The Neuroprotective Potentiality of Flavonoids on Alzheimer's Disease

Phytochemical regulation of CaMKII in Alzheimer's disease: A review of molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder that leads to cognitive decline. CaMKII is a calcium-regulated kinase that is crucial for synaptic plasticity and memory. Phytochemicals with diverse origins, safety, and biological activity have attracted considerable attention in AD research. This systematic analysis of phytochemicals targeting CaMKII reveals their neuroprotective mechanisms against AD pathogenesis, highlighting CaMKII as a promising therapeutic target that warrants further preclinical investigation and drug development. We conducted a comprehensive review of the literature of phytochemicals that target CaMKII as a protective mechanism against AD. The search was conducted across multiple databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Internet, and Google Scholar, and covered the period from January 2000 to October 2024. A total of 301 articles were retrieved, of which 22 articles were included. The results showed that flavonoid, glycoside, terpene, and polyphenol analogs positively regulated CaMKII expression, whereas alkaloid analogs negatively regulated CaMKII expression. Different components of traditional Chinese medicine played different roles in CaMKII expression. Flavonoid compounds upregulated the expression of SYN, PSD-95, MAP2, and GluR1 to exert neuroprotective effects. Alkaloid and glycoside analogs inhibited Aβ deposition and tau hyperphosphorylation. Terpene analogs upregulated the SYN, PSD-95, NMDAR, BDNF, and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways to exert neuroprotection. Polyphenol analogs upregulated PSD-95, Munc18-1, SNAP25, SYN, and BDNF to exert neuroprotective effects. Emerging evidence demonstrates that select phytochemicals and traditional Chinese medicine compounds exert neuroprotective effects in AD by modulating CaMKII activity, thereby reducing Aβ accumulation, attenuating tau hyperphosphorylation, and enhancing synaptic plasticity, suggesting promising therapeutic potential.

Myricetin alleviates learning and memory deficits in trimethyltin Alzheimer's phenotype via attenuating hippocampal endoplasmic reticulum stress and regulating inflammation and oxidative stress

Trimethyltin hydrochloride (TMT) induces hippocampal neurodegeneration and learning and memory impairments, providing a useful experimental model for Alzheimer's disease (AD) research. This study aimed to explore the neuroprotective effects of myricetin, a naturally occurring flavonoid with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, against TMT-induced hippocampal damage and elucidate some of its underlying molecular mechanisms. Male NMRI mice (n = 32) were divided into four experimental groups: control, control + myricetin, TMT, and TMT + myricetin. Neurodegeneration was induced by intraperitoneal TMT injection (2.8 mg/kg), followed by daily oral administration of myricetin (25 mg/kg) for 21 days. Learning and memory-related function was assessed using passive avoidance, novel object recognition, and Y-maze tests. After behavioral tasks, hippocampal levels of oxidative stress parameters (glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, malondialdehyde (MDA)), inflammatory markers (tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-10 (IL-10)), and endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway proteins (GRP78, PERK, IRE1α, and CHOP) were evaluated. Histological examinations included Nissl staining to quantify neuronal degeneration in CA1 and dentate gyrus regions, as well as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunohistochemistry. Myricetin treatment attenuated TMT-induced learning and memory impairments and neuronal loss in the CA1 and dentate gyrus subfields. It significantly enhanced hippocampal levels of GSH, SOD and catalase activities, and IL-10 while reducing levels of MDA, TNF-α, and GFAP immunoreactivity. Moreover, myricetin alleviated the TMT-induced elevation of GRP78, PERK, IRE1α, and CHOP. These findings suggest that myricetin holds promise as a therapeutic candidate for AD and other neurodegenerative disorders by counteracting oxidative stress, suppressing neuroinflammation, and modulating endoplasmic reticulum stress pathways.

The Role of Selected Flavonoids in Modulating Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's Disease: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potential

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive decline, amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition, tau hyperphosphorylation, oxidative stress, and chronic neuroinflammation. Growing evidence highlights neuroinflammation-driven by microglial activation and pro-inflammatory cytokine release-as a key contributor to AD pathogenesis and progression. In the absence of effective disease-modifying therapies, attention has turned to natural compounds with multi-target potential. Flavonoids, a diverse class of plant-derived polyphenols, have demonstrated neuroprotective properties through antioxidant activity, modulation of neuroinflammatory pathways, and interference with both Aβ aggregation and tau pathology. This narrative review provides an integrative overview of current findings on the mechanisms of action of key flavonoids-such as quercetin, luteolin, and apigenin-in both preclinical and clinical models. Emphasis is placed on their effects on microglial polarization, oxidative stress reduction, mitochondrial support, and synaptic function enhancement. Moreover, flavonoids show synergistic potential when combined with standard pharmacotherapies, such as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, and may offer broader cognitive benefits in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Despite these promising findings, significant challenges persist, including poor bioavailability, inter-individual variability, and limited long-term clinical data. This review identifies critical gaps in knowledge and outlines future directions, including targeted drug delivery systems, biomarker-guided personalization, and long-duration trials. Flavonoids thus emerge not only as promising neuroprotective agents but also as complementary candidates in the development of future multi-modal strategies for AD treatment.

Integrating metabolomics and transcriptomics comprehensively reveals the global metabolic differences in three species of Nitraria berries

Nitraria berry, a traditional Chinese medicine, is harvested when ripe and then dried in the sun as medicine. Three species of Nitraria have attracted more attention in the pharmaceutical field: Nitraria tangutorum Bobr. (NT), Nitraria sibirica Pall. (NS) and Nitraria roborowskii Kom. (NR). However, the differences in chemical composition and the corresponding metabolic mechanisms of the three species of berries has not been reported. This study combined metabolomics and transcriptomics to explore the differences among three species of Nitraria berries. The results indicate that different metabolites (DMs) and different expressed genes (DEGs) are mainly enriched in the biosynthetic pathways of anthocyanins and flavonoids. 4 petunidins and 2 isorhamnetins were significantly accumulated in the NR, while 4 cyanidins and 3 kaempferols were significantly accumulated in the NS and NT. The transcriptomics results show that the biosynthesis of flavonoids (including anthocyanins) in Nitraria berry may be regulated by 10 structure genes, including 5 PAL, 2 4CL, CHI, 2 F3'H. Based on this, a network metabolic map for flavonoids was constructed, and a correlation analysis was performed between major DMs and DEGs. Overall, this study provides the theoretical basis and development suggestions for the comprehensive utilization and in-depth development of Nitraria berries.

Neuroprotective and antioxidant effects of Urtica dioica extract against chlorpyrifos-induced toxicity: an in vivo study

This study examines the neuroprotective and antioxidant effects of Urtica dioica ethanolic extract (UDExt) and melatonin (Mel) in mitigating chlorpyrifos (CPF)-induced toxicity in rats, with melatonin serving as a standard antioxidant. Male Wistar rats were divided into six groups: (I) Control, (II) UDExt (200 mg/kg), (III) Mel (20 mg/kg), (IV) CPF (10 mg/kg), (V) UDExt + CPF, and (VI) Mel + CPF. UDExt and Mel were administered for 7 days prior to CPF exposure, followed by a treatment of 14 days. The findings revealed that CPF exposure significantly impaired hematological parameters (WBC, PLT, LYM), increased lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation, and decreased antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, CAT, GPx) in brain and cerebellar tissues compared to control rats. Behavioral tests, including the open field test, showed that CPF reduced locomotor activity and increased anxiogenic symptoms. The Y-maze test revealed impaired recognition memory, and the tail suspension test indicated increased depressive symptoms. Histological analysis revealed neuronal damage in the brain and cerebellum tissues. Treatment with UDExt or melatonin, following CPF exposure, significantly improved hematological parameters, reduced lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation, normalized antioxidant enzyme activities, and alleviated neurobehavioral alterations. Histopathological analysis also showed that UDExt or melatonin combined with CPF notably reduced neuronal damage in the brain and cerebellum. UDExt and melatonin mitigated the CPF-induced neurobehavioral alterations associated oxidative injury.

Urolithin A alleviates schizophrenic-like behaviors and cognitive impairment in rats through modulation of neuroinflammation, neurogenesis, and synaptic plasticity

Cognitive impairment in schizophrenia occurs in the early stages of the disease and is closely associated with prognosis. Alleviation of cognitive impairment in schizophrenia faces major challenges owing to the lack of preventive and therapeutic drugs that are novel and effective. Urolithin A (UA) is a gut microbial metabolite of ellagic acid that has demonstrated neuroprotective effects in multiple neurological disease models. Nonetheless, the neuromodulatory role of UA in schizophrenia is yet to be elucidated. Wistar rat pups were separated from their mothers for 24 h on postnatal days (PNDs) 9-10 to establish an early-life stress model. The pups were pretreated with UA at different administration times (2, 4, and 6 weeks) and doses (50, 100, and 150 mg/kg) from adolescence (PND29). Behavioral tests were performed after the end of the administration. Subsequently, hippocampal samples were collected for histopathological and molecular evaluations. Male offspring rats subjected to maternal separation exhibited increased sensitivity to prepulse inhibition and cognitive impairment, accompanied by severe neuroinflammation and impaired neurogenesis. However, UA attenuated maternal separation-induced prepulse inhibition deficits and cognitive impairments and restored hippocampal neurogenesis in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, UA pretreatment preserved dendritic spine density, synapses, and presynaptic vesicles. In addition, it exerted anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting microglial activation and expression of the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, and interleukin-1β. Potential mechanisms included upregulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor protein expression and activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling pathway. This study is the first preclinical evaluation of the effects of UA on cognitive impairment in schizophrenia. The findings suggest that changes in cognitive function linked to schizophrenia are driven by the interaction among neuroinflammation, neurogenesis, and synaptic plasticity and that UA has the potential to reverse these processes. These observations provide evidence for future clinical trials of UA as a dietary supplement for preventing schizophrenia.

Harnessing the Potential of Walnut Leaves from Nerpio: Unveiling Extraction Techniques and Bioactivity Through Caenorhabditis elegans Studies

This study used Juglans regia leaves from the Gran Jefe variety; this indigenous cultivar from Nerpio is highly valued for its quality and distinct characteristics. This type of walnut is traditionally cultivated in the region and is noted for its organoleptic properties and adaptation to local climatic conditions. Two solvents were tested to determine the optimal extraction conditions for phenolic compounds: 80% ethanol and water. Direct homogenization with an Ultra-Turrax, direct ultrasound, and indirect ultrasound treatments were compared for ethanol extraction. Water extractions were conducted using direct and indirect ultrasound, infusion, and decoction. Compared to water extraction, 80% ethanol proved to be more efficient. Extracting phenolic compounds from 'Gran Jefe' walnut leaves was most effective when using direct extraction methods without either ultrasound assistance or indirect ultrasound treatment. The main compounds identified were trans-3-caffeoylquinic acid and quercetin-3-hexoside isomer 1. The ethanolic extract obtained through direct extraction was selected to study further the bioactivities of 'Gran Jefe' walnut leaves using C. elegans as an in vivo model. Results indicated that the leaf extract enhanced thermal and oxidative stress resistance, promoted fertility, and exhibited neuroprotective effects in models of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. The observed bioactivities were attributed to the free phenolics present in the ethanolic extract.

Synaptic plasticity and neuroprotection: The molecular impact of flavonoids on neurodegenerative disease progression

Flavonoids are a broad family of polyphenolic chemicals that are present in a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and medicinal plants. Because of their neuroprotective qualities, flavonoids have attracted a lot of interest. The potential of flavonoids to control synaptic plasticity-a crucial process underlying memory, learning, and cognitive function-is becoming more and more clear. Dysregulation of synaptic plasticity is a feature of neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (0.4 %), Parkinson's (1-2 %), Alzheimer's (5-7 %), and Huntington's ((0.2 %)). This review discusses the molecular mechanisms via which flavonoids influence synaptic plasticity as well as their therapeutic potential in neurodegenerative diseases. Flavonoids modulate key signaling pathways such as MAPK/ERK and PI3K/Akt/mTOR to support neuroprotection, synaptic plasticity, and neuronal health, while also influencing neurotrophic factors (BDNF, NGF) and their receptors (TrkB, TrkA). They regulate neurotransmitter receptors like GABA, AMPA, and NMDA to balance excitatory and inhibitory transmission, and exert antioxidant effects via the Nrf2-ARE pathway and anti-inflammatory actions by inhibiting NF-κB signaling, highlighting their potential for treating neurodegenerative diseases. These varied reactions support the preservation of synapse function and neuronal integrity in the face of neurodegenerative insults. Flavonoids can reduce the symptoms of neurodegeneration, prevent synaptic loss, and enhance cognitive function, according to experimental studies. However, there are still obstacles to using these findings in clinical settings, such as limited bioavailability and the need for consistent dose. The focus of future research should be on improving flavonoid delivery systems and combining them with conventional medications.

Kaempferia parviflora extract and its methoxyflavones as potential anti-Alzheimer assessing in vitro, integrated computational approach, and in vivo impact on behaviour in scopolamine-induced amnesic mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a growing global challenge, lacks effective preventive and therapeutic strategies. This study explored the promising potential of the Kaempferia parviflora (KP) and its methoxyflavones (MFs) against the disease. We evaluated KP extract and its five MFs for antioxidant capacity, cholinesterase inhibition (AChE, and BChE), amyloid plaque (Aβ) reduction, neuroprotection, and memory improvement in a mouse model. HPLC quantified the five MFs in KP extract, with 5,7-dimethoxyflavone (F1) being the most abundant. 5,7,4'-Trimethoxyflavone (F3) and 5-hydroxy-3,7-dimethoxyflavone (F4) exhibited the strongest AChE and BChE inhibitory activities, respectively. MFs hindered Aβ1-42 aggregation and destabilized fibrils, with F3 showing the potent anti-aggregation and the strongest fibril destabilization. They also protected SH-SY5Y cells from Aβ1-42-induced damage. Notably, F3 combined anti-cholinesterase and anti-Aβ activities, suggesting its potential as a multi-target agent. KP extract ameliorated scopolamine-induced memory deficits in mice, suggesting its potential for cognitive improvement. These findings revealed that KP can be a promising candidate for herbal medicine development against AD. Its multi-target MFs offered a unique advantage by targeting multiple AD pathways. KP may have a great potential to modify the disease and overcome the challenge of drug development as cognitive enhancing herbal medicine.

The multiple biological activities of hyperoside: from molecular mechanisms to therapeutic perspectives in neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases

In recent years, hyperoside (quercetin 3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside) has garnered significant attention due to its diverse biological effects, which include vasoprotective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor properties. Notably, hyperoside has shown remarkable potential in cancer therapy by targeting multiple mechanisms; it induces apoptosis, inhibits proliferation, blocks angiogenesis, and reduces the metastatic potential of cancer cells. Furthermore, hyperoside enhances the sensitivity of cancer cells to chemotherapy by modulating key signaling pathways. Beyond neoplastic diseases, hyperoside also presents promising therapeutic applications in managing non-cancerous conditions such as diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, and pulmonary fibrosis. This review comprehensively examines the molecular mechanisms underlying hyperoside's anti-cancer effects and highlights its role in the treatment of cancers, including lung and colorectal cancers. Additionally, it explores the latest research on hyperoside's potential in addressing non-neoplastic conditions, such as pulmonary fibrosis, diabetes, and Parkinson's disease. By summarizing current findings, this review underscores the unique therapeutic value of hyperoside and its potential as a multifunctional treatment in both neoplastic and non-neoplastic contexts.

The antioxidant role of aromatic plant extracts in managing neurodegenerative diseases: A comprehensive review

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are a class of cognitive and motor disorders including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), and others. They are caused by lesions in cells and tissues of the central nervous system, resulting in corresponding dysfunctions and consequent decline in cognitive and motor functions. Neural tissues are extremely vulnerable to oxidative stress, which plays critical biological roles in NDDs. Aromatic compounds are found extensively in natural plants and have substantial effects of anti-oxidative stress damage, which not only have a wide range of research applications in cosmetics, foods, etc., but are also frequently utilized in the treatment of various central nervous system diseases. This review summarizes the relevant oxidative stress mechanisms in NDDs (AD, PD, HD, and ALS) and reviews aromatic compounds such as polyphenols, terpenoids, and flavonoids that can be used in the management of neurodegenerative diseases, as well as their specific mechanisms of antioxidant action. This review will serve as a reference for future experimental studies on neurodegenerative illnesses while also offering fresh insights into clinical therapy.

Protective effect of flavonoids on oxidative stress injury in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease, which is mainly caused by the damage of the structure and function of the central nervous system. At present, there are many adverse reactions in market-available drugs, which can't significantly inhibit the occurrence of AD. Therefore, the current focus of research is to find safe and effective therapeutic drugs to improve the clinical treatment of AD. Oxidative stress bridges different mechanism hypotheses of AD and plays a key role in AD. Numerous studies have shown that natural flavonoids have good antioxidant effects. They can directly or indirectly resist -oxidative stress, inhibit Aβ aggregation and Tau protein hyperphosphorylation by activating Nrf2 and other oxidation-antioxidation-related signals, regulating synaptic function-related pathways, promoting mitochondrial autophagy, etc., and play a neuroprotective role in AD. In this review, we summarised the mechanism of flavonoids inhibiting oxidative stress injury in AD in recent years. Moreover, because of the shortcomings of poor biofilm permeability and low bioavailability of flavonoids, the advantages and recent research progress of nano-drug delivery systems such as liposomes and solid lipid nanoparticles were highlighted. We hope this review provides a useful way to explore safe and effective AD treatments.

Alzheimer's disease: an integrative bioinformatics and machine learning analysis reveals glutamine metabolism-associated gene biomarkers

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a hallmark of age-related cognitive decline, is defined by its unique neuropathology. Metabolic dysregulation, particularly involving glutamine (Gln) metabolism, has emerged as a critical but underexplored aspect of AD pathophysiology, representing a significant gap in our current understanding of the disease.

METHODS

To investigate the involvement of GlnMgs in AD, we conducted a comprehensive bioinformatic analysis. We began by identifying differentially expressed GlnMgs from a curated list of 34 candidate genes. Subsequently, we employed GSEA and GSVA to assess the biological significance of these GlnMgs. Advanced techniques such as Lasso regression and SVM-RFE were utilized to identify key hub genes and evaluate the diagnostic potential of 14 central GlnMgs in AD. Additionally, we examined their correlations with clinical parameters and validated their expression across multiple independent AD cohorts (GSE5281, GSE37263, GSE106241, GSE132903, GSE63060).

RESULTS

Our rigorous analysis identified 14 GlnMgs-GLS2, GLS, GLUD2, GLUL, GOT1, HAL, AADAT, PFAS, ASNSD1, PPAT, NIT2, ALDH5A1, ASRGL1, and ATCAY-as potential contributors to AD pathogenesis. These genes were implicated in vital biological processes, including lipid transport and the metabolism of purine-containing compounds, in response to nutrient availability. Notably, these GlnMgs demonstrated significant diagnostic potential, highlighting their utility as both diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for AD.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study uncovers 14 GlnMgs with potential links to AD, expanding our understanding of the disease's molecular underpinnings and offering promising avenues for biomarker development. These findings not only enhance the molecular landscape of AD but also pave the way for future diagnostic and therapeutic innovations, potentially reshaping AD diagnostics and patient care.

Exploring Quinazoline as a Scaffold for Developing Novel Therapeutics in Alzheimer's Disease

Quinazoline, a privileged scaffold in medicinal chemistry, offers promising potential in the synthesis of anti-Alzheimer's disease (AD) drugs. This heterocyclic compound, characterized by its fused benzene and pyrimidine rings, enables the design of multifunctional agents targeting AD pathology. The drug-like aspects and pharmaceutical features of quinazoline derivatives have the potential to give rise to various therapeutic drugs. AD is a progressive neurodegenerative condition marked by memory decline, cognitive deterioration, and language disorders. Given its complexity and multifaceted nature, there is a pressing need to discover multi-target drugs to effectively address this debilitating disorder. A comprehensive literature review has demonstrated that quinazoline derivatives exhibit a wide range of therapeutic potential for AD. These compounds function as inhibitors of cholinesterases, β-amyloid aggregation, oxidative stress, and tau protein, among other protective effects. Here, we highlight the most significant and recent research on quinazoline-based anti-AD agents, aiming to support the development and discovery of novel treatments for AD.

Integrated Metabolome, Transcriptome, and Physiological Analysis of the Flavonoid and Phenylethanol Glycosides Accumulation in Wild Phlomoides rotata Roots from Different Habitats

Phlomoides rotata, a traditional medicinal plant, is commonly found on the Tibetan Plateau at altitudes of 3100-5200 m. Its primary active medicinal compounds, flavonoids and phenylethanol glycosides (PhGs), exhibit various pharmacological effects, including hemostatic, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant activities. This study analyzed flavonoid and PhG metabolites in the roots of P. rotata collected from Henan County (HN), Guoluo County (GL), Yushu County (YS), and Chengduo County (CD) in Qinghai Province. A total of differentially abundant metabolites (DAMs) including 38 flavonoids and 21 PhGs were identified. Six genes (UFGT1, CHS1, COMT2, C4H3, C4H8, and C4H5) and four enzymes (4CL, C4H, PPO, and ALDH) were found to play key roles in regulating flavonoid and PhG biosynthesis in P. rotata roots. With increasing altitude, the relative content of 15 metabolites, the expression of seven genes, and the activity of four enzymes associated with flavonoid and PhG metabolism increased. These findings enhance our understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of flavonoid and PhG metabolism in P. rotata and provide insights into the potential pharmaceutical applications of its bioactive compounds.

Revolutionizing Parkinson's treatment: Harnessing the potential of intranasal nanoemulsions for targeted therapy

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most prominent and highly prevalent chronic neuro-degenerative disease generally recognized by classical motor symptoms which are linked with genetic mutation, Lewy bodies, and subsequently selective loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier protect the central nervous system against toxins and are the most significant barriers to effective brain drug delivery in managing Parkinsonism. In recent years, intranasal delivery has attracted remarkable attention for brain targeting as the drug can be administered to the brain directly from the nose employing the trigeminal and olfactory pathways. For brain targeting through nasal delivery, several advanced and promising formulation techniques have been investigated globally. Nanoemulsions are regarded as an innovative carrier approach for PD, where these provide targeted administration and enhanced bioavailability of neurotherapeutics. This manuscript provides deeper insight into the pathophysiology of PD, various drug delivery strategies to overcome BBB, and the potential role of nanoemulsions via the intranasal route. Various research findings on the intranasal administration of nanoemulsions and their pivotal applications in the treatment of PD have also been embarked. The potential role of phytoconstituents and surface-modified nanoemulsions for the effective treatment of PD has also been reflected along with current challenges and future perspectives in this avenue.

Beta-site APP-cleaving Enzyme-1 Inhibitory Role of Natural Flavonoids in the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a devastating neurological condition characterized by a progressive decline in cognitive function, including memory loss, reasoning difficulties, and disorientation. Its hallmark features include the formation of neurofibrillary tangles and neuritic plaques in the brain, disrupting normal neuronal function. Neurofibrillary tangles, composed of phosphorylated tau protein and neuritic plaques, containing amyloid-β protein (Aβ) aggregates, contribute to the degenerative process. The discovery of the beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) in 1999 revolutionized our understanding of AD pathogenesis. BACE1 plays a crucial role in the production of Aβ, the toxic protein implicated in AD progression. Elevated levels of BACE1 have been observed in AD brains and bodily fluids, underscoring its significance in disease onset and progression. Despite setbacks in clinical trials of BACE1 inhibitors due to efficacy and safety concerns, targeting BACE1 remains a promising therapeutic strategy for early-stage AD. Natural flavonoids have emerged as potential BACE1 inhibitors, demonstrating the ability to reduce Aβ production in neuronal cells and inhibit BACE1 activity. In our review, we delve into the pathophysiology of AD, highlighting the central role of BACE1 in Aβ production and disease progression. We explore the therapeutic potential of BACE1 inhibitors, including natural flavonoids, in controlling AD symptoms. Additionally, we provide insights into ongoing clinical trials and available patents in this field, shedding light on future directions for AD treatment research.

Gut microbiota may affect Alzheimer's disease through synaptic function mediated by CAMs pathway: A study combining Mendelian randomization and bioinformatics

Background

The association between gut microbes and Alzheimer's disease (AD) has not been entirely elucidated.

Objective

We aimed to demonstrate the association between gut microbes and AD and to further investigate the pathogenesis of microbes with a causal relationship to AD.

Methods

Mendelian randomization analyses were used to determine the significant causal relationship between gut microbes and AD. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was used to identify the hub genes. Functional enrichment analysis was used to reveal the pathogenesis theoretically between gut microbes and AD.

Results

In the present study, a total of 32 microbes were identified that were significantly associated with AD. Subsequently, DLGAP2, NRXN3, NEGR1, NTNAP2, MYH9, and SCN3A were identified as hub genes. The genes NRXN3, NEGR1, and NTNAP2 were enriched in the cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) signaling, and the taxons of gut microbes that corresponded to these were Bifidobacterium adolescentis, Actinomycetales, and Intestinimonas massiliensis.

Conclusions

Bifidobacterium adolescentis, Actinomycetales, and Intestinimonas massiliensis may promote the progression of AD through the regulation of the CAMs signaling pathway-mediated synaptic function. Hence, the in-depth study of gut microbes may increase the efficiency of screening and diagnosis of AD.

Crotalaria quinquefolia L. Revealed as a Potential Source of Neuropharmacophore in Both Experimental and Computational Studies

Herbal remedies have shown great promise for improving human health. The plant Crotalaria quinquefolia is used in folk medicine to cure different diseases, including scabies, fever, discomfort, and lung infections. The present research was designed to explore bioactive compounds and evaluate the neuropharmacological effects of C. quinquefolia extract through in vivo and in silico approaches. Different secondary metabolites as well as the antioxidant activity were measured. Furthermore, chemical compounds were identified by HPLC and GCMS analysis. The neuropharmacological activity was examined by hole cross, hole board, open field, Y-maze, elevated plus maze, and thiopental sodium induced sleeping time tests in mice at doses of 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg b.w. (p.o). Besides, an in-silico study was performed on proteins related to Alzheimer disease. The extract showed a significant content of secondary metabolites and antioxidant potential. The in-silico analysis showed that myricetin, quercetin, rutin, and kaempferol have good binding affinity with studied proteins, and QSAR studies revealed potential benefits for treating dementia, and age-related macular degeneration. The findings of the present neurological activity collectively imply that the extract has strong CNS depressant and anxiolytic activity. Therefore, C. quinquefolia can be a potential source of compounds to treat Alzheimer disease.

Mechanism to disrupt ESCRT-mediated intracellular trafficking through Vps28-small molecules interaction: an in silico approach

The ESCRT (Endosomal Sorting Complex Required for Transport) machinery comprising protein complexes ESCRT-0 to ESCRT-III and Vps4 plays a pivotal role in intracellular trafficking, a process of endocytosing cell surface proteins into the cell for various biological activities. The ESCRT protein complexes are sequentially assembled which interact amongst each other to form a functional ESCRT machinery. Deregulation of these events are shown to be involved in various disease development including tumor formation and viral infections. Recently upregulation of a crucial ESCRT protein, Vps28 has been shown to be implicated in tumor formation. However, Vps28 in ESCRT-I interacts with Vps36 in ESCRT-II to function as a connecting protein during ESCRT machinery formation. Until now biomolecular approaches to inhibit the formation/assembly of ESCRT machinery have not been developed. Hence, we hypothesized that disrupting Vps28/Vps36 interaction would prevent assembly of ESCRT machinery and offer therapeutic potential to restrict disease development and progression. To address this, we utilized a virtual screening approach using a flavonoid-based library to identify potential small molecule inhibitors that can bind to Vps28 active site. Based on the binding affinity, top-hit compounds were identified. Molecular dynamics simulations set over a 500 ns timescale demonstrated the stability of the Vps28-small molecule complexes. Per-residue decomposition analysis using Molecular Mechanics/Poisson-Boltzmann surface area highlighted the significant contributions of active site residues Asn189, Arg190, Arg193 and Asn210 in Vps28 for interaction with small molecules. Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, and Toxicity analysis for toxicity evaluation indicates that molecules Z0131, H0194, Z0199 and DQ00112 exhibited physicochemical properties suitable for drug development.

Design and preparation of naringenin loaded functional biomimetic nano-drug delivery system for Alzheimer's disease

Efficient brain drug delivery has been a challenge in the treatment of Alzheimer's Disease and other brain disorders as blood-brain barrier (BBB) impedes most drugs to reach brain. To overcome this obstacle, we developed a novel TGN decorated erythrocyte membrane-coated poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticle (TRNNs). The nanoparticle significantly boosted the penetration (7.3 times) in a U-118MG and HCMEC/D3 cell co-culture BBB model in vitro. Living image was performed to assess the TRNNs distribution in vivo. The fluorescence intensity in the isolated brain of TRDNs-treated mice was about 8 times that of the DNs-treated. In the novel object recognition test, the mice after administration of TRDNs showed higher recognition index (0.414 ± 0.016) than the model group (0.275 ± 0.019). A significant increase in the number of dendritic spines from TRNNs administrated mice hippocampi neurons was observed after Golgi stain. This improvement of neurons was also confirmed by the significant high expression of PSD95 protein level in hippocampi. We measured the OD values of Aβ25-35 induced PC12 cells that pre-treatment with different nanoparticles and concluded that TRNNs had a robust neuroprotection effect. Above all, functional biomimetic nanoparticles could increase the accumulation of naringenin into brain, thereby enable the drug to exert greater therapeutic effects.

Osmundacetone ameliorates Alzheimer's-like pathologies by inhibiting β-amyloid fibrillation, oxidative damage and neuroinflammation in APP/PS1 transgenic mice

BACKGROUND

β-Amyloid (Aβ) fibrillation is critical for Aβ deposition and cytotoxicity during the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Consequently, anti-Aβ monoclonal antibody drugs targeting Aβ oligomers and aggregation are considered potential therapeutic strategies for AD treatment. Similar to the working mechanisms of anti-Aβ monoclonal antibody drugs, our study identified osmundacetone (OAC), a small-molecule compound isolated from the traditional Chinese medicine Rhizoma Osmundae, as exerting anti-AD effects by targeting Aβ.

PURPOSE

This study sought to determine whether OAC influences the Aβ burden in APP/PS1 mice and to identify potential regulatory mechanisms.

METHODS

Five-month-old APP/PS1 mice were injected intraperitoneally with OAC at a dose of 1 mg/kg for 12 weeks. The cognitive functions of the mice were assessed via the Morris water maze test and the open field test. Osmundacetone was analyzed via molecular docking, an isothermal dose‒response fingerprint-cellular context thermal shift assay, a thioflavine T fluorescence assay, and an atomic force microscopy assay to analyze the effects of OAC on Aβ fibrillation. Immunofluorescence, immunoblotting, and immunohistochemistry were used to assess Aβ clearance, AD pathology, oxidative stress, and inflammatory responses.

RESULTS

The innovative biochemical and physical data illustrated that the ability of OAC to inhibit Aβ fibrillation was accomplished by binding directly to Aβ, which differed from the majority of previously reported natural polyphenols that modulate the Aβ content and structure in an indirect manner. The inhibition of Aβ fibrosis by OAC subsequently promoted Aβ lysosomal degradation, resulting in a decreased Aβ burden in APP/PS1 mice. Furthermore, OAC treatment inhibited oxidative damage by upregulating glutathione peroxidase expression and attenuated the production of inflammatory factors by downregulating nuclear factor-kB phosphorylation in APP/PS1 mice.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrate, for the first time, that OAC could reduce the brain Aβ burden in APP/PS1 mice by inhibiting Aβ fibrillation through direct binding to Aβ and improve cognitive dysfunction by attenuating oxidative damage and neuroinflammation. These findings indicate that OAC may be a promising candidate for the treatment of AD.

In vitro modelling of Parkinson's disease using 6-OHDA is associated with increased NQO2 activity

The pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) involves abnormalities in the metabolism of catecholamines. The enzyme quinone reductase 2 (NQO2) reduces quinone derivatives of catecholamines, which promotes the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), suggesting a role for NQO2 in the development of cellular damage typical of PD. In the present study, we investigated the relationship between 6-hydroxydophamine (6-OHDA) induced cellular damage and NQO2 activity and its levels in SH-SY5Y cell culture to establish an experimental model to evaluate the pharmacological properties of NQO2 inhibitors. Cellular damage was evaluated using the MTT and comet assays. It was shown that oxidative damage of SH-SY5Y cells upon incubation with 6-OHDA for 6, 12 and 24 h was accompanied by an increase in NQO2 activity. The increase in NQO2 protein level in SH-SY5Y cells was observed 24 h after incubation with 6-OHDA at concentrations of 50 and 100 μM. Oxidative damage of SH-SY5Y cells upon 1 h incubation with 6-OHDA is increased in the presence of the selective enzyme co-substrate 1-benzyl-1,4-dihydronicotinamide (BNAH), but is not accompanied by changes in NQO2 activity and protein levels. The data obtained demonstrate the contribution of NQO2 to the cytotoxic mechanism of 6-OHDA action.

Revolutionizing neurotherapeutics: Nanocarriers unveiling the potential of phytochemicals in Alzheimer's disease

Neurological disorders pose a huge worldwide challenge to the healthcare system, necessitating innovative strategies for targeted drug delivery to the central nervous system. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an untreatable neurodegenerative condition characterized by dementia and alterations in a patient's physiological and mental states. Since ancient times, medicinal plants have been an important source of bioactive phytochemicals with immense therapeutic potential. This review investigates new and safer alternatives for prevention and treatment of disease related to inevitable side effects associated with synthetic compounds. This review examines how nanotechnology can help in enhancing the delivery of neuroprotective phytochemicals in AD. Nevertheless, despite their remarkable neuroprotective properties, these natural products often have poor therapeutic efficacy due to low bioavailability, limited solubility and imperfect blood brain barrier (BBB) penetration. Nanotechnology produces personalized drug delivery systems which are necessary for solving such problems. In overcoming these challenges, nanotechnology might be employed as a way forward whereby customized medication delivery systems would be established as a result. The use of nanocarriers in the design and application of important phytochemicals is highlighted by this review, which indicate potential for revolutionizing neuroprotective drug delivery. We also explore the complications and possibilities of using nanocarriers to supply nutraceuticals and improve patients' standard of living, and preclinical as well as clinical investigations displaying that these techniques are effective in mitigating neurodegenerative diseases. In order to fight brain diseases and improve patient's health, scientists and doctors can employ nanotechnology with its possible therapeutic interventions.

The therapeutic potential of Apigenin in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis through ALDH1A2/Nrf2/ARE signaling

BACKGROUND

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by motor neuron loss leading to muscle weakness and atrophy. Apigenin (APG), known for its antioxidant properties, holds potential as a therapeutic compound in ALS.

METHODS

We used the Tg(SOD1*G93A)1Gur/J transgenic mouse model of ALS to investigate the therapeutic effects of APG. Key measured included motor function via the ALSTDI score, molecular markers of oxidative stress (OS) and apoptosis in spinal cord tissues. Techniques used included pathological, Western blotting, flow cytometry, and qRT-PCR to assess the effect of ALDH1A2.

RESULTS

APG treatment attenuated weight loss and improved motor function scores in ALS mice compared to untreated ALS models. Molecular analyses revealed a significant upregulation of ALDH1A2 in APG-treated groups, along with a reduction in markers of OS and apoptosis. In vitro studies in NSC34 cells further confirmed the protective effects of APG against SOD1*G93A mutation-induced cytotoxicity. In addition, suppression of ALDH1A2 by shRNA exacerbated disease markers that were ameliorated by APG treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that APG attenuates the progression of ALS pathology by regulating OS and apoptosis through ALDH1A2. These results support further investigation of APG as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of ALS.

Degradation of pathogenic amyloids induced by matrix metalloproteinase-9

Over the past decade, the greatest promise for treating severe and currently incurable systemic and neurodegenerative diseases has turned to agents capable of effectively degrading pathological amyloid deposits without causing side effects. Specifically, amyloid destruction observed in immunotherapy is hypothesized to occur through activation of proteolytic enzymes. This study examines poorly understood effects of an immune enzyme, extracellular matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9), on amyloids associated with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, lysozyme, insulin, and dialysis-related amyloidoses. The study establishes the universality of MMP9's effect on various amyloids, with its efficacy largely depending on the fibrillar cluster size. Irreversible amyloid degradation by MMP9 is attributed to the destruction of intramolecular interactions rather than intermolecular hydrogen bonds in the fibril backbone. This process results in the loss of ordered fiber structure without reducing aggregate size or increasing cytotoxicity. Thus, MMP9 can mitigate side effects of anti-amyloid therapy associated with the formation of low-molecular-weight degradation products that may accelerate fibrillogenesis and amyloid propagation between tissues and organs. MMP9 shows promise as a component of safe anti-amyloid drugs by enhancing the accessibility of binding sites through "loosening" amyloid clusters, which facilitates subsequent fragmentation and monomerization by other enzymes.

The potential of Terminalia chebula in alleviating mild cognitive impairment: a review

Terminalia chebula Retz. (T. Chebula, ཨ་རུ་ར།) is highly utilized in ethnic medicine. Its medicinal value is gradually being recognized and shows great potential in the improvement of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) disorders. Tibetan medicine theory classifies this type of disease as one of the "Jie Xie Syndrome (བརྗེད་བྱེད།)." The role of T. Chebula in such diseases has been increasingly studied. This work aimed to elucidate the research progress of T. Chebula in alleviating MCI. The review offers a critical update on the current understanding of the effect of T. Chebula on MCI and highlights new opportunities for exploring its therapeutic potential. This review discusses the role of T. Chebula in alleviating MCI and provides a comprehensive overview of the traditional medicinal uses, chemical composition, toxicology, and quality control aspects of T. Chebula. This review covers 171 chemical constituents and 11 active constituents targeting MCI, such as flavonoids, which can alleviate MCI, primarily through its antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. T. Chebula shows potential as a natural medicine for the treatment and prevention of MCI. As an important part of ethnomedicinal resources, this work offers valuable insights for future research on T. Chebula-containing ethnomedicines. Research on traditional drug treatments, optimized treatment standards, improved societal knowledge about MCI, and development of an early detection system is essential to the diagnosis and treatment of MCI. These efforts will provide better treatment resources for patients with MCI.

Naringin and Naringenin: Potential Multi-Target Agents for Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common forms of neurodegenerative dementia. The etiology of AD is multifactorial, and its complex pathophysiology involves tau and amyloid-β deposition, increased oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, metabolic disorders, and massive neuronal loss. Due to its complex pathology, no effective cure for AD has been found to date. Therefore, there is an unmet clinical need for the development of new drugs against AD. Natural products are known to be good sources of compounds with pharmacological activity and have potential for the development of new therapeutic agents. Naringin, a naturally occurring flavanone glycoside, is predominantly found in citrus fruits and Chinese medicinal herbs. Mounting evidence shows that naringin and its aglycone, naringenin, have direct neuroprotective effects on AD, such as anti-amyloidogenic, antioxidant, anti-acetylcholinesterase, and anti-neuroinflammatory effects, as well as metal chelation. Furthermore, they are known to improve disordered glucose/lipid metabolism, which is a high risk factor for AD. In this review, we summarize the latest data on the impact of naringin and naringenin on the molecular mechanisms involved in AD pathophysiology. Additionally, we provide an overview of the current clinical applications of naringin and naringenin. The novel delivery systems for naringin and naringenin, which can address their widespread pharmacokinetic limitations, are also discussed. The literature indicates that naringin and naringenin could be multilevel, multitargeted, and multifaceted for preventing and treating AD.

LC-qTOF-MS/MS phytochemical profiling of Tabebuia impetiginosa (Mart. Ex DC.) Standl. leaf and assessment of its neuroprotective potential in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tabebuia impetiginosa (Bignoniaceae) was traditionally used for memory enhancement and central nervous system (CNS) stimulation.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to create a metabolic profile of the ethyl acetate fraction of T. impetiginosa (TEF) and investigate for the first time its neuroprotective potential on cyclophosphamide (CP)-induced chemobrain, validating its traditional use.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Metabolite profiling of TEF was performed using Liquid Chromatography coupled with Quadrupole Time of Flight-Mass/Mass Spectrometry (LC-qTOF-MS/MS). For the in vivo study, CP (200 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered to induce cognitive impairment in rats; TEF (30 mg/kg, p.o.) was administered throughout the 14 days of the experiment to assess its role in mitigating CP-induced neuronal deficits. Behavioral tests including locomotor, Y-maze, and passive avoidance tests were conducted. Additionally, biochemical markers such as reduced glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and caspase-3 immunoexpression were assessed in the hippocampus area.

RESULTS

Forty-four phytoconstituents were tentatively identified in TEF, mainly iridoids and organic acids. TEF showed significant memory enhancement as evidenced by the increase in step-through latency in the passive avoidance test by 1.5 folds and the increase in sequence alternation percentage (SAP) in the Y-maze test by 67.3%, as compared to CP-group. Moreover, it showed pronounced antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potentials evidenced by the significant elevation in reduced glutathione (GSH) levels by 80% and a pronounced decline in MDA and TNF-α levels by 24% and 45%, respectively relative to the CP group. TEF treatment restored normal hippocampal histological features and attenuated apoptotic caspase-3 expression by 70% compared to the CP group.

CONCLUSIONS

TEF can act as a promising natural scaffold in managing the chemobrain induced by CP in cancer patients.

Therapeutic effect of targeted antioxidant natural products

The exploration of targeted therapy has proven to be a highly promising avenue in the realm of drug development research. The human body generates a substantial amount of free radicals during metabolic processes, and if not promptly eliminated, these free radicals can lead to oxidative stress, disrupting homeostasis and potentially contributing to chronic diseases and cancers. Before the development of contemporary medicine with synthetic pharmaceuticals and antioxidants, there was a long-standing practice of employing raw, natural ingredients to cure a variety of illnesses. This practice persisted even after the active antioxidant molecules were known. The ability of natural antioxidants to neutralise excess free radicals in the human body and so prevent and cure a wide range of illnesses. The term "natural antioxidant" refers to compounds derived from plants or other living organisms that have the ability to control the production of free radicals, scavenge them, stop free radical-mediated chain reactions, and prevent lipid peroxidation. These compounds have a strong potential to inhibit oxidative stress. Phytochemicals (antioxidants) derived from plants, such as polyphenols, carotenoids, vitamins, and others, are central to the discussion of natural antioxidants. Not only may these chemicals increase endogenous antioxidant defenses, affect communication cascades, and control gene expression, but they have also shown strong free radical scavenging properties. This study comprehensively summarizes the primary classes of natural antioxidants found in different plant and animal source that contribute to the prevention and treatment of diseases. Additionally, it outlines the research progress and outlines future development prospects. These discoveries not only establish a theoretical groundwork for pharmacological development but also present inventive ideas for addressing challenges in medical treatment.

Targeting m6A mRNA demethylase FTO alleviates manganese-induced cognitive memory deficits in mice

Manganese (Mn) induced learning and memory deficits through mechanisms that are not fully understood. In this study, we discovered that the demethylase FTO was significantly downregulated in hippocampal neurons in an experimental a mouse model of Mn exposure. This decreased expression of FTO was associated with Mn-induced learning and memory impairments, as well as the dysfunction in synaptic plasticity and damage to regional neurons. The overexpression of FTO, or its positive modulation with agonists, provides protection against neurological damage and cognitive impairments. Mechanistically, FTO interacts synergistically with the reader YTHDF3 to facilitate the degradation of GRIN1 and GRIN3B through the m6A modification pathway. Additionally, Mn decreases the phosphorylation of SOX2, which specifically impairs the transcriptional regulation of FTO activity. Additionally, we found that the natural compounds artemisinin and apigenin that can bind molecularly with SOX2 and reduce Mn-induced cognitive dysfunction in mice. Our findings suggest that the SOX2-FTO-Grins axis represents a viable target for addressing Mn-induced neurotoxicity and cognitive impairments.

Natural Compounds for the Treatment of Acute Pancreatitis: Novel Anti-Inflammatory Therapies

Acute pancreatitis remains a serious public health problem, and the burden of acute pancreatitis is increasing. With significant morbidity and serious complications, appropriate and effective therapies are critical. Great progress has been made in understanding the pathophysiology of acute pancreatitis over the past two decades. However, specific drugs targeting key molecules and pathways involved in acute pancreatitis still require further study. Natural compounds extracted from plants have a variety of biological activities and can inhibit inflammation and oxidative stress in acute pancreatitis by blocking several signaling pathways, such as the nuclear factor kappa-B and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. In this article, we review the therapeutic effects of various types of phytochemicals on acute pancreatitis and discuss the mechanism of action of these natural compounds in acute pancreatitis, aiming to provide clearer insights into the treatment of acute pancreatitis.

Fisetin-loaded pluronic-based nanogel: Radiation synthesis for alleviating neurocognitive impairments in a rat model of alzheimer's disease via modulation of the apoptotic cascade

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder marked by cognitive impairment and memory loss. In this study, AD was experimentally induced in rats using aluminum chloride (AlCl3) and D-galactose (D-gal). Fisetin (Fis), a natural compound with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, has potential for neurodegeneration management, but its low bioavailability limits clinical applications. To address this, we synthesized and characterized Pluronic-2-Acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid (PLUR-PAMPS) nanogels using gamma radiation and successfully loaded Fis onto them (Fis-PLUR-PAMPS). The optimal formulation exhibited minimal particle size, a highly acceptable polydispersity index, and the highest zeta-potential, enhancing stability and solubilization efficiency. Our goal was to improve Fis's bioavailability and assess its efficacy against AlCl3/D-gal-induced AD. Male albino Wistar rats were pre-treated orally with Fis (40 mg/kg) or Fis-PLUR-PAMPS for seven days, followed by a seven-day intraperitoneal injection of AlCl3 and D-gal. Behavioral assessments, histopathological analysis, and biochemical evaluation of markers related to AD pathology were conducted. Results demonstrated that Fis-PLUR-PAMPS effectively mitigated cognitive impairments and neurodegenerative signs induced by AlCl3/D-gal. These findings suggest that Fis-PLUR-PAMPS nanogels enhance Fis's bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy, offering a promising approach for AD management.

Optimization of the Search for Neuroprotectors among Bioflavonoids

For the first time, to optimize the creation of new neuroprotective agents based on bioflavonoids, we applied information technologies; these include docking analysis to calculate the binding of candidate molecules to the pharmacological target protein transthyretin as well as a program of virtual screening of NO scavengers. As a result of this approach, the substance catechin was isolated from candidate molecules-quercetin, catechin, Epicatechin gallate, Epicatechin, Procyanidin B1, Procyanidin B2, Procyanidin B3, and Catechin-3-gallate-according to docking analysis. As a result of virtual screening, catechin was identified as a potential NO scavenger (55.15% prediction). The results of the prediction were confirmed by in vitro experiments. Course administration of catechin to animals with experimental multiple sclerosis (MS) against the background of methylprednisolone administration completely eliminated lethal cases, reduced the number of diseased animals by 20% as well as prevented the development of severe neurological symptoms by 20% (compared to the methylprednisolone group) and by 60% compared to the control group. Course administration of catechin with methylprednisolone leads to a decrease in the neurodegradation markers in the cytosol of rats, with EAE: NSE by 37% and S-100 by 54.8%. The combined administration of methylprednisolone significantly exceeds the combination of methylprednisolone with the reference drug mexidol by the degree of NSE reduction. The obtained results indicate a significant neuroprotective effect of ocular combinations of methylprednisolone and catechin. The above-mentioned confirms the correctness of the bioflavonoid selection with the help of a virtual screening program.

Diversity of amyloid beta peptide actions

Fibril formation by amyloidogenic proteins and peptides is considered the cause of a number of incurable diseases. One of the most known amyloid diseases is Alzheimer's disease (AD). Traditionally, amyloidogenic beta peptides Aβ40 and Aβ42 (Aβs) are considered as main causes of AD and the foremost targets in AD fight. The main efforts in pharmacology are aimed at reducing Aβs concentration to prevent their accumulation, aggregation, formation of senile plaques, neuronal death, and neurodegeneration. However, a number of publications have demonstrated certain beneficial physiological effects of Aβs. Simultaneously, it is indicated that the effects of Aβs turn into pathological due to the development of certain diseases in the body. The accumulation of C- and N-terminal truncated Aβs under diverse conditions is supposed to play a role in AD development. The significance of transformation of glutamate residue at positions 3 or 11 of Aβs catalyzed by glutaminyl cyclase making them more degradation resistant, hydrophobic, and prone to aggregation, as well as the participation of dipeptidyl peptidase IV in these transformations are discussed. The experimental data presented confirm the maintenance of physiological, nonaggregated state of Aβs by plant preparations. In conclusion, this review suggests that in the fight against AD, instead of removing Aβs, preference should be given to the treatment of common diseases. Glutaminyl cyclase and dipeptidyl peptidase IV can be considered as targets in AD treatment. Flavonoids and plant preparations that possess antiamyloidogenic propensity are proposed as beneficial neuroprotective, anticancer, and antidiabetic food additives.

The Involvement of Antioxidants in Cognitive Decline and Neurodegeneration: Mens Sana in Corpore Sano

With neurodegenerative disorders being on the rise, a great deal of research from multiple fields is being conducted in order to further knowledge and propose novel therapeutic interventions. Among these investigations, research on the role of antioxidants in contrasting cognitive decline is putting forward interesting and promising results. In this review, we aim to collect evidence that focused on the role of a variety of antioxidants and antioxidant-rich foods in improving or stabilizing cognitive functions, memory, and Alzheimer's disease, the most common neurodegenerative disorder. Specifically, we considered evidence collected on humans, either through longitudinal studies or randomized, placebo-controlled ones, which evaluated cognitive performance, memory abilities, or the progression level of neurodegeneration. Overall, despite a great deal of variety between study protocols, cohorts of participants involved, neuropsychological tests used, and investigated antioxidants, there is a solid trend that suggests that the properties of antioxidants may be helpful in hampering cognitive decline in older people. Thus, the help of future research that will further elucidate the role of antioxidants in neuroprotection will lead to the development of novel interventions that will take into account such findings to provide a more global approach to treating neurodegenerative disorders.

Menthol-Modified Quercetin Liposomes with Brain-Targeting Function for the Treatment of Senescent Alzheimer's Disease

Oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in the aging brain are correlated with the development of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). The blood-brain barrier (BBB) poses a significant challenge to the effective delivery of therapeutics for AD. Prior research has demonstrated that menthol (Men) can augment the permeability of the BBB. Consequently, in the current study, we modified Men on the surface of liposomes to construct menthol-modified quercetin liposomes (Men-Qu-Lips), designed to cross the BBB and enhance quercetin (Qu) concentration in the brain for improved therapeutic efficacy. The experimental findings indicate that Men-Qu-Lips exhibited good encapsulation efficiency and stability, successfully crossed the BBB, improved oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in the brains of aged mice, protected neurons, and enhanced their learning and memory abilities.

Ameliorative effect of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. by suppression of pentylenetetrazole-induced kindling in mice: An insight from EEG, neurobehavioral and in-silico studies

Epilepsy is an abiding condition associated with recurrent seizure attacks along with associated neurological and psychological emanation owing to disparity of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission. The current study encompasses the assessment of the Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. methanolic extract (Na.Cr) in the management of convulsive state and concomitant conditions owing to epilepsy. The latency of seizure incidence was assessed using pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) kindling models along with EEG in Na.Cr pretreated mice, trailed by behavior assessment (anxiety and memory), biochemical assay, histopathological alterations, chemical profiling through GCMS, and molecular docking. The chronic assessment of PTZ-induced kindled mice depicted salvation in a dose-related pattern and outcomes were noticeable with extract at 400 mg/kg. The extract at 400 mg/kg defends the progress of kindling seizures and associated EEG. Co-morbid conditions in mice emanating owing to epileptic outbreaks were validated by behavioral testing and the outcome depicted a noticeable defense related to anxiety (P<0.001) and cognitive deficit (P<0.001) at 400 mg/kg. The isolated brains were evaluated for oxidative stress and the outcome demonstrated a noticeable effect in a dose-dependent pattern. Treatment with Na.Cr. also preserved the brain from PTZ induced neuronal damage as indicated by histopathological analysis. Furthermore, the GCMS outcome predicted 28 compounds abundantly found in the plant. The results congregated in the current experiments deliver valued evidence about the defensive response apportioned by Na.Cr which might be due to decline in oxidative stress, AChE level, and GABAergic modulation. These activities may contribute to fundamental pharmacology and elucidate some mechanisms behind the activities of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis.

Leveraging a Y. lipolytica naringenin chassis for biosynthesis of apigenin and associated glucoside

Flavonoids are a diverse set of natural products with promising bioactivities including anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and neuroprotective properties. Previously, the oleaginous host Yarrowia lipolytica has been engineered to produce high titers of the base flavonoid naringenin. Here, we leverage this host along with a set of E. coli bioconversion strains to produce the flavone apigenin and its glycosylated derivative isovitexin, two potential nutraceutical and pharmaceutical candidates. Through downstream strain selection, co-culture optimization, media composition, and mutant isolation, we were able to produce168 mg/L of apigenin, representing a 46% conversion rate of 2-(R/S)-naringenin to apigenin. This apigenin platform was modularly extended to produce isovitexin by addition of a second bioconversion strain. Together, these results demonstrate the promise of microbial production and modular bioconversion to access diversified flavonoids.

Development of dietary small molecules as multi-targeting treatment strategies for Alzheimer's disease

Cognitive dysfunction can occur both in normal aging and age-related neurological disorders, such as mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease (AD). These disorders have few treatment options due to side effects and limited efficacy. New approaches to slow cognitive decline are urgently needed. Dietary interventions (nutraceuticals) have received considerable attention because they exhibit strong neuroprotective properties and may help prevent or minimize AD symptoms. Biological aging is driven by a series of interrelated mechanisms, including oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, neuronal apoptosis, and autophagy, which function through various signaling pathways. Recent clinical and preclinical studies have shown that dietary small molecules derived from natural sources, including flavonoids, carotenoids, and polyphenolic acids, can modulate oxidative damage, cognitive impairments, mitochondrial dysfunction, neuroinflammation, neuronal apoptosis, autophagy dysregulation, and gut microbiota dysbiosis. This paper reviews research on different dietary small molecules and their bioactive constituents in the treatment of AD. Additionally, the chemical structure, effective dose, and specific molecular mechanisms of action are comprehensively explored. This paper also discusses the advantages of using nanotechnology-based drug delivery, which significantly enhances oral bioavailability, safety, and therapeutic effect, and lowers the risk of adverse effects. These agents have considerable potential as novel and safe therapeutic agents that can prevent and combat age-related AD.

Association between Flavonoid Intake and Cognitive Executive Function among African American and White Adults in the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) Study

Healthy dietary patterns rich in flavonoids may benefit cognitive performance over time. Among socioeconomically disadvantaged groups, the association between flavonoid intake and measures of cognition is unclear. This study sought to identify associations between flavonoid intake and cognitive performance among Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) study participants (n = 1947) across three study visits. Flavonoid intakes were assessed via two 24-h dietary recalls. Cognitive performance was assessed via the Trail Making Test (TMT)-A and TMT-B, which provide measures of attention and executive function, respectively. Mixed effects linear regression was used to model TMT scores over three study visits against visit 1 (v1) flavonoid intake, time (years from v1), and the interaction between v1 flavonoid intake and time, capturing both the cross-sectional association between flavonoid intake and time at v1 as well as the longitudinal association between v1 flavonoid intake and the change in TMT scores over time. Prior to adjustment, inverse cross-sectional associations at v1 were observed between (1) anthocyanidin intake and TMT-A scores for the overall sample and (2) total flavonoid, anthocyanidin, flavan-3-ol, flavone, and flavonol intake and TMT-B scores for the overall sample and among White adults. Only the association between anthocyanidin intake and TMT-B at v1 among White adults persisted after adjustment (for demographic characteristics such as age). One possible explanation for the few significant associations is universally low flavonoid intakes resulting from the consumption of an unhealthy dietary pattern.

Metabolomics analysis reveals the effect of fermentation on the chemical composition and antioxidant activity of Paeonia lactiflora Root

Fermentation is an effective means of enhancing the nutritional value of natural medicines, however, it is unclear how the metabolites changed during the fermentation of Paeonia lactiflora root (PLR). This study intends to elucidate how the active constituents and antioxidant activity of PLR change during fermentation. The study examined the levels of total glucosides of paeony (TGP), total flavonoids content (TFC), total phenols content (TPC), and antioxidant capability by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and spectrophotometry. The chemical compositions before and after PLR fermentation were compared utilizing ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UHPLC - MS). The findings from this study indicate that TGP, TFC and TPC peaked at Day 2 of fermentation, and the antioxidant capacity increased after fermentation. Of the 109 detected compounds, 18 were discrepant compounds. In summary, fermentation is an essential strategy for enhancing the functional activity of PLR. The current study could establish a scientific basis for future research on the fermentation of PLR, and provides new insights into the influence of fermentation on chemical composition as well as the antioxidant activity of drugs.

The Neuroprotective Flavonoids Sterubin and Fisetin Maintain Mitochondrial Health under Oxytotic/Ferroptotic Stress and Improve Bioenergetic Efficiency in HT22 Neuronal Cells

The global increase in the aging population has led to a rise in many age-related diseases with continuing unmet therapeutic needs. Research into the molecular mechanisms underlying both aging and neurodegeneration has identified promising therapeutic targets, such as the oxytosis/ferroptosis cell death pathway, in which mitochondrial dysfunction plays a critical role. This study focused on sterubin and fisetin, two flavonoids from the natural pharmacopeia previously identified as strong inhibitors of the oxytosis/ferroptosis pathway. Here, we investigated the effects of the compounds on the mitochondrial physiology in HT22 hippocampal nerve cells under oxytotic/ferroptotic stress. We show that the compounds can restore mitochondrial homeostasis at the level of redox regulation, calcium uptake, biogenesis, fusion/fission dynamics, and modulation of respiration, leading to the enhancement of bioenergetic efficiency. However, mitochondria are not required for the neuroprotective effects of sterubin and fisetin, highlighting their diverse homeostatic impacts. Sterubin and fisetin, thus, provide opportunities to expand drug development strategies for anti-oxytotic/ferroptotic agents and offer new perspectives on the intricate interplay between mitochondrial function, cellular stress, and the pathophysiology of aging and age-related neurodegenerative disorders.

Hybrid pharmacophore design and synthesis of donepezil-inspired aurone derivative salts as multifunctional acetylcholinesterase inhibitors

Flavonoids, a ubiquitous group of plant polyphenols, are well-known for their beneficial effects on human health. Their phenylchromane skeletons have structural similarities to donepezil [the US FDA-approved drug used to treat Alzheimer's disease (AD)]. The objective of this study was to design and synthesize valuable agents derived from flavonoids for relieving the symptoms of AD. A variety of flavonoid derivative salts incorporating benzylpyridinium units were synthesized and several of them remarkedly inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in vitro. Additionally, aurone derivative salts protected against cell death resulting from t-BHP exposure in rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells and slightly promoted neurite outgrowth. Furthermore, they potently suppressed the aggregation of amyloid-β (Aβ1-42). Our findings highlight the effectiveness of donepezil-inspired aurone derivative salts as multipotent candidates for AD.

The Heterogeneity of Post-Menopausal Disease Risk: Could the Basis for Why Only Subsets of Females Are Affected Be Due to a Reversible Epigenetic Modification System Associated with Puberty, Menstrual Cycles, Pregnancy and Lactation, and, Ultimately, Menopause?

For much of human evolution, the average lifespan was <40 years, due in part to disease, infant mortality, predators, food insecurity, and, for females, complications of childbirth. Thus, for much of evolution, many females did not reach the age of menopause (45-50 years of age) and it is mainly in the past several hundred years that the lifespan has been extended to >75 years, primarily due to public health advances, medical interventions, antibiotics, and nutrition. Therefore, the underlying biological mechanisms responsible for disease risk following menopause must have evolved during the complex processes leading to Homo sapiens to serve functions in the pre-menopausal state. Furthermore, as a primary function for the survival of the species is effective reproduction, it is likely that most of the advantages of having such post-menopausal risks relate to reproduction and the ability to address environmental stresses. This opinion/perspective will be discussed in the context of how such post-menopausal risks could enhance reproduction, with improved survival of offspring, and perhaps why such risks are preserved. Not all post-menopausal females exhibit risk for this set of diseases, and those who do develop such diseases do not have all of the conditions. The diseases of the post-menopausal state do not operate as a unified complex, but as independent variables, with the potential for some overlap. The how and why there would be such heterogeneity if the risk factors serve essential functions during the reproductive years is also discussed and the concept of sets of reversible epigenetic changes associated with puberty, pregnancy, and lactation is offered to explain the observations regarding the distribution of post-menopausal conditions and their potential roles in reproduction. While the involvement of an epigenetic system with a dynamic "modification-demodification-remodification" paradigm contributing to disease risk is a hypothesis at this point, validation of it could lead to a better understanding of post-menopausal disease risk in the context of reproduction with commonalities may also lead to future improved interventions to control such risk after menopause.

Evaluating serum CXCL12, sCD22, Lp-PLA2 levels and ratios as biomarkers for diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

Grasping the underlying mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is still a work in progress, and existing diagnostic techniques encounter various obstacles. Therefore, the discovery of dependable biomarkers is essential for early detection, tracking the disease's advancement, and steering treatment strategies.

AIM

To explore the diagnostic potential of serum CXCL12, sCD22, Lp-PLA2, and their ratios in AD, aiming to enhance early detection and inform targeted treatment strategies.

METHODS

The study was conducted in Dongying people's Hospital from January 2021 to December 2022. Participants included 60 AD patients (AD group) and 60 healthy people (control group). Using a prospective case-control design, the levels of CXCL12, sCD22 and Lp-PLA2 and their ratios were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit in the diagnosis of AD. The differences between the two groups were analyzed by statistical methods, and the corresponding ratio was constructed to improve the specificity and sensitivity of diagnosis.

RESULTS

Serum CXCL12 levels were higher in the AD group (47.2 ± 8.5 ng/mL) than the control group (32.8 ± 5.7 ng/mL, P < 0.001), while sCD22 levels were lower (14.3 ± 2.1 ng/mL vs 18.9 ± 3.4 ng/mL, P < 0.01). Lp-PLA2 levels were also higher in the AD group (112.5 ± 20.6 ng/mL vs 89.7 ± 15.2 ng/mL, P < 0.05). Significant differences were noted in CXCL12/sCD22 (3.3 vs 1.7, P < 0.001) and Lp-PLA2/sCD22 ratios (8.0 vs 5.2, P < 0.05) between the groups. Receiver operating characteristic analysis confirmed high sensitivity and specificity of these markers and their ratios in distinguishing AD, with area under the curves ranging from 0.568 to 0.787.

CONCLUSION

Serum CXCL12 and Lp-PLA2 levels were significantly increased, while sCD22 were significantly decreased, as well as increases in the ratios of CXCL12/sCD22 and Lp-PLA2/sCD22, are closely related to the onset of AD. These biomarkers and their ratios can be used as potential diagnostic indicators for AD, providing an important clinical reference for early intervention and treatment.

Electrochemical Acetylcholinesterase Sensors for Anti-Alzheimer's Disease Drug Determination

Neurodegenerative diseases and Alzheimer's disease (AD), as one of the most common causes of dementia, result in progressive losses of cholinergic neurons and a reduction in the presynaptic markers of the cholinergic system. These consequences can be compensated by the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) followed by a decrease in the rate of acetylcholine hydrolysis. For this reason, anticholinesterase drugs with reversible inhibition effects are applied for the administration of neurodegenerative diseases. Their overdosage, variation in efficiency and recommendation of an individual daily dose require simple and reliable measurement devices capable of the assessment of the drug concentration in biological fluids and medications. In this review, the performance of electrochemical biosensors utilizing immobilized cholinesterases is considered to show their advantages and drawbacks in the determination of anticholinesterase drugs. In addition, common drugs applied in treating neurodegenerative diseases are briefly characterized. The immobilization of enzymes, nature of the signal recorded and its dependence on the transducer modification are considered and the analytical characteristics of appropriate biosensors are summarized for donepezil, huperzine A, rivastigmine, eserine and galantamine as common anti-dementia drugs. Finally, the prospects for the application of AChE-based biosensors in clinical practice are discussed.

Naringenin Orchestrates and Regulates the Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Pathways and Proinflammatory Signaling: Targeting Hallmarks of Aging-Associated Disorders

The therapeutic application of flavonoids in the management of infectious diseases, cancers, chronic wounds, aging, and neurodegenerative disorders has been well documented in scientific literature. The citric flavonoid naringenin comes under the category of flavanone and exhibits a plethora of health benefits. Very few flavonoids such as curcumin, resveratrol, catechin, quercetin, and kaempferol have been studied to exert their anti-aging properties in humans. The effect of naringenin in the context of age-associated disorders in detail has not been elucidated yet. The databases used for the literature search were Science Direct, Google Scholar, and PubMed. More emphasis has been put on the recent literature on "naringenin" and its effect on "age-associated disorders." Almost all chronic degenerative disorders are characterized by oxidative stress and inflammatory response. The study aims at highlighting the reactive oxygen species-mediated activity of naringenin and the underlying molecular mechanism leading to the prevention of various age-associated disorders. Altogether, the review presents a systematic comprehension of the pharmaceutical and clinicopathological benefits of naringenin in age-associated disorders.

Virtual screening of flavonoids as potential RIPK1 inhibitors for neurodegeneration therapy

Background

Global prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease is increasing gradually, whereas approvals of successful therapeutics for central nervous system disorders are inadequate. Accumulating evidence suggests pivotal roles of the receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 (RIPK1) in modulating neuroinflammation and necroptosis. Discoveries of potent small molecule inhibitors for RIPK1 with favorable pharmacokinetic properties could thus address the unmet medical needs in treating neurodegeneration.

Methods

In a structure-based virtual screening, we performed site-specific molecular docking of 4,858 flavonoids against the kinase domain of RIPK1 using AutoDock Vina. We predicted physicochemical descriptors of the top ligands using the SwissADME webserver. Binding interactions of the best ligands and the reference ligand L8D were validated using replicated 500-ns Gromacs molecular dynamics simulations and free energy calculations.

Results

From Vina docking, we shortlisted the top 20 flavonoids with the highest binding affinities, ranging from -11.7 to -10.6 kcal/mol. Pharmacokinetic profiling narrowed down the list to three orally bioavailable and blood-brain-barrier penetrant flavonoids: Nitiducarpin, Pinocembrin 7-O-benzoate, and Paratocarpin J. Next, trajectories of molecular dynamics simulations of the top protein-ligand complexes were analyzed for binding interactions. The root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) was 1.191 Å (±0.498 Å), 1.725 Å (±0.828 Å), 1.923 Å (±0.942 Å), 0.972 Å (±0.155 Å) for Nitiducarpin, Pinocembrin 7-O-benzoate, Paratocarpin J, and L8D, respectively. The radius of gyration (Rg) was 2.034 nm (±0.015 nm), 2.0.39 nm (± 0.025 nm), 2.053 nm (±0.021 nm), 2.037 nm (±0.016 nm) for Nitiducarpin, Pinocembrin 7-O-benzoate, Paratocarpin J, and L8D, respectively. The solvent accessible surface area (SASA) was 159.477 nm2 (±3.021 nm2), 159.661 nm2 (± 3.707 nm2), 160.755 nm2 (±4.252 nm2), 156.630 nm2 (±3.521 nm2), for Nitiducarpin, Pinocembrin 7-O-benzoate, Paratocarpin J, and L8D complexes, respectively. Therefore, lower RMSD, Rg, and SASA values demonstrated that Nitiducarpin formed the most stable complex with the target protein among the best three ligands. Finally, 2D protein-ligand interaction analysis revealed persistent hydrophobic interactions of Nitiducarpin with the critical residues of RIPK1, including the catalytic triads and the activation loop residues, implicated in the kinase activity and ligand binding.

Conclusion

Our target-based virtual screening identified three flavonoids as strong RIPK1 inhibitors, with Nitiducarpin exhibiting the most potent inhibitory potential. Future in vitro and in vivo studies with these ligands could offer new hope for developing effective therapeutics and improving the quality of life for individuals affected by neurodegeneration.

The neuroprotective mechanisms of naringenin: Inhibition of apoptosis through the PI3K/AKT pathway after hypoxic-ischemic brain damage

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Naringenin (NGN) is a widely distributed flavonoid with potent antioxidant and neuroprotective properties. Neuroprotective agents play a crucial role in the treatment of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE). It has shown potential therapeutic effects for neurological disorders. However, its efficacy on HIE is yet to be investigated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to investigate the potential neuroprotective effect of naringenin and its underlying molecular mechanisms in reducing oxidative stress, apoptosis, and improving brain outcomes following HIE. Additionally, the study aims to identify the potential targets, mechanisms, and functions of naringenin using network pharmacology analysis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Neonatal mice were exposed to the hypoxic-ischemic brain damage (HIBD) model to determine brain water content, and brain tissue was subjected to hematoxylin and eosin (HE), immunohistochemistry (IHC), terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL), and Nissl staining to investigate its neuroprotective effects. Furthermore, the neonatal mouse primary neuron oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) model to measure reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in vitro. The protein levels were characterized by Western Blot, and mRNA levels were evaluated by a real-time quantitative PCR detecting system (qPCR). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and mitochondrial fluorescent staining were used to observe mitochondrial morphology. Neuronal nuclei (NeuN) and microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2) were detected by Immunofluorescence (IF). Finally, network pharmacology was employed to determine the common target of naringenin and HIE. The core genes were obtained via protein-protein interaction networks (PPI) analysis and molecular docking was examined, and the mechanism of action was explored through Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis. Additionally, small interfering RNA (siRNA) was constructed for verification.

RESULTS

Naringenin has a neuroprotective effect in HIBD by modulating Vegfa expression and activating the PI3K/AKT pathway to inhibit apoptosis. Furthermore, molecular docking results suggest that Vegfa is a potential binding target of naringenin, and silencing Vegfa partially reverses the pharmacological effects of NGN.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that naringenin demonstrates potential clinical application for treating HIE as a novel neuroprotective agent.