Manure as a Potential Hotspot for Antibiotic Resistance Dissemination by Horizontal Gene Transfer Events

Antibiotic resistance in urban soils: Dynamics and mitigation strategies

Antibiotic resistance (AR) is a critical global health issue with significant clinical and economic implications. AR occurs when microorganisms develop mechanisms to withstand the effects of antibiotics, reducing treatment efficacy and increasing the risk of mortality and healthcare costs. While the connection between antibiotic use in clinical and agricultural settings and the emergence of AR is well-established, the role of urban soils as reservoirs and spreaders of AR is underexplored. This review examines the complex dynamics of AR in urban soils, highlighting the various sources of antibiotics, including domestic wastewater, industrial effluents, urban agricultural practices, but also microplastics and domestic animal excrements. The selective pressure exerted by these anthropogenic sources promotes the proliferation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, particularly through horizontal gene transfer, which facilitates the transmission of resistance genes among soil microorganisms in urban environments. About that, the presence of antibiotics in urban soils poses a significant threat to public health by potentially transferring resistance genes to human pathogens through multiple pathways, including direct contact, food consumption, and water ingestion. Furthermore, AR in urban soils disrupts microbial community dynamics, impacting soil fertility, plant growth, and overall environmental quality. Therefore, this review aims to address gaps in understanding AR in urban soils, offering insights into its implications for human health and ecosystem integrity. By identifying these gaps and suggesting evidence-based strategies, this review proposes valid and sustainable solutions to mitigate and counteract the spread of AR in urban environments.

Metagenomic approach reveals the role of bioagents in the environmental dissemination risk of rhizosphere soil antibiotic resistance genes pollution

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) have been identified as emerging contaminants, raising concerns around the world. As environmentally friendly bioagents (BA), plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) have been used in agricultural systems. The introduction of BA will lead to the turnover of the microbial communities structure. Nevertheless, it is still unclear how the colonization of the invaded microorganisms could affects the rhizosphere resistome. Consequently, 190 ARGs and 25 integrative and conjugative elements (ICEs) were annotated using the metagenomic approach in 18 samples from the Solanaceae crop rhizosphere soil under BA and conventional treatment (CK) groups. Our study found that, after 90 days of treatment, ARG abundance was lower in the CK group than in the BA group. The results showed that aminoglycoside antibiotic resistance (OprZ), phenicol antibiotic resistance (OprN), aminoglycoside antibiotic resistance (ceoA/B), aminocoumarin antibiotic resistance (mdtB) and phenicol antibiotic resistance (MexW) syntenic with ICEs. Moreover, in 11 sequences, OprN (phenicol antibiotic resistance) was observed to have synteny with ICEPaeLESB58-1, indicating that the ICEs could contribute to the spread of ARGs. Additionally, the binning result showed that the potential bacterial hosts of the ARGs were beneficial bacteria which could promote the nutrition cycle, such as Haliangium, Nitrospira, Sideroxydans, Burkholderia, etc, suggesting that bacterial hosts have a great influence on ARG profiles. According to the findings, considering the dissemination of ARGs, BA should be applied with caution, especially the use of beneficial bacteria in BA. In a nutshell, this study offers valuable insights into ARGs pollution control from the perspective of the development and application of BA, to make effective strategies for blocking pollution risk migration in the ecological environment.

Gut colonization by extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli in dairy herd in Brazil: successful dissemination of a One Health clone

The overuse of antimicrobials in livestock has contributed to the emergence and selection of clinically relevant multidrug-resistant bacteria. In Brazil, there is no conclusive information on the occurrence of Escherichia coli producing extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESβL) in cattle breeding, which is an important sector of agribusiness in this country. Herein, we investigated the presence of ESβL-positive E. coli strains in dairy cattle from a commercial farm with routine practice of therapeutic cephalosporins. Ninety-five rectal swab samples were collected from healthy dairy calves and cows under treatment with ceftiofur. Samples were screened for the presence of ESβL producers, and positive isolates were identified by MALDI-TOF, with subsequent screening for genes encoding ESβL variants by PCR and sequencing. The presence of ESβL (CTX-M-15)-producing E. coli was confirmed in calves, and lactating and dry cows. Most ESβL strains with genetic homologies ≥ 90% were grouped into two major PFGE clusters, confirming the suscessful expansion of clonally related lineages in animals from different lactating cycles, on the same property. Four representatives CTX-M-15-positive E. coli strains had their genomes sequenced, belonging to the clonal complex (CC) 23 and sequence type (ST) 90. A phylogeographical landscape of ST90 was performed revealing a global One Health linkage. Our results highlight the intestinal microbiota of dairy cattle as a hotspot for the spread of critical priority ESβL-producing E. coli and demonstrate that ST90 is an international clone genomically adapted to human and animal hosts, which deserve additional investigation to determine its zoonotic potential and impact in food chain.

The Contribution of Dairy Bedding and Silage to the Dissemination of Genes Coding for Antimicrobial Resistance: A Narrative Review

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a concern in the dairy industry. Recent studies have indicated that bedding serves as a reservoir for antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and antimicrobial-resistance genes (ARGs), while silage has been proposed as another possible source. The impact of AMR in dairy farming can be significant, resulting in decreased productivity and economic losses for farmers. Several studies have highlighted the safety implications of AMR bacteria and genes in bedding and silage, emphasizing the need for further research on how housing, bedding, and silage management affect AMR in farm environments. Exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of antibiotics, such as those from contaminated bedding and silage, can prompt bacteria to develop resistance mechanisms. Thus, even if antimicrobial usage is diminished, ARGs may be maintained in the dairy farm environment. By implementing proactive measures to tackle AMR in dairy farming, we can take steps to preserve the health and productivity of dairy cattle while also protecting public health. This involves addressing the prudent use of antibiotics during production and promoting animal welfare, hygiene, and management practices in bedding and farm environments to minimize the risk of AMR development and spread. This narrative review compiles the growing research, positioning the contribution of bedding and silage to the prevalence and dissemination of AMR, which can elicit insights for researchers and policymakers.

Antimicrobial Resistance in the Terrestrial Environment of Agricultural Landscapes in Norway

The abundance and diversity of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (ARB) and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) in agricultural landscapes may be important for the spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the environment. The aim of this study was to apply screening methods for ARB and ARGs to investigate the impact of farming on the prevalence of AMR in a country with low antibiotic usage. We have analyzed samples (n = 644) from soil and wild terrestrial animals and plants (slugs, snails, mice, shrews, earthworms, and red clover) collected over two years in agricultural fields accompanied by nearby control areas with low human activity. All samples were investigated for the occurrence of 35 different ARGs using high-throughput quantitative PCR (HT-qPCR) on a newly developed DNA array. In addition, samples from the first year (n = 415) were investigated with a culture-based approach combined with whole-genome sequencing (WGS) to identify antimicrobial-resistant E. coli (AREC). ARGs were detected in 59.5% of all samples (2019 + 2020). AREC, which was only investigated in the 2019 samples, was identified in 1.9% of these. Samples collected in the autumn showed more ARGs and AREC than spring samples, and this was more pronounced for organic fields than for conventional fields. Control areas with low human activity showed lower levels of ARGs and a lack of AREC. The use of livestock manure was correlated with a higher level of ARG load than other farming practices. None of the soil samples contained antibiotics, and no association was found between AMR and the levels of metals or pesticides. High qualitative similarity between HT-qPCR and WGS, together with the positive controls to the validation of our 35 ARG assays, show that the microfluid DNA array may be an efficient screening tool on environmental samples. In conclusion, even in a country with a very low consumption of antimicrobials by production animals, our results support the hypothesis of these animals being a source of AREC and ARGs in agricultural environments, primarily through the use of manure.

Potential therapeutic use of dermaseptin S4 from the frog Phyllomedusa sauvagii and its derivatives against bacterial pathogens in fish

AIM

Dermaseptins are one of the main families of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) derived from the skin secretions of Hylidae frogs. Among them, dermaseptin S4 (DS4) is characterized by its broad-spectrum of activity against bacteria, protozoa, and fungi. In this study, the physicochemical properties of the native peptide DS4 (1-28) and two derivatives [DS4 (1-28)a and DS4 (1-26)a] isolated from the skin of the frog Phyllomedusa sauvagii were investigated and their antimicrobial properties against two marine pathogenic bacteria (Vibrio harveyi and Vibrio anguillarum) were examined.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The results indicate that the peptide DS4 (1-26)a has high-antibacterial activity against the tested strains and low-hemolytic activity (<30% lysis at the highest tested concentration of 100 µg/mL) compared to the other two peptides tested. In addition, all three peptides affect the membrane and cell wall integrity of both pathogenic bacteria, causing leakage of cell contents, with DS4 (1-26)a having the most severe impact. These skills were corroborated by transmission electron microscopy and by the variation of cations in their binding sites due to the effects caused by the AMPs.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that DS4 and its derivatives, in particular the truncated and amidated peptide DS4 (1-26)a could be effective in the treatment of infections caused by these marine pathogenic bacteria. Future studies are required to validate the use of DS4  in vivo for the prevention of bacterial diseases in fish.

Ribozyme-Mediated Gene-Fragment Complementation for Nondestructive Reporting of DNA Transfer within Soil

Enzymes that produce volatile metabolites can be coded into genetic circuits to report nondisruptively on microbial behaviors in hard-to-image soils. However, these enzyme reporters remain challenging to apply in gene transfer studies due to leaky off states that can lead to false positives. To overcome this problem, we designed a reporter that uses ribozyme-mediated gene-fragment complementation of a methyl halide transferase (MHT) to regulate the synthesis of methyl halide gases. We split the mht gene into two nonfunctional fragments and attached these to a pair of splicing ribozyme fragments. While the individual mht-ribozyme fragments did not produce methyl halides when transcribed alone in Escherichia coli, coexpression resulted in a spliced transcript that translated the MHT reporter. When cells containing one mht-ribozyme fragment transcribed from a mobile plasmid were mixed with cells that transcribed the second mht-ribozyme fragment, methyl halides were only detected following rare conjugation events. When conjugation was performed in soil, it led to a 16-fold increase in methyl halides in the soil headspace. These findings show how ribozyme-mediated gene-fragment complementation can achieve tight control of protein reporter production, a level of control that will be critical for monitoring the effects of soil conditions on gene transfer and the fidelity of biocontainment measures developed for environmental applications.

Regulation of Antibiotic Resistance Genes on Agricultural Land Is Dependent on Both Choice of Organic Amendment and Prevalence of Predatory Bacteria

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are widespread in the environment, and soils, specifically, are hotspots for microorganisms with inherent antibiotic resistance. Manure and sludge used as fertilizers in agricultural production have been shown to contain vast amounts of ARGs, and due to continued applications, ARGs accumulate in agricultural soils. Some soils, however, harbor a resilience capacity that could depend on specific soil properties, as well as the presence of predatory bacteria that are able to hydrolyse living bacteria, including bacteria of clinical importance. The objectives of this study were to (i) investigate if the antibiotic resistance profile of the soil microbiota could be differently affected by the addition of cow manure, chicken manure, and sludge, and (ii) investigate if the amendments had an effect on the presence of predatory bacteria. The three organic amendments were mixed separately with a field soil, divided into pots, and incubated in a greenhouse for 28 days. Droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) was used to quantify three ARGs, two predatory bacteria, and total number of bacteria. In this study, we demonstrated that the choice of organic amendment significantly affected the antibiotic resistance profile of soil, and promoted the growth of predatory bacteria, while the total number of bacteria was unaffected.

Leaching of antibiotic resistance genes and microbial assemblages following poultry litter applications in karst and non-karst landscapes

Antibiotic resistance is increasingly recognized as a critical challenge affecting human, animal, and environmental health. Yet, environmental dynamics and transport of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and microbial communities in karst and non-karst leachate following poultry litter land applications are not well understood. This study investigates impacts of broiler poultry litter application on the proliferation of ARGs (tetW, qnrS, ermB, sulI, and blaCTX-M-32), class 1 integron (intI1 i), and alterations in microbial communities (16S rRNA) within karst derived soils, which are crucial and under-researched systems in the global hydrological cycle, and non-karst landscapes. Using large, intact soil columns (45 cm diam. × 100 cm depth) from karst and non-karst landscapes, the role of preferential flow and ARG transport in leachate was enumerated following surface application of poultry litter and simulated rain events. This research demonstrated that in poultry litter amended karst soils, ARG (i.e., ermB and tetW) abundance in leachate increased 1.5 times compared to non-karst systems (p < 0.05), highlighting the influence of geological factors on ARG proliferation. Notably, microbial communities in karst soil leachate exhibited increased diversity and abundance, suggesting a potential linkage between microbial composition and ARG presence. Further, our correlation and network analyses identified relationships between leachate ARGs, microbial taxa, and physicochemical properties, underscoring the complex interplay in these environmentally sensitive areas. These findings illuminate the critical role of karst systems in shaping ARG abundance and pollutant dispersal and microbial community dynamics, thus emphasizing the need for landscape-specific approaches in managing ARG dissemination to the environment. This study provides a deeper understanding of hydrogeological ARG dynamics but also lays the groundwork for future research and strategies to mitigate ARG dissemination through targeted manure applications across agricultural landscapes.

Co-pyrolysis of chicken manure with tree bark for reduced biochar toxicity and enhanced plant growth in Arabidopsis thaliana

Co-pyrolysis of chicken manure with tree bark was investigated to mitigate salinity and potentially toxic element (PTE) concentrations of chicken manure-derived biochar. The effect of tree bark addition (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 wt%) on the biochar composition, surface functional groups, PTEs and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) concentration in the biochar was evaluated. Biochar-induced toxicity was assessed using an in-house plant growth assay with Arabidopsis thaliana. This study shows that PTE concentrations can be controlled through co-pyrolysis. More than 50 wt% of tree bark must be added to chicken manure to reduce the concentrations below the European Biochar Certificate-AGRO (EBC-AGRO) threshold. However, the amount of PAH does not show a trend with tree bark addition. Furthermore, co-pyrolysis biochar promotes plant growth at different application concentrations, whereas pure application of 100 wt% tree bark or chicken manure biochar results in decreased growth compared to the reference. In addition, increased plant stress was observed for 100 wt% chicken manure biochar. These data indicate that co-pyrolysis of chicken manure and tree bark produces EBC-AGRO-compliant biochar with the potential to stimulate plant growth. Further studies need to assess the effect of these biochars in long-term growth experiments.

Tackling Carbapenem Resistance and the Imperative for One Health Strategies-Insights from the Portuguese Perspective

Carbapenemases, a class of enzymes specialized in the hydrolysis of carbapenems, represent a significant threat to global public health. These enzymes are classified into different Ambler's classes based on their active sites, categorized into classes A, D, and B. Among the most prevalent types are IMI/NMC-A, KPC, VIM, IMP, and OXA-48, commonly associated with pathogenic species such as Acinetobacter baumannii, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The emergence and dissemination of carbapenemase-producing bacteria have raised substantial concerns due to their ability to infect humans and animals (both companion and food-producing) and their presence in environmental reservoirs. Adopting a holistic One Health approach, concerted efforts have been directed toward devising comprehensive strategies to mitigate the impact of antimicrobial resistance dissemination. This entails collaborative interventions, highlighting proactive measures by global organizations like the World Health Organization, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, and the Food and Agriculture Organization. By synthesizing the evolving landscape of carbapenemase epidemiology in Portugal and tracing the trajectory from initial isolated cases to contemporary reports, this review highlights key factors driving antibiotic resistance, such as antimicrobial use and healthcare practices, and underscores the imperative for sustained vigilance, interdisciplinary collaboration, and innovative interventions to curb the escalating threat posed by antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Finally, it discusses potential alternatives and innovations aimed at tackling carbapenemase-mediated antibiotic resistance, including new therapies, enhanced surveillance, and public awareness campaigns.

Transmission of antibiotic resistance through organic amendments in arable land: A 3-year field study with pigeonpea-wheat cropping system

The worldwide emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a substantial risk to human health and environmental stability. In agriculture, organic amendments (derived from organic sources such as manure, and plant residues) are beneficial in restoring soil properties and providing essential nutrients to crops but raise concerns about harboring antibiotic resistance, which emphasizes the need for vigilant monitoring and strategic interventions in their application. The current study assessed the impact of farming practices (organic and conventional) in a three-year field experiment with pigeonpea-wheat cropping system, focusing on the transmission of AMR using culture-dependent and -independent approaches, and soil nutrient content. Markers for antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) (aminoglycoside-aacA, β-lactam-blaTEM, chloramphenicol-cmlA1, macrolide-ermB, sulfonamides-sul1, sul2, and tetracycline-tetO) and integrons (intl1 and intl2) were targeted using qPCR. Manure amendments, particularly FYM1, exhibited a higher abundance of copies of ARGs compared to the rhizospheric soil. Organic farming was associated with higher copies of intl2, sul1, blaTEM, and tetO genes, while conventional farming showed increased copies of sul2 and ermB genes in the rhizosphere. Significant positive correlations were observed among soil nutrient contents, ARGs, and MGEs. The notable prevalence of ARGs linked to manure amendments serves as a cautionary note, demanding responsible management practices.

Synthetic microbiology in sustainability applications

Microorganisms are a promising means to address many societal sustainability challenges owing to their ability to thrive in diverse environments and interface with the microscale chemical world via diverse metabolic capacities. Synthetic biology can engineer microorganisms by rewiring their regulatory networks or introducing new functionalities, enhancing their utility for target applications. In this Review, we provide a broad, high-level overview of various research efforts addressing sustainability challenges through synthetic biology, emphasizing foundational microbiological research questions that can accelerate the development of these efforts. We introduce an organizational framework that categorizes these efforts along three domains - factory, farm and field - that are defined by the extent to which the engineered microorganisms interface with the natural external environment. Different application areas within the same domain share many fundamental challenges, highlighting productive opportunities for cross-disciplinary collaborations between researchers working in historically disparate fields.

The impacts of animal agriculture on One Health-Bacterial zoonosis, antimicrobial resistance, and beyond

The industrialization of animal agriculture has undoubtedly contributed to the improvement of human well-being by increasing the efficiency of food animal production. At the same time, it has also drastically impacted the natural environment and human society. The One Health initiative emphasizes the interdependency of the health of ecosystems, animals, and humans. In this paper, we discuss some of the most profound consequences of animal agriculture practices from a One Health perspective. More specifically, we focus on impacts to host-microbe interactions by elaborating on how modern animal agriculture affects zoonotic infections, specifically those of bacterial origin, and the concomitant emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). A key question underlying these deeply interconnected issues is how to better prevent, monitor, and manage infections in animal agriculture. To address this, we outline approaches to mitigate the impacts of agricultural bacterial zoonoses and AMR, including the development of novel treatments as well as non-drug approaches comprising integrated surveillance programs and policy and education regarding agricultural practices and antimicrobial stewardship. Finally, we touch upon additional major environmental and health factors impacted by animal agriculture within the One Health context, including animal welfare, food security, food safety, and climate change. Charting how these issues are interwoven to comprise the complex web of animal agriculture's broad impacts on One Health will allow for the development of concerted, multidisciplinary interventions which are truly necessary to tackle these issues from a One Health perspective.

Discovery of sulfonamide resistance genes in deep groundwater below Patna, India

Global usage of pharmaceuticals has led to the proliferation of bacteria that are resistant to antimicrobial treatments, creating a substantial public health challenge. Here, we investigate the emergence of sulfonamide resistance genes in groundwater and surface water in Patna, a rapidly developing city in Bihar, India. We report the first quantification of three sulfonamide resistance genes (sulI, sulII and sulIII) in groundwater (12-107 m in depth) in India. The mean relative abundance of gene copies was found to be sulI (2.4 × 10-2 copies/16S rRNA gene) > sulII (5.4 × 10-3 copies/16S rRNA gene) > sulIII (2.4 × 10-3 copies/16S rRNA gene) in groundwater (n = 15) and surface water (n = 3). A comparison between antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes and wastewater indicators, particularly tryptophan:fulvic-like fluorescence, suggests that wastewater was associated with AMR gene prevalence. Urban drainage channels, containing hospital and domestic wastes, are likely a substantial source of antimicrobial resistance in groundwater and surface water, including the Ganges (Ganga) River. This study is a reference point for decision-makers in the fight against antimicrobial resistance because it quantifies and determines potential sources of AMR genes in Indian groundwater.

Zoonotic bacteria in the vicinity of animal farms as a factor disturbing the human microbiome: a review

This review is aimed at summarizing the current state of knowledge about the relationship between environmental exposure to the bioaerosol emitted by intensive livestock farming and changes in the microbiome of people living in livestock farm vicinity. The PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science databases were searched by crossing keywords from the following 3 groups: a) "livestock," "animal farms," "animal breeding"; b) "microbiome," "resistome"; c) "livestock vicinity," "farm vicinity," "neighborhoods and health" in 2010-2022. Literature screening did not reveal any paper related to the full microbiome composition in the population studied. In the study, the authors included 7 papers (5 from the Netherlands, 1 from the USA, and 1 from China). The studies confirmed the carriage of Staphylococcus aureus, including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), livestockassociated MRSA (LA-MRSA MC398) and multidrug-resistant S. aureus (MDRSA) in the nasal microbiome of adults and children living within 500-2000 m from a livestock farm. Clostridium difficile, including LA-ribotype RT078 carriage, was detected in the intestinal microbiome of adults living within 500-1000 m. Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) producing Enterobacteriaceae were confirmed in the intestinal microbiome of adults living within 500-6200 m. Knowledge on the composition of the microflora of people living in livestock farm vicinity is insufficient to conclude about changes in the microbiome caused by the environmental emission of bioaerosol. The carriage prevalence of the LA-bacteria, including both strains with antimicrobial resistance and antimicrobial resistance genes, confirms the presence of zoonotic bacteria in the human microflora in populations without occupational contact with animals. It cannot be ruled out that zoonotic bacteria, as a component of the microbiome, have a negative impact on people's health. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2024;37(2):138-52.

Effect of composting and storage on the microbiome and resistome of cattle manure from a commercial dairy farm in Poland

Manure from food-producing animals, rich in antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), poses significant environmental and healthcare risks. Despite global efforts, most manure is not adequately processed before use on fields, escalating the spread of antimicrobial resistance. This study examined how different cattle manure treatments, including composting and storage, affect its microbiome and resistome. The changes occurring in the microbiome and resistome of the treated manure samples were compared with those of raw samples by high-throughput qPCR for ARGs tracking and sequencing of the V3-V4 variable region of the 16S rRNA gene to indicate bacterial community composition. We identified 203 ARGs and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) in raw manure. Post-treatment reduced these to 76 in composted and 51 in stored samples. Notably, beta-lactam, cross-resistance to macrolides, lincosamides and streptogramin B (MLSB), and vancomycin resistance genes decreased, while genes linked to MGEs, integrons, and sulfonamide resistance increased after composting. Overall, total resistance gene abundance significantly dropped with both treatments. During composting, the relative abundance of genes was lower midway than at the end. Moreover, higher biodiversity was observed in samples after composting than storage. Our current research shows that both composting and storage effectively reduce ARGs in cattle manure. However, it is challenging to determine which method is superior, as different groups of resistance genes react differently to each treatment, even though a notable overall reduction in ARGs is observed.

[Which contribution of wastewater treatment plants in the fight against antimicrobial resistance?]

Due to the massive use of antibiotics, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) continues to spread, endangering global disease control and environmental quality. The sources of bacteria or antimicrobial resistance genes are linked to human activities: urban, hospital and industrial discharges, livestock farms). The role of sanitation systems-sewerage, wastewater treatment and sludge treatment (WWTP)-in the problem of AMR has not yet been clearly established by the scientific community. The data available to date show that they eliminate part of the bacteria, genes and antibiotics, although this is not their primary vocation. WWTPs thus play an important filtering role to limit dissemination in the environment. On the other hand, some authors warn against their potential involvement in the selection of new resistant germs, given the conditions conducive to the exchange of genetic material between microbial strains of various types and exposed to selective agents. Today, knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the selection of antibiotic resistance and the fate of bacteria and resistance genes within sanitation systems remains limited. Research is needed to better characterize the contribution of wastewater systems and the performance of wastewater, recycled water, stormwater and sludge treatment processes.

Antimicrobial resistance profiles of Escherichia coli derived from an integrated agroforestry-livestock system in Deli Serdang Regency, Indonesia

Background and Aim

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become a significant global concern. Epidemiological data do not provide a robust description of the potential risks associated with AMR in the integrated agroforestry-livestock systems in Indonesia. Thus, the present study investigated the phenotypic and multidrug resistance (MDR) profiles of Escherichia coli strains isolated from the feces of livestock raised in the agro-silvopastoral system in Deli Serdang Regency, North Sumatra Province.

Materials and Methods

A standard microbiological culture procedure was followed to isolate the organism and test antibiotic susceptibility using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion protocol. Furthermore, the multiple antibiotic resistance index was determined. Univariate analysis was conducted to identify the risk factors associated with AMR.

Results

The vast majority (77.5%) of livestock farmers were aged >30 years. All farmers were men and had no higher education (100% of them). The majority of the animal species managed were cattle and goats (37.5% each) and the livestock grazing pasture system (67.5%). In addition, the majority of farmers reported high antimicrobial use on their farms (87.5%). Of the samples (n = 142) analyzed, n = 70 were positive, with an overall prevalence of 44.4%. The species-specific prevalences of E. coli were 32.5%, 47.8%, and 50% in buffalo, goat, and cattle, respectively. Ampicillin and tetracyclines exhibited high resistance levels among the studied animal species. A relatively lower MDR for E. coli was associated with grazing on the pasture.

Conclusion

The findings from the current study provide baseline epidemiological information for future robust studies aimed at elucidating the drivers and patterns of AMR in agro-silvopastoral systems in the study area or elsewhere.

The role of water matrix on antibiotic resistance genes transmission in substrate layer from stormwater bioretention cells

Recently, extensive attention has been paid to antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) transmission. However, little available literature could be found about ARGs transmission in stormwater bioretention cells, especially the role of water matrix on ARGs transmission. Batch experiments were conducted to investigate target ARGs (blaTEM, tetR and aphA) transmission behaviors in substrate layer from stormwater bioretention cells under different water matrices, including nutrient elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus), water environmental conditions (dissolved oxygen (DO), pH and salinity, etc.) and pollution factors (like heavy metals, antibiotics and disinfectants), showing that ARGs conjugation frequency increased sharply with the enhancement of water matrices (expect DO and pH), while there were obvious increasing tendencies for all ARGs transformation frequencies under only the pollution factor. The correlation between dominant bacteria and ARGs transmission implied that conjugation and transformation of ARGs were mainly determined by Firmicutes, Bacteroidota, Latescibacterota, Chloroflexi and Cyanobacteria at the phylum level, and by Sphingomonas, Ensifer, IMCC26256, Rubellimicrobium, Saccharimonadales, Vicinamibacteraceae, Nocardioides, JG30-KF-CM66 at the genus level. The mentioned dominant bacteria were responsible for intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell membrane permeability (CMP) in the substrate layer, where the amplification of intracellular ROS variation were the largest with 144 and 147 % under the condition of TP and salinity, respectively, and the one of CMP variation were the highest more than 165 % under various pollution factors. Furthermore, both increasing DO and reducing salinity could be potential approaches for the inhibition of ARGs transmission in bioretention cells taking into account the simultaneous removal of conventional pollutants.

Advanced oxidation and biological integrated processes for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment: A review

The stress of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) discharging to water bodies and the environment due to increased industrialization has reduced the availability of clean water. This poses a potential health hazard to animals and human life because water contamination is a great issue to the climate, plants, humans, and aquatic habitats. Pharmaceutical compounds are quantified in concentrations ranging from ng/Lto μg/L in aquatic environments worldwide. According to (Alsubih et al., 2022), the concentrations of carbamazepine, sulfamethoxazole, Lutvastatin, ciprofloxacin, and lorazepam were 616-906 ng/L, 16,532-21635 ng/L, 694-2068 ng/L, 734-1178 ng/L, and 2742-3775 ng/L respectively. Protecting and preserving our environment must be well-driven by all sectors to sustain development. Various methods have been utilized to eliminate the emerging pollutants, such as adsorption and biological and advanced oxidation processes. These methods have their benefits and drawbacks in the removal of pharmaceuticals. Successful wastewater treatment can save the water bodies; integrating green initiatives into the main purposes of actor firms, combined with continually periodic awareness of the current and potential implications of environmental/water pollution, will play a major role in water conservation. This article reviews key publications on the adsorption, biological, and advanced oxidation processes used to remove pharmaceutical products from the aquatic environment. It also sheds light on the pharmaceutical adsorption capability of adsorption, biological and advanced oxidation methods, and their efficacy in pharmaceutical concentration removal. A research gap has been identified for researchers to explore in order to eliminate the problem associated with pharmaceutical wastes. Therefore, future study should focus on combining advanced oxidation and adsorption processes for an excellent way to eliminate pharmaceutical products, even at low concentrations. Biological processes should focus on ideal circumstances and microbial processes that enable the simultaneous removal of pharmaceutical compounds and the effects of diverse environments on removal efficiency.

Intramuscular therapeutic doses of enrofloxacin affect microbial community structure but not the relative abundance of fluoroquinolones resistance genes in swine manure

Livestock manure is a major source of veterinary antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Elucidation of the residual characteristics of ARGs in livestock manure following the administration of veterinary antibiotics is critical to assess their ecotoxicological effects and environmental contamination risks. Here, we investigated the effects of enrofloxacin (ENR), a fluoroquinolone antibiotic commonly used as a therapeutic drug in animal husbandry, on the characteristics of ARGs, mobile genetic elements, and microbial community structure in swine manure following its intramuscular administration for 3 days and a withdrawal period of 10 days. The results revealed the highest concentrations of ENR and ciprofloxacin (CIP) in swine manure at the end of the administration period, ENR concentrations in swine manure in groups L and H were 88.67 ± 45.46 and 219.75 ± 88.05 mg/kg DM, respectively. Approximately 15 fluoroquinolone resistance genes (FRGs) and 48 fluoroquinolone-related multidrug resistance genes (F-MRGs) were detected in swine manure; the relative abundance of the F-MRGs was considerably higher than that of the FRGs. On day 3, the relative abundance of qacA was significantly higher in group H than in group CK, and no significant differences in the relative abundance of other FRGs, F-MRGs, or MGEs were observed between the three groups on day 3 and day 13. The microbial community structure in swine manure was significantly altered on day 3, and the altered community structure was restored on day 13. The FRGs and F-MRGs with the highest relative abundance were qacA and adeF, respectively, and Clostridium and Lactobacillus were the dominant bacterial genera carrying these genes in swine manure. In summary, a single treatment of intramuscular ENR transiently increased antibiotic concentrations and altered the microbial community structure in swine manure; however, this treatment did not significantly affect the abundance of FRGs and F-MRGs.

Unraveling the diversity and dissemination dynamics of antimicrobial resistance genes in Enterobacteriaceae plasmids across diverse ecosystems

AIM

The objective of this study was to investigate the antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) in plasmids of Enterobacteriaceae from soil, sewage, and feces of food-producing animals and humans.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The plasmid sequences were obtained from the NCBI database. For the identification of ARG, comprehensive antibiotic resistance database (CARD), and ResFinder were used. Gene conservation and evolution were investigated using DnaSP v.6. The transfer potential of the plasmids was evaluated using oriTfinder and a MOB-based phylogenetic tree was reconstructed using Fastree. We identified a total of 1064 ARGs in all plasmids analyzed, conferring resistance to 15 groups of antibiotics, mostly aminoglycosides, beta-lactams, and sulfonamides. The greatest number of ARGs per plasmid was found in enterobacteria from chicken feces. Plasmids from Escherichia coli carrying multiple ARGs were found in all ecosystems. Some of the most abundant genes were shared among all ecosystems, including aph(6)-Id, aph(3'')-Ib, tet(A), and sul2. A high level of sequence conservation was found among these genes, and tet(A) and sul2 are under positive selective pressure. Approximately 62% of the plasmids carrying at least one ARG were potentially transferable. Phylogenetic analysis indicated a potential co-evolution of Enterobacteriaceae plasmids in nature.

CONCLUSION

The high abundance of Enterobacteriaceae plasmids from diverse ecosystems carrying ARGs reveals their widespread distribution and importance.

Metagenomic analysis of antibiotic-resistance genes and viruses released from glaciers into downstream habitats

Glaciers serve as effective reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and viruses for millions of years. Climate change and anthropogenic activity have accelerated the melting of glaciers, but the patterns of release of ARGs and viruses from melting glaciers into downstream habitats remain unknown. We analyzed 171 metagenomic samples from glaciers and their downstream habitats and found that the abundance and diversity of ARGs were higher in glaciers (polar and plateau glaciers) than downstream habitats (Arctic Ocean, Qinghai Lake, and Yangtze River Basin), with the diversity of viruses having the opposite pattern. Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria were the main potential hosts of ARGs and viruses, and the richness of ARGs carried by the hosts was positively correlated with viral abundance, suggesting that the transmission of viruses in the hosts could disseminate ARGs. Source tracking indicated that >18 % of the ARGs and >25 % of the viruses detected in downstream habitats originated from glaciers, demonstrating that glaciers could be one of the potential sources of ARGs and viruses in downstream habitats. Increased solar radiation and emission of carbon dioxide mainly influenced the release of the ARGs and viruses from glaciers into downstream habitats. This study provides a systematic insight demonstrating the release of ARGs and viruses from the melting glaciers, potentially increasing ecological pressure.

Commercial farmed swine harbour a variety of pathogenic bacteria and antimicrobial resistance genes

Introduction. The northern region of Thailand serves as a crucial area for swine production, contributing to the Thai community food supply. Previous studies have highlighted the presence of foodborne bacterial pathogens originating from swine farms in this region, posing a threat to both human and animal health.Gap statement. Multiple swine bacterial pathogens have been studied at a species level, but the distribution and co-occurrence of bacterial pathogens in agricultural swine has not been well established.Aim. Our study employed the intestinal scraping technique to directly examine the bacterial micro-organisms interacting with the swine host.Methodology. We used shotgun metagenomic sequencing to analyse the bacterial pathogens inhabiting the caecal microbiome of swine from five commercial farms in northern Thailand.Results. A variety of pathogenic and opportunistic bacteria were identified, including Escherichia coli, Clostridium botulinum, Staphylococcus aureus and the Corynebacterium genus. From a One Health perspective, these species are important foodborne and opportunistic pathogens in both humans and agricultural animals, making swine a critical pathogen reservoir that can cause illness in humans, especially farm workers. Additionally, the swine caecal microbiome contains commensal bacteria such as Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus and Faecalibacterium, which are associated with normal physiology and feed utilization in healthy swine. Antimicrobial resistance genes were also detected in all samples, specifically conferring resistance to tetracycline and aminoglycosides, which have historically been used extensively in swine farming.Conclusion. The findings further support the need for improved sanitation standards in swine farms, and additional monitoring of agricultural animals and farm workers to reduce contamination and improved produce safety for human consumption.

Postbiotic as Novel Alternative Agent or Adjuvant for the Common Antibiotic Utilized in the Food Industry

BACKGROUND

Antibiotic resistance is a serious public health problem as it causes previously manageable diseases to become deadly infections that can cause serious disability or even death. Scientists are creating novel approaches and procedures that are essential for the treatment of infections and limiting the improper use of antibiotics in an effort to counter this rising risk.

OBJECTIVES

With a focus on the numerous postbiotic metabolites formed from the beneficial gut microorganisms, their potential antimicrobial actions, and recent associated advancements in the food and medical areas, this review presents an overview of the emerging ways to prevent antibiotic resistance.

RESULTS

Presently, scientific literature confirms that plant-derived antimicrobials, RNA therapy, fecal microbiota transplantation, vaccines, nanoantibiotics, haemofiltration, predatory bacteria, immunotherapeutics, quorum-sensing inhibitors, phage therapies, and probiotics can be considered natural and efficient antibiotic alternative candidates. The investigations on appropriate probiotic strains have led to the characterization of specific metabolic byproducts of probiotics named postbiotics. Based on preclinical and clinical studies, postbiotics with their unique characteristics in terms of clinical (safe origin, without the potential spread of antibiotic resistance genes, unique and multiple antimicrobial action mechanisms), technological (stability and feasibility of largescale production), and economic (low production costs) aspects can be used as a novel alternative agent or adjuvant for the common antibiotics utilized in the production of animal-based foods.

CONCLUSION

Postbiotic constituents may be a new approach for utilization in the pharmaceutical and food sectors for developing therapeutic treatments. Further metabolomics investigations are required to describe novel postbiotics and clinical trials are also required to define the sufficient dose and optimum administration frequency of postbiotics.

Unveiling antimicrobial resistance in Chilean fertilized soils: a One Health perspective on environmental AMR surveillance

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a significant threat to humans and animals as well as the environment. Within agricultural settings, the utilization of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry can lead to the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. In Chile, the widespread use of animal-derived organic amendments, including manure and compost, requires an examination of the potential emergence of AMR resulting from their application. The aim of this research was to identify and compare AMR genes found in fertilized soils and manure in Los Andes city, Chile. Soil samples were collected from an agricultural field, comprising unamended soils, amended soils, and manure used for crop fertilization. The selected genes (n = 28) included genes associated with resistance to beta-lactams, tetracyclines, sulfonamides, polymyxins, macrolides, quinolones, aminoglycosides, as well as mobile genetic elements and multidrug resistance genes. Twenty genes were successfully identified in the samples. Tetracycline resistance genes displayed the highest prevalence, followed by MGE and sulfonamides, while quinolone resistance genes were comparatively less abundant. Notably, blaOXA, sulA, tetO, tetW, tetM, aac (6) ib., and intI1, exhibited higher frequencies in unamended soils, indicating their potential persistence within the soil microbiome and contribution to the perpetuation of AMR over time. Given the complex nature of AMR, it is crucial to adopt an integrated surveillance framework that embraces the One Health approach, involving multiple sectors, to effectively address this challenge. This study represents the first investigation of antimicrobial resistance genes in agricultural soils in Chile, shedding light on the presence and dynamics of AMR in this context.

A review on the effects of discharging conventionally treated livestock waste to the environmental resistome

Globally, animal production has developed rapidly as a consequence of the ongoing population growth, to support food security. This has consequently led to an extensive use of antibiotics to promote growth and prevent diseases in animals. However, most antibiotics are not fully metabolized by these animals, leading to their excretion within urine and faeces, thus making these wastes a major reservoir of antibiotics residues, antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) in the environment. Farmers normally depend on conventional treatment methods to mitigate the environmental impact of animal waste; however, these methods are not fully efficient to remove the environmental resistome. The present study reviewed the variability of residual antibiotics, ARB, as well as ARGs in the conventionally treated waste and assessed how discharging it could increase resistome in the receiving environments. Wherein, considering the efficiency and environmental safety, an addition of pre-treatments steps with these conventional treatment methods could enhance the removal of antibiotic resistance agents from livestock waste.

Multidrug-resistant Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli and hybrid pathogenic strains of bovine origin

Antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli strains have been circulating in various sectors and can be cross-transferred between them. Among pathogenic E. coli strains, Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) and hybrid pathogenic E. coli (HyPEC) emerged as responsible for outbreaks worldwide. As bovine are reservoir of STEC strains, these pathogens primarily spread to food products, exposing humans to risk. Therefore, this study aimed to characterize antimicrobial-resistant and potentially pathogenic E. coli strains from fecal samples of dairy cattle. In this regard, most E. coli strains (phylogenetic groups A, B1, B2, and E) were resistant to β-lactams and non-β-lactams and were classified as multidrug-resistant (MDR). Antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) related to multidrug resistance profiles were detected. Furthermore, mutations in fluoroquinolone and colistin resistance determinants were also identified, highlighting the deleterious mutation His152Gln in PmrB that may have contributed to the high level (> 64 mg/L) of colistin resistance. Virulence genes of diarrheagenic and extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) pathotypes were shared among strains and even within the same strain, evidencing the presence of HyPEC (i.e., ExPEC/STEC), which were assigned as unusual B2-ST126-H3 and B1-ST3695-H31. These findings provide phenotypic and molecular data of MDR, ARGs-producing, and potentially pathogenic E. coli strains in dairy cattle, contributing to the monitoring of antimicrobial resistance and pathogens in healthy animals and alerting to potential bovine-associated zoonotic infections.

Soil-specific responses in the antibiotic resistome of culturable Acinetobacter spp. and other non-fermentative Gram-negative bacteria following experimental manure application

Acinetobacter spp. and other non-fermenting Gram-negative bacteria (NFGNB) represent an important group of opportunistic pathogens due to their propensity for multiple, intrinsic, or acquired antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Antimicrobial resistant bacteria and their genes can spread to the environment through livestock manure. This study investigated the effects of fresh manure from dairy cows under antibiotic prophylaxis on the antibiotic resistome and AMR hosts in microcosms using pasture soil. We specifically focused on culturable Acinetobacter spp. and other NFGNB using CHROMagar Acinetobacter. We conducted two 28-days incubation experiments to simulate natural deposition of fresh manure on pasture soil and evaluated the effects on antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and bacterial hosts through shotgun metagenomics. We found that manure application altered the abundance and composition of ARGs and their bacterial hosts, and that the effects depended on the soil source. Manure enriched the antibiotic resistome of bacteria only in the soil where native bacteria had a low abundance of ARGs. Our study highlights the role of native soil bacteria in modulating the consequences of manure deposition on soil and confirms the potential of culturable Acinetobacter spp. and other NFGNB to accumulate AMR in pasture soil receiving fresh manure.

Effects of the coexistence of antibiotics and heavy metals on the fate of antibiotic resistance genes in chicken manure and surrounding soils

Both heavy metals and antibiotics exert selection pressure on bacterial resistance, and as they are commonly co-contaminated in the environment, they may play a larger role in bacterial resistance. This study examined how breeding cycles affect antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in chicken manure and the surrounding topsoils at 20, 50, 100, 200, and 300 m from twelve typical laying hen farms in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region of northwest China. Six antibiotics, seven heavy metals, ten mobile genetic elements (MGEs), and microbial community affected the ARGs profile in chicken dung and soil samples. Tetracycline antibiotic residues were prevalent in chicken manure, as were relatively high content of aureomycin during each culture period. Zinc (Zn) content was highest among the seven heavy metals in chicken feces. Chicken dung also enriched aminoglycosides, MLSB, and tetracycline ARGs, notably during brooding and high production. The farm had a minimal influence on antibiotics in the surrounding soil, but its effect on ARGs and MGEs closer to the farm (50 m) was stronger, and several ARGs and MGEs increased with distance. Manure microbial composition differed dramatically throughout breeding cycles and sampling distances. ARGs were more strongly related with antibiotics and heavy metals in manure than soil, whereas MGEs were the reverse. Antibiotics, heavy metals, MGEs, and bacteria in manure accounted 12.28%, 22.25%, 0.74%, and 0.19% of ARGs composition variance, respectively, according to RDA and VPA. Bacteria (2.89%) and MGEs (2.82%) only affected soil ARGs composition. These findings showed that heavy metals and antibiotics are the main factors affecting faecal ARGs and bacteria and MGEs soil ARGs. This paper includes antibiotic resistance data for large-scale laying hen husbandry in northwest China and a theoretical framework for decreasing antibiotic resistance.

Escherichia coli Phylogenetic and Antimicrobial Pattern as an Indicator of Anthropogenic Impact on Threatened Freshwater Mussels

Freshwater bivalves are widely used as accumulation indicators and monitoring tools for assessing contaminant effects on different levels of biological integration. This pilot study aimed to explore the phylogenetic diversity of Escherichia coli isolated from freshwater mussels (Margaritifera margaritifera and Potomida littoralis) and characterize their phenotypes and antibiotic resistance profiles. Samples were collected in the Rabaçal and Tua Rivers, in the Douro basin, Portugal-two sites representing different levels of anthropogenic contamination. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed via the disk diffusion method with 21 antibiotics. Results showed that 31% of isolates were multidrug-resistant (MDR). Thus, freshwater mussels provide an effective and time-integrated approach for identifying/quantifying fecal indicators, including MDR bacteria. PCR-based assays were designed for assessing phylogenetic E. coli groups. Among the E. coli isolates, the highest prevalence (44%) was observed in group D or E, followed by group E or Clade I (25%), group A (19%), and group B1 (13%). E. coli isolated from M. margaritifera predominantly exhibited a higher prevalence of phylogroups D or E, whereas E. coli from P. littoralis showed associations with phylogroups E or clade I, B1, A, and D or E. Our results provide new insights into the phylogenetic diversity of E. coli in freshwater bivalves. Additionally, the findings highlight the possible linkage of phylogroups with the host species, the geographical location in the water stream, and human activity. Using E. coli as a bioindicator isolated from freshwater mussels helps us grasp how human activities affect the environment. This study has important implications for those interested in safeguarding water resources, especially in tackling antibiotic resistance in aquatic ecosystems.

Impact of soil supplemented with pig manure on the abundance of antibiotic resistant bacteria and their associated genes

This study was conducted to evaluate the abundance of antibiotic resistant bacteria and their resistance genes from agriculture soil supplemented with pig manure. Uncultivable soil sample was supplemented with pig manure samples under microcosm experimental conditions and plated on Luria-Bertani (LB) agar incorporated with commercial antibiotics. The supplementation of soil with 15% pig manure resulted in the highest increase in the population of antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB)/multiple antibiotic resistant bacteria (MARB). Seven genera that included Pseudomonas, Escherichia, Providencia, Salmonella, Bacillus, Alcaligenes and Paenalcaligenes were the cultivable ARB identified. A total of ten antibiotic resistant bacteria genes (ARGs) frequently used in clinical or veterinary settings and two mobile genetic elements (MGEs) (Class 1 and Class 2 integrons) were detected. Eight heavy metal, copper, cadmium, chromium, manganese, lead, zinc, iron, and cobalt were found in all of the manure samples at different concentrations. Tetracycline resistance genes were widely distributed with prevalence of 50%, while aminoglycoside and quinolone-resistance gene had 16% and 13%, respectively. Eighteen ARB isolates carried more than two ARGs in their genome. Class 1 integron was detected among all the 18 ARB with prevalence of 90-100%, while Class 2 integron was detected among 11 ARB. The two classes of integron were found among 10 ARB. Undoubtedly, pig manure collected from farms in Akure metropolis are rich in ARB and their abundance might play a vital role in the dissemination of resistance genes among clinically-relevant pathogens.

Risk assessment and dissemination mechanism of antibiotic resistance genes in compost

In recent years, the excessive of antibiotics in livestock and poultry husbandry, stemming from extensive industry experience, has resulted in the accumulation of residual antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in livestock manure. Composting, as a crucial approach for the utilization of manure resources, has the potential to reduce the levels of antibiotics and ARGs in manure, although complete elimination is challenging. Previous studies have primarily focused on the diversity and abundance of ARGs in compost or have solely examined the correlation between ARGs and their carriers, potentially leading to a misjudgment of the actual risk associated with ARGs in compost. To address this gap, this study investigated the transfer potential of ARGs in compost and their co-occurrence with opportunistic pathogenic bacteria by extensively analyzing metagenomic sequencing data of compost worldwide. The results demonstrated that the potential risk of ARGs in compost was significantly lower than in manure, suggesting that composting effectively reduces the risk of ARGs. Further analysis showed that the microbes shifted their life history strategy in manure and compost due to antibiotic pressure and formed metabolic interactions dominated by antibiotic-resistant microbes, increasing ARG dissemination frequency. Therefore, husbandry practice without antibiotic addition was recommended to control ARG evolution, dissemination, and abatement both at the source and throughout processing.

Pig manure treatment strategies for mitigating the spread of antibiotic resistance

Due to the risk of pathogenic antibiotic-resistant bacteria and their antibiotic-resistance genes transfer from livestock feces to the soil and cultivated crops, it is imperative to find effective on-farm manure treatments to minimize that hazardous potential. An introduced worldwide policy of sustainable development, focus on ecological agricultural production, and the circular economy aimed at reducing the use of artificial fertilizers; therefore, such treatment methods should also maximize the fertilization value of animal manure. The two strategies for processing pig manure are proposed in this study-storage and composting. The present study examines the changes in the physicochemical properties of treated manure, in the microbiome, and in the resistome, compared to raw manure. This is the first such comprehensive analysis performed on the same batch of manure. Our results suggest that while none of the processes eliminates the environmental risk, composting results in a faster and more pronounced reduction of mobile genetic elements harboring antibiotic resistance genes, including those responsible for multi-drug resistance. Overall, the composting process can be an efficient strategy for mitigating the spread of antibiotic resistance in the environment and reducing the risk of its transfer to crops and the food chain while providing essential fertilizer ingredients.

The emergence of multi-drug resistant and virulence gene carrying Escherichia coli strains in the dairy environment: a rising threat to the environment, animal, and public health

Escherichia coli is a common inhabitant of the intestinal microbiota and is responsible for udder infection in dairy cattle and gastro-urinary tract infections in humans. We isolated E. coli strains from a dairy farm environment in Xinjiang, China, and investigated their epidemiological characteristics, phenotypic and genotypic resistance to antimicrobials, virulence-associated genes, and phylogenetic relationship. A total of 209 samples were collected from different sources (feces, slurry, water, milk, soil) and cultured on differential and selective agar media (MAC and EMB). The presumptive identification was done by the VITEK2 system and confirmed by 16S rRNA gene amplification by PCR. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was done by micro-dilution assay, and genomic characterization was done by simple and multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A total of 338 E. coli strains were identified from 141/209 (67.5%) of the samples. Most of the E. coli strains were resistant to sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (62.43%), followed by cefotaxime (44.08%), ampicillin (33.73%), ciprofloxacin (31.36%), tetracycline (28.99%), and a lesser extent to florfenicol (7.99%), gentamicin (4.44%), amikacin (1.77%), and fosfomycin (1.18%). All of the strains were susceptible to meropenem, tigecycline, and colistin sulfate. Among the resistant strains, 44.4% were identified as multi-drug resistant (MDR) showing resistance to at least one antibiotic from ≥3 classes of antibiotics. Eighteen out of 20 antibiotic-resistance genes (ARGs) were detected with sul2 (67.3%), blaTEM (56.3%), gyrA (73.6%), tet(B) (70.4%), aph(3)-I (85.7%), floR (44.4%), and fosA3 (100%, 1/1) being the predominant genes among different classes of antibiotics. Among the virulence-associated genes (VAGs), ompA was the most prevalent (86.69%) followed by ibeB (85.0%), traT (84.91%), ompT (73.96%), fyuA (23.1%), iroN (23.1%), and irp2 gene (21.9%). Most of the E. coli strains were classified under phylogenetic group B1 (75.45%), followed by A (18.34%), C (2.96%), D (1.18%), E (1.18%), and F (0.30%). The present study identified MDR E. coli strains carrying widely distributed ARGs and VAGs from the dairy environment. The findings suggested that the dairy farm environment may serve as a source of mastitis-causing pathogens in animals and horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance and virulence genes carrying bacterial strains to humans via contaminated milk and meat, surface water and agricultural crops.

Neglected Drivers of Antibiotic Resistance: Survival of Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase-Producing Pathogenic Escherichia coli from Livestock Waste through Dormancy and Release of Transformable Extracellular Antibiotic Resistance Genes under Heat Treatment

Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae has caused a global pandemic with high prevalence in livestock and poultry, which could disseminate into the environment and humans. To curb this risk, heat-based harmless treatment of livestock waste was carried out. However, some risks of the bacterial persistence have not been thoroughly assessed. This study demonstrated that antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) could survive at 55 °C through dormancy, and simultaneously transformable extracellular antibiotic resistance genes (eARGs) would be released. The ESBL-producing pathogenic Escherichia coli CM1 from chicken manure could enter a dormant state at 55 °C and reactivate at 37 °C. Dormant CM1 had stronger β-lactam resistance, which was associated with high expression of β-lactamase genes and low expression of outer membrane porin genes. Resuscitated CM1 maintained its virulence expression and multidrug resistance and even had stronger cephalosporin resistance, which might be due to the ultra-low expression of the porin genes. Besides, heat at 55 °C promoted the release of eARGs, some of which possessed a certain nuclease stability and heat persistence, and even maintained their transformability to an Acinetobacter baylyi strain. Therefore, dormant multidrug-resistant pathogens from livestock waste will still pose a direct health risk to humans, while the resuscitation of dormant ARB and the transformation of released eARGs will jointly promote the proliferation of ARGs and the spread of antibiotic resistance.

Spatial distribution of bacterial resistance towards antibiotics of rural sanitation system in China and its potential link with diseases incidence

Chinese government is vigorously promoting toilet renovation in rural areas to reduce the risk of human feces exposure, which would cause infectious diseases, especially antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and pathogens. However, the distribution of ARGs in human feces from different regions of China remained ill-defined. It is not yet known how the survival of ARGs after toilet treatment is associated with the regional infection rates. Here, we investigated the prevalence of ARGs in human feces in rural areas of China and their potential relationship with infectious diseases for the first large-scale. The results showed that there were still high ARGs residues in human feces after rural toilet treatment, especially tetM-01 and ermB with average relative abundance as high as 1.21 × 10^-1 (Eastern) and 1.56 × 10^-1 (Northern), respectively. At a large regional scale, the significant differences in human feces resistomes were mainly shaped by the toilet types, TN, NH₃-N, and the bacterial community. A critical finding was that toilets still cannot effectively decrease the pathogenicity risk in human feces. The significant positive relationship (P<0.05) between infectious diseases and ARGs can infer that ARGs in human feces exposure might be a critical path for enhancing the incidence of diseases, as these ARGs hinder the effectiveness of antibiotics.

Enterobacteria Survival, Percolation, and Leaching on Soil Fertilized with Swine Manure

Swine manure has a high load of pathogens, which can pose a risk to human and environmental health. In Brazil, studies evaluating the survival of pathogens in soil are scarce. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the survival, percolation, and leaching of enterobacteria in clayey soil after fertilization with swine manure. For this purpose, soil columns were fertilized with manure spiked with enterobacteria. The microorganisms' behavior was monitored in terms of survival, percolation, and leaching with and without rain. Soil samples were collected, and Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica serovar Senftemberg were quantified. The results indicated that E. coli survived for a longer period (43 days) than S. senftemberg (14 days). E. coli percolated quickly through the soil, leaching 60 cm in less than 5 min during rainy events and remaining viable for up to 24 h after the rain. The results show the importance of treating manure effectively before being added to the soil. An efficient treatment could be anaerobic digestion, followed by a pond system. Considering the characteristics of swine-producing regions, the load of effluents applied to the soil may percolate, leach, or run off and consequently contaminate water bodies with pathogens.

Horizontal Gene Transfer of Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Biofilms

Most bacteria attach to biotic or abiotic surfaces and are embedded in a complex matrix which is known as biofilm. Biofilm formation is especially worrisome in clinical settings as it hinders the treatment of infections with antibiotics due to the facilitated acquisition of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Environmental settings are now considered as pivotal for driving biofilm formation, biofilm-mediated antibiotic resistance development and dissemination. Several studies have demonstrated that environmental biofilms can be hotspots for the dissemination of ARGs. These genes can be encoded on mobile genetic elements (MGEs) such as conjugative and mobilizable plasmids or integrative and conjugative elements (ICEs). ARGs can be rapidly transferred through horizontal gene transfer (HGT) which has been shown to occur more frequently in biofilms than in planktonic cultures. Biofilm models are promising tools to mimic natural biofilms to study the dissemination of ARGs via HGT. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art of biofilm studies and the techniques that visualize the three main HGT mechanisms in biofilms: transformation, transduction, and conjugation.

Nutrient concentrations affect the antimicrobial resistance profiles of cattle manures

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in cattle is widespread because of the increased use of antibiotics to combat microbial diseases and enhance milk production. The cattle excreta released into the environment can be a potent source of contamination in spreading antibiotic resistance, especially upon its application in agriculture. However, the correlation of AMR profile of manure with other physico-chemical parameters is limited. Therefore, the study aimed to generate AMR profiles for manure samples collected from 25 different sites of two agriculturally important states in India, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Samples were tested for physico-chemical parameters, viz., electrical conductivity, pH, total nitrogen (N), total phosphorus (P), and total potassium (K). Bacterial community analysis was done by culture-dependent and culture-independent methods. The influence of feeding practices, nutrient concentration, and bacterial abundance on antibiotic resistance profiles was observed in collected manure samples. Manures of intensive feeding animals harbored highly resistant profiles of bacteria as compared to natural grazing cattle.

Residual enrofloxacin in cattle manure increased persistence and dissemination risk of antibiotic resistance genes during anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion is a common approach to dispose and recycle livestock manures, and the agricultural application of anaerobic digestives represents an important pathway of spreading antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) from livestock manures to soils. Enrofloxacin is a clinically important fluoroquinolone antibiotic with high residual concentrations in livestock manure, and propagation of fluoroquinolone resistance genes poses a huge risk to public health. Compared with other antibiotics, enrofloxacin is relatively durable in anaerobic digestion system. However, its effect on the persistence of ARGs during anaerobic digestion and its mechanism are not clear. In this study, we investigated effects of 0, 4, and 8 mg/L enrofloxacin on the abundance, persistence, and transferring risk of five plasmid-mediated fluroquinolone ARGs and five typic clinically important non-fluoroquinolone ARGs during cattle manure digestion. The responses of integrons and microbial communities to enrofloxacin were assessed to uncover the underlying mechanisms. All the ten detected ARGs were highly persistent in anaerobic digestion, among them seven ARGs increased over 8.2 times after digestion. Network analysis revealed that the potential hosts of ARGs were critical functional taxa during anaerobic digestion, which can explain the high persistence of ARGs. Residual enrofloxacin significantly increased the abundance of aac(6')-ib-cr, sul1, intI1, and intI2 throughout the digestion, but had no impact on the other ARGs, demonstrating its role in facilitating horizontal gene transfer of the plasmid-mediated aac(6')-ib-cr. The influence of enrofloxacin on microbial communities disappeared at the end of digestion, but the ARG profiles remained distinctive between the enrofloxacin treatments and the control, suggesting the high persistence of enrofloxacin induced ARGs. Our results suggested the high persistence of ARGs in anaerobic digestion system, and highlighted the role of residual enrofloxacin in livestock manure in increasing dissemination risk of fluroquinolone resistance genes.

Detection of an Enterococcus faecium Carrying a Double Copy of the PoxtA Gene from Freshwater River, Italy

Oxazolidinones are valuable antimicrobials that are used to treat severe infections due to multidrug-resistant (MDR) Gram-positive bacteria. However, in recent years, a significant spread of clinically relevant linezolid-resistant human bacteria that is also present in animal and environmental settings has been detected and is a cause for concern. This study aimed to investigate the presence, genetic environments, and transferability of oxazolidinone resistance genes in enterococci from freshwater samples. A total of 10 samples were collected from a river in Central Italy. Florfenicol-resistant enterococci were screened for the presence of oxazolidinone resistance genes by PCR. Enterococcus faecium M1 was positive for the poxtA gene. The poxtA transfer (filter mating and aquaria microcosm assays), localization (S1-PFGE/hybridization), genetic context, and clonality of the isolate (WGS) were analyzed. Two poxtA copies were located on the 30,877-bp pEfM1, showing high-level identity and synteny to the pEfm-Ef3 from an E. faecium collected from an Italian coastal area. The isolate was able to transfer the poxtA to enterococcal recipients both in filter mating and aquaria microcosm assays. This is-to the best of our knowledge-the first detection of an enterococcus carrying a linezolid resistance gene from freshwater in Italy.

Antimicrobial resistance in dairy slurry tanks: A critical point for measurement and control

Waste from dairy production is one of the largest sources of contamination from antimicrobial resistant bacteria (ARB) and genes (ARGs) in many parts of the world. However, studies to date do not provide necessary evidence to inform antimicrobial resistance (AMR) countermeasures. We undertook a detailed, interdisciplinary, longitudinal analysis of dairy slurry waste. The slurry contained a population of ARB and ARGs, with resistances to current, historical and never-used on-farm antibiotics; resistances were associated with Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and mobile elements (ISEcp1, Tn916, Tn21-family transposons). Modelling and experimental work suggested that these populations are in dynamic equilibrium, with microbial death balanced by fresh input. Consequently, storing slurry without further waste input for at least 60 days was predicted to reduce ARB spread onto land, with > 99 % reduction in cephalosporin resistant Escherichia coli. The model also indicated that for farms with low antibiotic use, further reductions are unlikely to reduce AMR further. We conclude that the slurry tank is a critical point for measurement and control of AMR, and that actions to limit the spread of AMR from dairy waste should combine responsible antibiotic use, including low total quantity, avoidance of human critical antibiotics, and choosing antibiotics with shorter half-lives, coupled with appropriate slurry storage.

Subsurface Manure Injection Reduces Surface Transport of Antibiotic Resistance Genes but May Create Antibiotic Resistance Hotspots in Soils

Compared to surface application, manure subsurface injection reduces surface runoff of nutrients, antibiotic resistant microorganisms, and emerging contaminants. Less is known regarding the impact of both manure application methods on surface transport of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in manure-amended fields. We applied liquid dairy manure to field plots by surface application and subsurface injection and simulated rainfall on the first or seventh day following application. The ARG richness, relative abundance (normalized to 16s rRNA), and ARG profiles in soil and surface runoff were monitored using shotgun metagenomic sequencing. Within 1 day of manure application, compared to unamended soils, soils treated with manure had 32.5-70.5% greater ARG richness and higher relative abundances of sulfonamide (6.5-129%) and tetracycline (752-3766%) resistance genes (p ≤ 0.05). On day 7, soil ARG profiles in the surface-applied plots were similar to, whereas subsurface injection profiles were different from, that of the unamended soils. Forty-six days after manure application, the soil ARG profiles in manure injection slits were 37% more diverse than that of the unamended plots. The abundance of manure-associated ARGs were lower in surface runoff from manure subsurface injected plots and carried a lower resistome risk score in comparison to surface-applied plots. This study demonstrated, for the first time, that although manure subsurface injection reduces ARGs in the runoff, it can create potential long-term hotspots for elevated ARGs within injection slits.

Ecological Responses of Maize Rhizosphere to Antibiotics Entering the Agricultural System in an Area with High Arsenicals Geological Background

Metal(loid)s can promote the spread and enrichment of antibiotic resistance in the environmental ecosystem through a co-selection effect. Little is known about the ecological effects of entering antibiotics into the environment with long-term metal(loid)s' resistance profiles. Here, cow manure containing oxytetracycline (OTC) or sulfadiazine (SA) at four concentrations (0 (as control), 1, 10, and 100 mg/kg) was loaded to a maize cropping system in an area with high a arsenicals geological background. Results showed that exogenous antibiotics entering significantly changed the nutrient conditions, such as the concentration of nitrate nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, and available phosphorus in the maize rhizosphere soil, while total arsenic and metals did not display any differences in antibiotic treatments compared with control. Antibiotics exposure significantly influenced nitrate and nitrite reductase activities to reflect the inhibition of denitrification rates but did not affect the soil urease and acid phosphatase activities. OTC treatment also did not change soil dehydrogenase activities, while SA treatment posed promotion effects, showing a tendency to increase with exposure concentration. Both the tested antibiotics (OTC and SA) decreased the concentration of arsenite and arsenate in rhizosphere soil, but the inhibition effects of the former were higher than that of the latter. Moreover, antibiotic treatment impacted arsenite and arsenate levels in maize root tissue, with positive effects on arsenite and negative effects on arsenate. As a result, both OTC and SA treatments significantly increased bioconcentration factors and showed a tendency to first increase and then decrease with increasing concentration. In addition, the treatments decreased translocation capacity of arsenic from roots to shoots and showed a tendency to increase translocation factors with increasing concentration. Microbial communities with arsenic-resistance profiles may also be resistant to antibiotics entering.

Occurrence and Biological Cost of mcr-1-Carrying Plasmids Co-harbouring Beta-Lactamase Resistance Genes in Zoonotic Pathogens from Intensive Animal Production

Colistin is classified as a high-priority critical antimicrobial by the World Health Organization (WHO). A better understanding of the biological cost imposed by mcr-plasmids is paramount to comprehending their spread and may facilitate the decision about the ban of colistin in livestock. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of mcr and ESBL genes from 98 Escherichia coli and 142 Salmonella enterica isolates from food-producing animals and the impact of the mcr-1 acquisition on bacterial fitness. Only mcr-1 was identified by multiplex PCR (mcr-1 to mcr-10) in 15.3% of E. coli. Colistin MICs ranged between 8−32 mg/L. In four isolates, blaTEM-1, blaCTX-M-1, and blaCTX-M-15 co-existed with mcr-1. The IncH12, IncHI1, IncP, IncN, and IncI plasmids were transferred by conjugation to E. coli J53 at frequencies of 10−7 to 10−2 cells/recipient. Growth kinetics assays showed that transconjugants had a significantly lower growth rate than the recipient (p < 0.05), and transconjugants’ average growth rate was higher in the absence than in the presence of colistin (1.66 versus 1.32 (p = 0.0003)). Serial transfer assay during 10 days demonstrated that plasmid retention ranged from complete loss to full retention. Overall, mcr-1-bearing plasmids impose a fitness cost, but the loss of plasmids is highly variable, suggesting that other factors beyond colistin pressure regulate the plasmid maintenance in a bacterial population, and colistin withdrawal will not completely lead to a decrease of mcr-1 levels.

Dissemination and prevalence of plasmid-mediated high-level tigecycline resistance gene tet (X4)

With the large-scale use of antibiotics, antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) continue to rise, and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are regarded as emerging environmental pollutants. The new tetracycline-class antibiotic, tigecycline is the last resort for treating multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria. Plasmid-mediated horizontal transfer enables the sharing of genetic information among different bacteria. The tigecycline resistance gene tet(X) threatens the efficacy of tigecycline, and the adjacent ISCR2 or IS26 are often detected upstream and downstream of the tet(X) gene, which may play a crucial driving role in the transmission of the tet(X) gene. Since the first discovery of the plasmid-mediated high-level tigecycline resistance gene tet(X4) in China in 2019, the tet(X) genes, especially tet(X4), have been reported within various reservoirs worldwide, such as ducks, geese, migratory birds, chickens, pigs, cattle, aquatic animals, agricultural field, meat, and humans. Further, our current researches also mentioned viruses as novel environmental reservoirs of antibiotic resistance, which will probably become a focus of studying the transmission of ARGs. Overall, this article mainly aims to discuss the current status of plasmid-mediated transmission of different tet(X) genes, in particular tet(X4), as environmental pollutants, which will risk to public health for the "One Health" concept.

Insights into the impact of manure on the environmental antibiotic residues and resistance pool

The intensive use of antibiotics in the veterinary sector, linked to the application of manure-derived amendments in agriculture, translates into increased environmental levels of chemical residues, AR bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARG). The aim of this review was to evaluate the current evidence regarding the impact of animal farming and manure application on the antibiotic resistance pool in the environment. Several studies reported correlations between the prevalence of clinically relevant ARB and the amount and classes of antibiotics used in animal farming (high resistance rates being reported for medically important antibiotics such as penicillins, tetracyclines, sulfonamides and fluoroquinolones). However, the results are difficult to compare, due to the diversity of the used antimicrobials quantification techniques and to the different amounts and types of antibiotics, exhibiting various degradation times, given in animal feed in different countries. The soils fertilized with manure-derived products harbor a higher and chronic abundance of ARB, multiple ARG and an enriched associated mobilome, which is also sometimes seen in the crops grown on the amended soils. Different manure processing techniques have various efficiencies in the removal of antibiotic residues, ARB and ARGs, but there is only a small amount of data from commercial farms. The efficiency of sludge anaerobic digestion appears to be dependent on the microbial communities composition, the ARB/ARG and operating temperature (mesophilic vs. thermophilic conditions). Composting seems to reduce or eliminate most of antibiotics residues, enteric bacteria, ARB and different representative ARG in manure more rapidly and effectively than lagoon storage. Our review highlights that despite the body of research accumulated in the last years, there are still important knowledge gaps regarding the contribution of manure to the AMR emergence, accumulation, spread and risk of human exposure in countries with high clinical resistance rates. Land microbiome before and after manure application, efficiency of different manure treatment techniques in decreasing the AMR levels in the natural environments and along the food chain must be investigated in depth, covering different geographical regions and countries and using harmonized methodologies. The support of stakeholders is required for the development of specific best practices for prudent – cautious use of antibiotics on farm animals. The use of human reserve antibiotics in veterinary medicine and of unprescribed animal antimicrobials should be stopped and the use of antibiotics on farms must be limited. This integrated approach is needed to determine the optimal conditions for the removal of antibiotic residues, ARB and ARG, to formulate specific recommendations for livestock manure treatment, storage and handling procedures and to translate them into practical on-farm management decisions, to ultimately prevent exposure of human population.