Neurobiology, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Bryce CA, Floresco SB. Central CRF and acute stress differentially modulate probabilistic reversal learning in male and female rats. Behav Brain Res 2020; 397:112929. [PMID: 32998044 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Acute stress can have variable and sometimes sex-dependent effects on different executive functions, including cognitive flexibility, some of which may be mediated by increased corticotropin releasing factor (CRF). Previous studies on the effects of stress and CRF on cognitive flexibility have used procedures entailing deterministic rewards, yet how they may alter behavior when outcomes are probabilistic is unclear. The present study examined how acute stress and increased CRF activity alters probabilistic reversal learning (PRL) in male and female rats. Rats learned to discriminate between a 'correct' lever rewarded on 80 % of trials, and an "incorrect" lever delivering reward on 20 % of trials, with reward contingencies reversed after 8 consecutive correct choices. Separate groups received either intracerebroventricular infusions of CRF (3 μg) or restraint stress prior to a PRL session. Experiments examined how these manipulations affected learning when given prior to a one-day acquisition test or during performance in well-trained rats. Exogenous CRF, and to a lesser extent acute stress, impaired motivation across sexes, slowing deliberation times and increasing the number of trials omitted, particularly following a switch in reward contingencies. Neither manipulation significantly altered errors or reversal performance. However, increased CRF activity reduced negative feedback sensitivity. Across manipulations, females showed increased omissions and choice latencies, and were less sensitive to feedback than males. These results reveal the complexity with which stress, CRF, sex, and experience interact to alter aspects of motivation and probabilistic reinforcement learning and provide insight into how CRF activity may contribute to symptoms of stress-related disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Courtney A Bryce
- Department of Psychology and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Stan B Floresco
- Department of Psychology and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Piantadosi PT, Yeates DCM, Floresco SB. Prefrontal cortical and nucleus accumbens contributions to discriminative conditioned suppression of reward-seeking. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 27:429-440. [PMID: 32934096 PMCID: PMC7497111 DOI: 10.1101/lm.051912.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Fear can potently inhibit ongoing behavior, including reward-seeking, yet the neural circuits that underlie such suppression remain to be clarified. Prior studies have demonstrated that distinct subregions of the rodent medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) differentially affect fear behavior, whereby fear expression is promoted by the more dorsal prelimbic cortex (PL) and inhibited by the more ventral infralimbic cortex (IL). These mPFC regions project to subregions of the nucleus accumbens, the core (NAcC) and shell (NAcS), that differentially contribute to reward-seeking as well as affective processes that may be relevant to fear expression. Here, we investigated how these mPFC and NAc subregions contribute to discriminative fear conditioning, assessed by conditioned suppression of reward-seeking. Bilateral inactivation of the NAcS or PL reduced the expression of conditioned suppression to a shock-associated CS+, whereas NAcC inactivation reduced reward-seeking without affecting suppression. IL inactivation caused a general reduction in conditioned suppression following discriminative conditioning, but not when using a single-stimulus design. Pharmacological disconnection of the PL → NAcS pathway revealed that this projection mediates conditioned suppression. These data add to a growing literature implicating discrete cortico-striatal pathways in the suppression of reward-seeking in response to aversive stimuli. Dysfunction within related structures may contribute to aberrant patterns of behavior in psychiatric illnesses including substance use disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick T Piantadosi
- Department of Psychology and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Dylan C M Yeates
- Department of Psychology and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Stan B Floresco
- Department of Psychology and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Loss of
Cntnap2
in the Rat Causes Autism‐Related Alterations in Social Interactions, Stereotypic Behavior, and Sensory Processing. Autism Res 2020; 13:1698-1717. [DOI: 10.1002/aur.2364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
|
31
|
Iyer ES, Kairiss MA, Liu A, Otto AR, Bagot RC. Probing relationships between reinforcement learning and simple behavioral strategies to understand probabilistic reward learning. J Neurosci Methods 2020; 341:108777. [PMID: 32417532 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reinforcement learning (RL) and win stay/lose shift model accounts of decision making are both widely used to describe how individuals learn about and interact with rewarding environments. Though mutually informative, these accounts are often conceptualized as independent processes and so the potential relationships between win stay/lose shift tendencies and RL parameters have not been explored. NEW METHOD We introduce a methodology to directly relate RL parameters to behavioral strategy. Specifically, by calculating a truncated multivariate normal distribution of RL parameters given win stay/lose shift tendencies from simulating these tendencies across the parameter space, we maximize the normal distribution for a given set of win stay/lose shift tendencies to approximate reinforcement learning parameters. RESULTS We demonstrate novel relationships between win stay/lose shift tendencies and RL parameters that challenge conventional interpretations of lose shift as a metric of loss sensitivity. Further, we demonstrate in both simulated and empirical data that this method of parameter approximation yields reliable parameter recovery. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHOD We compare this method against the conventionally used maximum likelihood estimation method for parameter approximation in simulated noisy and empirical data. For simulated noisy data, we show that this method performs similarly to maximum likelihood estimation. For empirical data, however, this method provides a more reliable approximation of reinforcement learning parameters than maximum likelihood estimation. CONCLUSIONS We demonstrate the existence of relationships between win stay/lose shift tendencies and RL parameters and introduce a method that leverages these relationships to enable recovery of RL parameters exclusively from win stay/lose shift tendencies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eshaan S Iyer
- Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, 3801 Rue University, Montréal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Megan A Kairiss
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1205 Ave Dr. Penfield, Montréal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada
| | - Adrian Liu
- Department of Physics, McGill University, 3600 Rue University, Montréal, QC H3A 2T8, Canada
| | - A Ross Otto
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1205 Ave Dr. Penfield, Montréal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada
| | - Rosemary C Bagot
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1205 Ave Dr. Penfield, Montréal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada; Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics and Mental Health, 3661 Rue University, Montréal, QC H3A 2B3, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Affiliation(s)
- Quenten Highgate
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Susan Schenk
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Conn KA, Burne THJ, Kesby JP. Subcortical Dopamine and Cognition in Schizophrenia: Looking Beyond Psychosis in Preclinical Models. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:542. [PMID: 32655348 PMCID: PMC7325949 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is characterized by positive, negative and cognitive symptoms. All current antipsychotic treatments feature dopamine-receptor antagonism that is relatively effective at addressing the psychotic (positive) symptoms of schizophrenia. However, there is no clear evidence that these medications improve the negative or cognitive symptoms, which are the greatest predictors of functional outcomes. One of the most robust pathophysiological observations in patients with schizophrenia is increased subcortical dopamine neurotransmission, primarily in the associative striatum. This brain area has an important role in a range of cognitive processes. Dopamine is also known to play a major part in regulating a number of cognitive functions impaired in schizophrenia but much of this research has been focused on cortical dopamine. Emerging research highlights the strong influence subcortical dopamine has on a range of cognitive domains, including attention, reward learning, goal-directed action and decision-making. Nonetheless, the precise role of the associative striatum in the cognitive impairments observed in schizophrenia remains poorly understood, presenting an opportunity to revisit its contribution to schizophrenia. Without a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying cognitive dysfunction, treatment development remains at a standstill. For this reason, improved preclinical animal models are needed if we are to understand the complex relationship between subcortical dopamine and cognition. A range of new techniques are facillitating the discrete manipulation of dopaminergic neurotransmission and measurements of cognitive performance, which can be investigated using a variety of sensitive translatable tasks. This has the potential to aid the successful incorporation of recent clinical research to address the lack of treatment strategies for cognitive symptoms in schizophrenia. This review will give an overview on the current state of research focused on subcortical dopamine and cognition in the context of schizophrenia research. We also discuss future strategies and approaches aimed at improving the translational outcomes for the treatment of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kyna-Anne Conn
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Thomas H J Burne
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.,Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, Wacol, QLD, Australia
| | - James P Kesby
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.,QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Galaj E, Barrera E, Morris D, Ma YY, Ranaldi R. Aberrations in Incentive Learning and Responding to Heroin in Male Rats After Adolescent or Adult Chronic Binge-Like Alcohol Exposure. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2020; 44:1214-1223. [PMID: 32311102 PMCID: PMC7313436 DOI: 10.1111/acer.14341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Binge drinking is a serious problem among adolescents and young adults despite its adverse consequences on the brain and behavior. One area that remains poorly understood concerns the impact of chronic intermittent ethanol (CIE) exposure on incentive learning. METHODS Here, we examined the effects of CIE exposure during different developmental stages on conditioned approach and conditioned reward learning in rats experiencing acute or protracted withdrawal from alcohol. Two or 21 days after adolescent or adult CIE exposure, male rats were exposed to pairings of a light stimulus (CS) and food pellets for 3 consecutive daily sessions (30 CS-food pellet pairings per session). This was followed by conditioned approach testing measuring responses (food trough head entries) to the CS-only presentations and by conditioned reward testing measuring responses on a lever producing the CS and on another producing a tone. We then measured behavioral sensitization to repeated injections of heroin (2 mg/kg/d for 9 days). RESULTS Adolescent and adult alcohol-treated rats showed significantly impaired conditioned reward learning regardless of withdrawal period (acute or prolonged). We found no evidence of changes to conditioned approach learning after adolescent or adult exposure to CIE. Finally, in addition to producing long-term impairments in incentive learning, CIE exposure enhanced locomotor activity in response to heroin and had no effect on behavioral sensitization to heroin regardless of age and withdrawal period. CONCLUSIONS Our work sets a framework for identifying CIE-induced alterations in incentive learning and inducing susceptibility to subsequent opioid effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Galaj
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Molecular Targets and Medication Discovery Branch, 251 Bayview Blvd, Baltimore, MD, 21224, US
| | - Eddy Barrera
- Queens College, City University of New York, Department of Psychology, 65-30 Kissena Blvd., Flushing, NY, 11367, US
| | - Debra Morris
- Queens College, City University of New York, Department of Psychology, 65-30 Kissena Blvd., Flushing, NY, 11367, US
| | - Yao-Ying Ma
- Indiana University School of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 635 Barnhill Drive, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, US
| | - Robert Ranaldi
- Queens College, City University of New York, Department of Psychology, 65-30 Kissena Blvd., Flushing, NY, 11367, US
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Sala-Bayo J, Fiddian L, Nilsson SRO, Hervig ME, McKenzie C, Mareschi A, Boulos M, Zhukovsky P, Nicholson J, Dalley JW, Alsiö J, Robbins TW. Dorsal and ventral striatal dopamine D1 and D2 receptors differentially modulate distinct phases of serial visual reversal learning. Neuropsychopharmacology 2020; 45:736-744. [PMID: 31940660 PMCID: PMC7075980 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-020-0612-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Impaired cognitive flexibility in visual reversal-learning tasks has been observed in a wide range of neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. Although both human and animal studies have implicated striatal D2-like and D1-like receptors (D2R; D1R) in this form of flexibility, less is known about the contribution they make within distinct sub-regions of the striatum and the different phases of visual reversal learning. The present study investigated the involvement of D2R and D1R during the early (perseverative) phase of reversal learning as well as in the intermediate and late stages (new learning) after microinfusions of D2R and D1R antagonists into the nucleus accumbens core and shell (NAcC; NAcS), the anterior and posterior dorsomedial striatum (DMS) and the dorsolateral striatum (DLS) on a touchscreen visual serial reversal-learning task. Reversal learning was improved after dopamine receptor blockade in the nucleus accumbens; the D1R antagonist, SCH23390, in the NAcS and the D2R antagonist, raclopride, in the NAcC selectively reduced early, perseverative errors. In contrast, reversal learning was impaired by D2R antagonism, but not D1R antagonism, in the dorsal striatum: raclopride increased errors in the intermediate phase after DMS infusions, and increased errors across phases after DLS infusions. These findings indicate that D1R and D2R modulate different stages of reversal learning through effects localised to different sub-regions of the striatum. Thus, deficits in behavioral flexibility observed in disorders linked to dopamine perturbations may be attributable to specific D1R and D2R dysfunction in distinct striatal sub-regions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Júlia Sala-Bayo
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 2EB, UK
| | - Leanne Fiddian
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 2EB, UK
| | - Simon R O Nilsson
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 2EB, UK
| | - Mona E Hervig
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 2EB, UK
| | - Colin McKenzie
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 2EB, UK
| | - Alexis Mareschi
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 2EB, UK
| | - Maria Boulos
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 2EB, UK
| | - Peter Zhukovsky
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 2EB, UK
| | - Janet Nicholson
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Div. Research Germany, Biberach an der Riß, Germany
| | - Jeffrey W Dalley
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 2EB, UK
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 2QQ, UK
| | - Johan Alsiö
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 2EB, UK
| | - Trevor W Robbins
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 2EB, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Soltani A, Izquierdo A. Adaptive learning under expected and unexpected uncertainty. Nat Rev Neurosci 2020; 20:635-644. [PMID: 31147631 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-019-0180-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The outcome of a decision is often uncertain, and outcomes can vary over repeated decisions. Whether decision outcomes should substantially affect behaviour and learning depends on whether they are representative of a typically experienced range of outcomes or signal a change in the reward environment. Successful learning and decision-making therefore require the ability to estimate expected uncertainty (related to the variability of outcomes) and unexpected uncertainty (related to the variability of the environment). Understanding the bases and effects of these two types of uncertainty and the interactions between them - at the computational and the neural level - is crucial for understanding adaptive learning. Here, we examine computational models and experimental findings to distil computational principles and neural mechanisms for adaptive learning under uncertainty.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alireza Soltani
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA.
| | - Alicia Izquierdo
- Department of Psychology, The Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Nucleus Accumbens Cell Type- and Input-Specific Suppression of Unproductive Reward Seeking. Cell Rep 2020; 30:3729-3742.e3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.02.095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 08/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
|
38
|
van Holstein M, Floresco SB. Dissociable roles for the ventral and dorsal medial prefrontal cortex in cue-guided risk/reward decision making. Neuropsychopharmacology 2020; 45:683-693. [PMID: 31652433 PMCID: PMC7021677 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-019-0557-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Revised: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Converging evidence from studies with animals and humans have implicated separate regions of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) corresponding to the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), in mediating different aspects of reward-related decisions involving uncertainty or risk. However, the dissociable contributions of subregions of the ACC remain unclear, as discrepancies exist between human neuroimaging findings and preclinical rodent studies. To clarify how ventral vs. dorsal regions of the mPFC contribute to risk/reward decision making, the present study assessed the effects of inactivation of different subregions on performance of a "Blackjack task" that measured cue-guided decision making and shares similarities with paradigms used with humans. Male, Long-Evans rats were well-trained to choose between a Small/Certain reward vs a Large/Risky reward delivered with variable probabilities (i.e., good vs. poor-odds, 50% vs. 12.5%). The odds of obtaining the larger reward was signaled by auditory cues at the start of each trial. Inactivation of the ventral, infralimbic region of the mPFC increased risky choice selectively when the odds of winning were poor. By contrast, inactivation of the prelimbic and anterior cingulate regions of the dorsal mPFC led to suboptimal reductions in risky choice on good-odds trials. The effects of prelimbic vs anterior cingulate inactivations were associated with context-dependent alterations in reward vs negative feedback, respectively. These results further clarify the distinct yet complementary manners in which separate ACC regions promote optimal risk/reward decision making and complement neuroimaging findings that activity in human ventral vs dorsal ACC promotes risk aversion or risky choices.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mieke van Holstein
- Department of Psychology and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V6T 1Z3, Canada.
| | - Stan B. Floresco
- 0000 0001 2288 9830grid.17091.3eDepartment of Psychology and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V6T 1Z3 Canada
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Cunha AM, Teixeira FG, Guimarães MR, Esteves M, Pereira-Mendes J, Soares AR, Almeida A, Sousa N, Salgado AJ, Leite-Almeida H. Unilateral accumbal dopamine depletion affects decision-making in a side-specific manner. Exp Neurol 2020; 327:113221. [PMID: 32027930 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2020.113221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Mechanisms underlying affective and cognitive deficits in Parkinson's disease (PD) remain less studied than motor symptoms. Nucleus accumbens (NAc) is affected in PD and due to its well-known involvement in motivation is an interesting target in this context. Furthermore, PD is frequently asymmetrical, with side-specific deficits aligning with evidences of accumbal laterality. We therefore used a 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) model to study the role of left and right NAc dopamine depletion in a battery of behavioral tasks. 2 months old male rats were used in all experiments. Habitual-based and goal-directed decision-making, impulsivity, anxiety- and depressive-like behavior and motor performance were tested 3 weeks after left (6-OHDA L) or right (6-OHDA R) NAc lesion was induced. Upon contingency degradation, 6-OHDA R decrease their lever press rate less than Sham and 6-OHDA L, indicating an impairment in the shift from habit-based to goal-directed strategies. On the other hand, 6-OHDA L lesions lead to increased rates of premature responding when delays where increased in the variable delay-to-signal test. Importantly, in both paradigms task acquisition was similar between groups. In the same line we found no differences in the amount of sugared pellets eaten when freely available as well as in both general and fine motor behaviors. In conclusion, left and right NAc play distinct roles in the contingency degradation and impulsivity. More studies are needed to understand the mechanisms behind this functional lateralization and its implications for PD patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A M Cunha
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - F G Teixeira
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - M R Guimarães
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - M Esteves
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - J Pereira-Mendes
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - A R Soares
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - A Almeida
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - N Sousa
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - A J Salgado
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - H Leite-Almeida
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Metha JA, Brian ML, Oberrauch S, Barnes SA, Featherby TJ, Bossaerts P, Murawski C, Hoyer D, Jacobson LH. Separating Probability and Reversal Learning in a Novel Probabilistic Reversal Learning Task for Mice. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 13:270. [PMID: 31998088 PMCID: PMC6962304 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The exploration/exploitation tradeoff – pursuing a known reward vs. sampling from lesser known options in the hope of finding a better payoff – is a fundamental aspect of learning and decision making. In humans, this has been studied using multi-armed bandit tasks. The same processes have also been studied using simplified probabilistic reversal learning (PRL) tasks with binary choices. Our investigations suggest that protocols previously used to explore PRL in mice may prove beyond their cognitive capacities, with animals performing at a no-better-than-chance level. We sought a novel probabilistic learning task to improve behavioral responding in mice, whilst allowing the investigation of the exploration/exploitation tradeoff in decision making. To achieve this, we developed a two-lever operant chamber task with levers corresponding to different probabilities (high/low) of receiving a saccharin reward, reversing the reward contingencies associated with levers once animals reached a threshold of 80% responding at the high rewarding lever. We found that, unlike in existing PRL tasks, mice are able to learn and behave near optimally with 80% high/20% low reward probabilities. Altering the reward contingencies towards equality showed that some mice displayed preference for the high rewarding lever with probabilities as close as 60% high/40% low. Additionally, we show that animal choice behavior can be effectively modelled using reinforcement learning (RL) models incorporating learning rates for positive and negative prediction error, a perseveration parameter, and a noise parameter. This new decision task, coupled with RL analyses, advances access to investigate the neuroscience of the exploration/exploitation tradeoff in decision making.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy A Metha
- Sleep and Cognition, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Translational Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Brain, Mind and Markets Laboratory, Department of Finance, Faculty of Business and Economics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Maddison L Brian
- Sleep and Cognition, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Translational Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Sara Oberrauch
- Sleep and Cognition, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Translational Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Samuel A Barnes
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Travis J Featherby
- Behavioral Core, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Peter Bossaerts
- Brain, Mind and Markets Laboratory, Department of Finance, Faculty of Business and Economics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Carsten Murawski
- Brain, Mind and Markets Laboratory, Department of Finance, Faculty of Business and Economics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Daniel Hoyer
- Sleep and Cognition, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Translational Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Laura H Jacobson
- Sleep and Cognition, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Translational Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Galaj E, Kipp BT, Floresco SB, Savage LM. Persistent Alterations of Accumbal Cholinergic Interneurons and Cognitive Dysfunction after Adolescent Intermittent Ethanol Exposure. Neuroscience 2019; 404:153-164. [PMID: 30742967 PMCID: PMC6450752 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.01.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Revised: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Adolescent binge drinking renders young drinkers vulnerable to alcohol use disorders in adulthood; therefore, understanding alcohol-induced brain damage and associated cognitive dysfunctions is of paramount importance. Here we investigated the effects of binge-like adolescent intermittent ethanol (AIE) exposure on nonspatial working memory, behavioral flexibility and cholinergic alterations in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) in male and female rats. On postnatal days P25-57 rats were intubated with water or ethanol (at a dose of 5 g/kg) on a 2-day-on/2-day-off cycle and were then tested in adulthood on social recognition and probabilistic reversal learning tasks. During the social recognition task AIE-treated rats spent similar amounts of time interacting with familiar and novel juveniles, indicating an impaired ability to sustain memory of the familiar juvenile. During probabilistic reversal learning, AIE-treated male and female rats showed behavioral inflexibility as indicated by a higher number of trials needed to complete three reversals within a session, longer response latencies for lever selection, and for males, a higher number of errors as compared to water-treated rats. AIE exposure also reduced the number of cholinergic interneurons in the NAc in males and females. These findings indicate AIE-related pathologies of accumbal cholinergic interneurons and long lasting cognitive-behavioral deficits, which may be associated with cortico-striatal hypofunction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Galaj
- Department of Psychology, Binghamton University of the State University of New York, New York, USA
| | - B T Kipp
- Department of Psychology, Binghamton University of the State University of New York, New York, USA
| | - S B Floresco
- Department of Psychology and Brain Research Center, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - L M Savage
- Department of Psychology, Binghamton University of the State University of New York, New York, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Roberts BZ, Young JW, He YV, Cope ZA, Shilling PD, Feifel D. Oxytocin improves probabilistic reversal learning but not effortful motivation in Brown Norway rats. Neuropharmacology 2019; 150:15-26. [PMID: 30844406 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2019.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Deficits in cognition and motivation are common and debilitating aspects of psychiatric disorders, yet still go largely untreated. The neuropeptide oxytocin (OT) is a potential novel therapeutic for deficits in social cognition and motivation in psychiatric patients. However, the effects of OT on clinically relevant domains of non-social cognition and motivation remain under studied. The present study investigated the effects of acute and chronic (21-day) administration of subcutaneous OT (0.04, 0.2, and 1 mg/kg) in cross-species translatable operant paradigms of reward learning and effortful motivation in male and female Brown Norway (BN) rats (n = 8-10/group). Reward learning was assessed using the probabilistic reversal learning task (PRLT) and effortful motivation was measured using the progressive ratio breakpoint task (PRBT). As predicted, BN rats exhibited baseline deficits in the detection of reversals of reward contingency in the PRLT relative to Long Evans (LE) rats. The two strains performed equally in the PRBT. Thirty minutes after a single OT injection (1 mg/kg), measures of both initial probabilistic learning (trials to first criterion) and subsequent reversal learning (contingency switches) were significantly improved to levels comparable with LE rats. The OT effect on switches persisted in male, but not female, BN rats 30 min, 24 h, and 6 days after long-term OT administration, suggesting the induction of neuroplastic changes. OT did not affect effortful motivation at any time-point. The beneficial effects of OT on reward learning in the absence of increased effortful motivation support the development of OT as a novel therapeutic to improve cognitive functioning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Z Roberts
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA
| | - Jared W Young
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA; VISN-22 Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA.
| | - Yinong V He
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA
| | - Zackary A Cope
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA
| | - Paul D Shilling
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA
| | - David Feifel
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA; Department of Psychiatry, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Drozd R, Rychlik M, Fijalkowska A, Rygula R. Effects of cognitive judgement bias and acute antidepressant treatment on sensitivity to feedback and cognitive flexibility in the rat version of the probabilistic reversal-learning test. Behav Brain Res 2019; 359:619-629. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Revised: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
|
44
|
Sensitivity to negative and positive feedback as a stable and enduring behavioural trait in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:2389-2403. [PMID: 31375849 PMCID: PMC6695373 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05333-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE According to psychological theories, cognitive distortions play a pivotal role in the aetiology and recurrence of mood disorders. Although clinical evidence for the coexistence of depression and altered sensitivity to performance feedback is relatively coherent, we still do not know whether increased or decreased sensitivity to positive or negative feedback is associated with 'pro-depressive' profile in healthy subjects. OBJECTIVE Our research has been designed to answer this question, and here, we present the first steps in that direction. METHODS Using a rat version of the probabilistic reversal-learning (PRL) paradigm, we evaluated how sensitivity to negative and positive feedback influences other cognitive processes associated with mood disorders, such as motivation in the progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement (PRSR) paradigm, hedonic status in the sucrose preference (SP) test, locomotor and exploratory activity in the open field (OF) test, and anxiety in the light/dark box (LDB) test. RESULTS The results of our study demonstrated for the first time that in rodents, sensitivity to negative and positive feedback could be considered a stable and enduring behavioural trait. Importantly, we also showed that these traits are independent of each other and that trait sensitivity to positive feedback is associated with cognitive flexibility in the PRL test. The computational modelling results also revealed that in animals classified as sensitive to positive feedback, the α learning rates for both positive and negative reward prediction errors were higher than those in animals classified as insensitive. We observed no statistically significant interactions between sensitivity to negative or positive feedback and the parameters measured in the PRSR, SP, OF or LDB tests. CONCLUSIONS Further studies using animal models of depression based on chronic stress should reveal whether sensitivity to feedback is a latent trait that when interacts with stressful life events, could produce correlates of depressive symptoms in rats.
Collapse
|
45
|
Tomm RJ, Tse MT, Tobiansky DJ, Schweitzer HR, Soma KK, Floresco SB. Effects of aging on executive functioning and mesocorticolimbic dopamine markers in male Fischer 344 × brown Norway rats. Neurobiol Aging 2018; 72:134-146. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
|
46
|
Rygula R, Noworyta-Sokolowska K, Drozd R, Kozub A. Using rodents to model abnormal sensitivity to feedback in depression. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 95:336-346. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Revised: 10/16/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
47
|
Piantadosi PT, Yeates DC, Floresco SB. Cooperative and dissociable involvement of the nucleus accumbens core and shell in the promotion and inhibition of actions during active and inhibitory avoidance. Neuropharmacology 2018; 138:57-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Revised: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
48
|
Floresco SB, Montes DR, Tse MMT, van Holstein M. Differential Contributions of Nucleus Accumbens Subregions to Cue-Guided Risk/Reward Decision Making and Implementation of Conditional Rules. J Neurosci 2018; 38:1901-1914. [PMID: 29348192 PMCID: PMC6705881 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3191-17.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The nucleus accumbens (NAc) is a key node within corticolimbic circuitry for guiding action selection and cost/benefit decision making in situations involving reward uncertainty. Preclinical studies have typically assessed risk/reward decision making using assays where decisions are guided by internally generated representations of choice-outcome contingencies. Yet, real-life decisions are often influenced by external stimuli that inform about likelihoods of obtaining rewards. How different subregions of the NAc mediate decision making in such situations is unclear. Here, we used a novel assay colloquially termed the "Blackjack" task that models these types of situations. Male Long-Evans rats were trained to choose between one lever that always delivered a one-pellet reward and another that delivered four pellets with different probabilities [either 50% (good-odds) or 12.5% (poor-odds)], which were signaled by one of two auditory cues. Under control conditions, rats selected the large/risky option more often on good-odds versus poor-odds trials. Inactivation of the NAc core caused indiscriminate choice patterns. In contrast, NAc shell inactivation increased risky choice, more prominently on poor-odds trials. Additional experiments revealed that both subregions contribute to auditory conditional discrimination. NAc core or shell inactivation reduced Pavlovian approach elicited by an auditory CS+, yet shell inactivation also increased responding during presentation of a CS-. These data highlight distinct contributions for NAc subregions in decision making and reward seeking guided by discriminative stimuli. The core is crucial for implementation of conditional rules, whereas the shell refines reward seeking by mitigating the allure of larger, unlikely rewards and reducing expression of inappropriate or non-rewarded actions.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Using external cues to guide decision making is crucial for adaptive behavior. Deficits in cue-guided behavior have been associated with neuropsychiatric disorders, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and schizophrenia, which in turn has been linked to aberrant processing in the nucleus accumbens. However, many preclinical studies have often assessed risk/reward decision making in the absence of explicit cues. The current study fills that gap by using a novel task that allows for the assessment of cue-guided risk/reward decision making in rodents. Our findings identified distinct yet complementary roles for the medial versus lateral portions of this nucleus that provide a broader understanding of the differential contributions it makes to decision making and reward seeking guided by discriminative stimuli.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stan B Floresco
- Department of Psychology and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - David R Montes
- Department of Psychology and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Maric M T Tse
- Department of Psychology and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Mieke van Holstein
- Department of Psychology and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Optogenetic Inhibition Reveals Distinct Roles for Basolateral Amygdala Activity at Discrete Time Points during Risky Decision Making. J Neurosci 2017; 37:11537-11548. [PMID: 29079687 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2344-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Revised: 10/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Decision making is a multifaceted process, consisting of several distinct phases that likely require different cognitive operations. Previous work showed that the basolateral amygdala (BLA) is a critical substrate for decision making involving risk of punishment; however, it is unclear how the BLA is recruited at different stages of the decision process. To this end, the current study used optogenetics to inhibit the BLA during specific task phases in a model of risky decision making (risky decision-making task) in which rats choose between a small, "safe" reward and a large reward accompanied by varying probabilities of footshock punishment. Male Long-Evans rats received intra-BLA microinjections of viral vectors carrying either halorhodopsin (eNpHR3.0-mCherry) or mCherry alone (control) followed by optic fiber implants and were trained in the risky decision-making task. Laser delivery during the task occurred during intertrial interval, deliberation, or reward outcome phases, the latter of which was further divided into the three possible outcomes (small, safe; large, unpunished; large, punished). Inhibition of the BLA selectively during the deliberation phase decreased choice of the large, risky outcome (decreased risky choice). In contrast, BLA inhibition selectively during delivery of the large, punished outcome increased risky choice. Inhibition had no effect during the other phases, nor did laser delivery affect performance in control rats. Collectively, these data indicate that the BLA can either inhibit or promote choice of risky options, depending on the phase of the decision process in which it is active.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT To date, most behavioral neuroscience research on neural mechanisms of decision making has used techniques that preclude assessment of distinct phases of the decision process. Here we show that optogenetic inhibition of the BLA has opposite effects on choice behavior in a rat model of risky decision making, depending on the phase in which inhibition occurs. BLA inhibition during a period of deliberation between small, safe and large, risky outcomes decreased risky choice. In contrast, BLA inhibition during receipt of the large, punished outcome increased risky choice. These findings highlight the importance of temporally targeted approaches to understand neural substrates underlying complex cognitive processes. More importantly, they reveal novel information about dynamic BLA modulation of risky choice.
Collapse
|
50
|
Functional inactivation of dorsal medial striatum alters behavioral flexibility and recognition process in mice. Physiol Behav 2017; 179:467-477. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Revised: 07/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
|