Investigation of biogeochemical controls on the formation, uptake and accumulation of methylmercury in rice paddies in the vicinity of a coal-fired power plant and a municipal solid waste incinerator in Taiwan

Recent studies have shown that rice consumption is another critical route of human exposure to methylmercury (MeHg), the most toxic and accumulative form of mercury (Hg) in the food web. Yet, the mechanisms that underlie the production and accumulation of MeHg in the paddy ecosystem are still poorly understood. In 2013 and 2014, we conducted field campaigns and laboratory experiments over a rice growing season to examine Hg and MeHg cycling, as well as associated biogeochemistry in a suite of paddies close to a municipal solid waste incinerator and a coal-fired power plant station in Taiwan. Concentrations of total Hg and MeHg in paddy soil and rice grain at both sites were low and found not to exceed the control standards for farmland soil and edible rice in Taiwan. However, seasonal variations of MeHg concentrations observed in pore water samples indicate that the in situ bioavailability of inorganic Hg and activity of Hg-methylating microbes in the rhizosphere increased from the early-season and peaked at the mid-season, presumably due to the anoxia created under flooded conditions and root exudation of organic compounds. The presence of Hg-methylators was also confirmed by the hgcA gene detected in all root soil samples. Subsequent methylation tests performed by incubating the root soil with inorganic Hg and an inhibitor or stimulant specific for certain microbes further revealed that sulfate-reducers might have been the principal Hg-methylting guild at the study sites. Interestingly, results of hydroponic experiments conducted by cultivating rice in a defined nutrient solution amended with fixed MeHg and varying levels of MeHg-binding ligands suggested that chemical speciation in soil pore water may play a key role in controlling MeHg accumulation in rice, and both passive and active transport pathways seem to take place in the uptake of MeHg in rice roots.

Net methylmercury production in 2 contrasting stream sediments and associated accumulation and toxicity to periphyton

Periphyton uptake of bioaccumulative methylmercury (MeHg) may be an important entryway into the food web of many stream ecosystems where periphyton can be dominant primary producers. The net production of MeHg in stream sediment, its bioaccumulation in periphyton, and the potential toxicity of divalent Hg (Hg[II]) and MeHg in sediment to periphyton were investigated with a 67-d in situ incubation experiment using chemical exposure substrates containing either a fine-grained, organic-rich or a sandy, low-organic sediment, each amended with varying concentrations of mercuric chloride. Methylmercury was produced in sediment, and concentrations increased with greater amounts of added Hg(II); however, the net production of MeHg was inhibited in the highest Hg(II) treatments of both sediments. The range of total Hg concentrations that inhibited MeHg production was between approximately 80 000 ng Hg and 350 000 ng Hg per gram of organic matter for both sediments. Periphyton colonizing substrates accumulated MeHg in proportion to the concentration in sediment, but periphyton exposed to the sandy sediment accumulated approximately 20-fold more than those exposed to the organic-rich sediment relative to sediment MeHg concentrations. Toxicity of either Hg(II) or MeHg to periphyton was not observed with either periphyton organic content, net primary production, or respiration as endpoints. These results suggest that in situ production and bioaccumulation of MeHg in stream ecosystems can vary as a function of sediment characteristics and Hg(II) loadings to the sediment. Environ Toxicol Chem 2016;35:1759-1765. © 2015 SETAC.

Isolation and Genomic Characterization of 'Desulfuromonas soudanensis WTL', a Metal- and Electrode-Respiring Bacterium from Anoxic Deep Subsurface Brine

Reaching a depth of 713 m below the surface, the Soudan Underground Iron Mine (Soudan, MN, USA) transects a massive Archaean (2.7 Ga) banded iron formation, providing a remarkably accessible window into the terrestrial deep biosphere. Despite organic carbon limitation, metal-reducing microbial communities are present in potentially ancient anoxic brines continuously emanating from exploratory boreholes on Level 27. Using graphite electrodes deposited in situ as bait, we electrochemically enriched and isolated a novel halophilic iron-reducing Deltaproteobacterium, ‘Desulfuromonas soudanensis’ strain WTL, from an acetate-fed three-electrode bioreactor poised at +0.24 V (vs. standard hydrogen electrode). Cyclic voltammetry revealed that ‘D. soudanensis’ releases electrons at redox potentials approximately 100 mV more positive than the model freshwater surface isolate Geobacter sulfurreducens, suggesting that its extracellular respiration is tuned for higher potential electron acceptors. ‘D. soudanensis’ contains a 3,958,620-bp circular genome, assembled to completion using single-molecule real-time (SMRT) sequencing reads, which encodes a complete TCA cycle, 38 putative multiheme c-type cytochromes, one of which contains 69 heme-binding motifs, and a LuxI/LuxR quorum sensing cassette that produces an unidentified N-acyl homoserine lactone. Another cytochrome is predicted to lie within a putative prophage, suggesting that horizontal gene transfer plays a role in respiratory flexibility among metal reducers. Isolation of ‘D. soudanensis’ underscores the utility of electrode-based approaches for enriching rare metal reducers from a wide range of habitats.

Chemical multi-contamination drives benthic prokaryotic diversity in the anthropized Toulon Bay

Investigating the impact of human activities on marine coastal ecosystems remains difficult because of the co-occurrence of numerous natural and human-induced gradients. Our aims were (i) to evaluate the links between the chemical environment as a whole and microbial diversity in the benthic compartment, and (ii) to compare the contributions of anthropogenic and natural chemical gradients to microbial diversity shifts. We studied surface sediments from 54 sampling sites in the semi-enclosed Toulon Bay (NW Mediterranean) exposed to high anthropogenic pressure. Previously published chemical data were completed by new measurements, resulting in an in depth geochemical characterization by 29 representative environmental variables. Bacterial and archaeal diversity was assessed by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism profiling on a selection of samples distributed along chemical gradients. Multivariate statistical analyses explained from 45% to 80% of the spatial variation in microbial diversity, considering only the chemical variables. A selection of trace metals of anthropogenic origin appeared to be strong structural factors for both bacterial and archaeal communities. Bacterial terminal restriction fragment (T-RF) richness correlated strongly with both anthropogenic and natural chemical gradients, whereas archaeal T-RF richness demonstrated fewer links with chemical variables. No significant decrease in diversity was evidenced in relation to chemical contamination, suggesting a high adaptive potential of benthic microbial communities in Toulon Bay.

Dimethylmercury Formation Mediated by Inorganic and Organic Reduced Sulfur Surfaces

Underlying formation pathways of dimethylmercury ((CH3)2Hg) in the ocean are unknown. Early work proposed reactions of inorganic Hg (Hg(II)) with methyl cobalamin or of dissolved monomethylmercury (CH3Hg) with hydrogen sulfide as possible bacterial mediated or abiotic pathways. A significant fraction (up to 90%) of CH3Hg in natural waters is however adsorbed to reduced sulfur groups on mineral or organic surfaces. We show that binding of CH3Hg to such reactive sites facilitates the formation of (CH3)2Hg by degradation of the adsorbed CH3Hg. We demonstrate that the reaction can be mediated by different sulfide minerals, as well as by dithiols suggesting that e.g. reduced sulfur groups on mineral particles or on protein surfaces could mediate the reaction. The observed fraction of CH3Hg methylated on sulfide mineral surfaces exceeded previously observed methylation rates of CH3Hg to (CH3)2Hg in seawaters and we suggest the pathway demonstrated here could account for much of the (CH3)2Hg found in the ocean.

Selenium inhibits sulfate-mediated methylmercury production in rice paddy soil

There is increasing interest in understanding factors controlling methylmercury (MeHg) production in mercury-contaminated rice paddy soil. Sulfate has been reported to affect MeHg biogeochemistry under anoxic conditions, and recent studies revealed that selenium (Se) could evidently reduce MeHg production in paddy soil. However, the controls of sulfate and Se on net MeHg production in paddy soil under fluctuating redox conditions remain largely unknown. Microcosm experiments were conducted to explore the effects of sulfate and Se on net MeHg production in rice paddy soil. Soil was added with 0-960 mg/kg sulfate, in the presence or absence of 3.0 mg/kg selenium (selenite or selenate), and incubated under anoxic (40 days) or suboxic conditions (5 days), simulating fluctuating redox conditions in rice paddy field. Sulfate addition moderately affected soil MeHg concentrations under anoxic conditions, while reoxidation resulted in evidently higher (18-40%) MeHg levels in sulfate amended soils than the control. The observed changes in net MeHg production were related to dynamics of sulfate and iron. However, Se could inhibit sulfate-mediated MeHg production in the soils: Se addition largely reduced net MeHg production in the soils (23-86%, compared to the control), despite of sulfate addition. Similarly, results of the pot experiments (i.e., rice cultivation in amended soils) indicated that soil MeHg levels were rather comparable in Se-amended soils during rice growth period, irrespective of added sulfate doses. The more important role of Se than sulfate in controlling MeHg production was explained by the formation of HgSe nanoparticles irrespective of the presence of sulfate, confirmed by TEM-EDX and XANES analysis. Our findings regarding the effects of sulfate and Se on net MeHg production in rice paddy soil together with the mechanistic explanation of the processes advance our understanding of MeHg dynamics and risk in soil-rice systems.

Persistent Hg contamination and occurrence of Hg-methylating transcript (hgcA) downstream of a chlor-alkali plant in the Olt River (Romania)

Chlor-alkali plants using mercury (Hg) cell technology are acute point sources of Hg pollution in the aquatic environment. While there have been recent efforts to reduce the use of Hg cells, some of the emitted Hg can be transformed to neurotoxic methylmercury (MeHg). Here, we aimed (i) to study the dispersion of Hg in four reservoirs located downstream of a chlor-alkali plant along the Olt River (Romania) and (ii) to track the activity of bacterial functional genes involved in Hg methylation. Total Hg (THg) concentrations in water and sediments decreased successively from the initial reservoir to downstream reservoirs. Suspended fine size particles and seston appeared to be responsible for the transport of THg into downstream reservoirs, while macrophytes reflected the local bioavailability of Hg. The concentration and proportion of MeHg were correlated with THg, but were not correlated with bacterial activity in sediments, while the abundance of hgcA transcript correlated with organic matter and Cl(-) concentration, indicating the importance of Hg bioavailability in sediments for Hg methylation. Our data clearly highlights the importance of considering Hg contamination as a legacy pollutant since there is a high risk of continued Hg accumulation in food webs long after Hg-cell phase out.

Anaerobic Mercury Methylation and Demethylation by Geobacter bemidjiensis Bem

Microbial methylation and demethylation are two competing processes controlling the net production and bioaccumulation of neurotoxic methylmercury (MeHg) in natural ecosystems. Although mercury (Hg) methylation by anaerobic microorganisms and demethylation by aerobic Hg-resistant bacteria have both been extensively studied, little attention has been given to MeHg degradation by anaerobic bacteria, particularly the iron-reducing bacterium Geobacter bemidjiensis Bem. Here we report, for the first time, that the strain G. bemidjiensis Bem can mediate a suite of Hg transformations, including Hg(II) reduction, Hg(0) oxidation, MeHg production and degradation under anoxic conditions. Results suggest that G. bemidjiensis utilizes a reductive demethylation pathway to degrade MeHg, with elemental Hg(0) as the major reaction product, possibly due to the presence of genes encoding homologues of an organomercurial lyase (MerB) and a mercuric reductase (MerA). In addition, the cells can strongly sorb Hg(II) and MeHg, reduce or oxidize Hg, resulting in both time and concentration-dependent Hg species transformations. Moderate concentrations (10-500 μM) of Hg-binding ligands such as cysteine enhance Hg(II) methylation but inhibit MeHg degradation. These findings indicate a cycle of Hg methylation and demethylation among anaerobic bacteria, thereby influencing net MeHg production in anoxic water and sediments.

Impacts of forest harvesting on mobilization of Hg and MeHg in drained peatland forests on black schist or felsic bedrock

Forest harvesting, especially when intensified harvesting method as whole-tree harvesting with stump lifting (WTHs) are used, may increase mercury (Hg) and methylmercury (MeHg) leaching to recipient water courses. The effect can be enhanced if the underlying bedrock and overburden soil contain Hg. The impact of stem-only harvesting (SOH) and WTHs on the concentrations of Hg and MeHg as well as several other variables in the ditch water was studied using a paired catchment approach in eight drained peatland-dominated catchments in Finland (2008-2012). Four of the catchments were on felsic bedrock and four on black schist bedrock containing heavy metals. Although both Hg and MeHg concentrations increased after harvesting in all treated sites according to the randomized intervention analyses (RIAs), there was only a weak indication of a harvest-induced mobilization of Hg and MeHg into the ditches. Furthermore, no clear differences between WTHs and SOH were found, although MeHg showed a nearly significant difference (p = 0.06) between the harvesting regimes. However, there was a clear bedrock effect, since the MeHg concentrations in the ditch water were higher at catchments on black schist than at those on felsic bedrock. The pH, suspended solid matter (SSM), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and iron (Fe) concentrations increased after harvest while the sulfate (SO4-S) concentration decreased. The highest abundances of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) were found on the sites with high MeHg concentrations. The biggest changes in ditch water concentrations occurred first 2 years after harvesting.

Mercury species accumulation and trophic transfer in biological systems using the Almadén mining district (Ciudad Real, Spain) as a case of study

The impact of mercury (Hg) pollution in the terrestrial environments and the terrestrial food chains including the impact on human food consumption is still greatly under-investigated. In particular, studies including Hg speciation and detoxification strategies in terrestrial animals are almost non-existing, but these are key information with important implications for human beings. Therefore, in this work, we report on Hg species (inorganic mercury, iHg, and monomethylmercury, MeHg) distribution among terrestrial animal tissues obtained from a real-world Hg exposure scenario (Almadén mining district, Spain). Thus, we studied Hg species (iHg and MeHg) and total selenium (Se) content in liver and kidney of red deer (Cervus elaphus; n = 41) and wild boar (Sus scrofa; n = 16). Similar mercury species distribution was found for both red deer and wild boar. Major differences were found between tissues; thus, in kidney, iHg was clearly the predominant species (more than 81%), while in liver, the species distribution was less homogeneous with a percentage of MeHg up to 46% in some cases. Therefore, Hg accumulation and MeHg transfer were evident in terrestrial ecosystems. The interaction between total Se and Hg species has been evaluated by tissue and by animal species. Similar relationships were found in kidney for both Hg species in red deer and wild boar. However, in liver, there were differences between animals. The possible underlying mechanisms are discussed.

Metals and Neurodegeneration

Metals play important roles in the human body, maintaining cell structure and regulating gene expression, neurotransmission, and antioxidant response, to name a few. However, excessive metal accumulation in the nervous system may be toxic, inducing oxidative stress, disrupting mitochondrial function, and impairing the activity of numerous enzymes. Damage caused by metal accumulation may result in permanent injuries, including severe neurological disorders. Epidemiological and clinical studies have shown a strong correlation between aberrant metal exposure and a number of neurological diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, autism spectrum disorders, Guillain–Barré disease, Gulf War syndrome, Huntington’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, and Wilson’s disease. Here, we briefly survey the literature relating to the role of metals in neurodegeneration.

The effects of wildfire on mercury and stable isotopes (δ(15)N, δ(13)C) in water and biota of small boreal, acidic lakes in southern Norway

Effects of wildfire on main water chemistry and mercury (Hg) in water and biota were studied during the first 4 post-fire years. After severe water chemical conditions during hydrological events a few months following the wildfire, the major water chemical parameters were close to pre-fire conditions 4 years after the fire. Concentrations of total Hg and methyl Hg in the surface water 4 years after the fire ranged between 1.17-2.63 ng L(-1) and 0.053-0.188 ng L(-1), respectively. Both variables were positive and strongly correlated with total organic carbon (TOC), TOC-related variables (color, UV absorbance), total phosphorous, and total iron. In addition, MeHg was positively correlated with total nitrogen and chlorophyll-a. The concurrence of increased concentrations of nutrients and chlorophyll-a in the lakes, the more enriched δ(15)N-signatures and higher Hg levels in fish 2 years after the fire, might be a result of the wildfire. However, natural factors as year-to-year variations in thermocline depth and suboxic status in the lakes make it difficult to draw any strong conclusions about wildfire effects on Hg in the biota from our investigated lakes.

Autophagy in Neurodegenerative Diseases and Metal Neurotoxicity

Autophagy generally refers to cell catabolic and recycling process in which cytoplasmic components are delivered to lysosomes for degradation. During the last two decades, autophagy research has experienced a recent boom because of a newfound connection between this process and many human diseases. Autophagy plays a significant role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and protects cells from varying insults, including misfolded and aggregated proteins and damaged organelles, which is particularly crucial in neuronal survival. Mounting evidence has implicated autophagic dysfunction in the pathogenesis of several major neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and Huntington's disease, where deficient elimination of abnormal and toxic protein aggregates promotes cellular stress, failure and death. In addition, autophagy has also been found to affect neurotoxicity induced by exposure to essential metals, such as manganese, copper, and iron, and other heavy metals, such as cadmium, lead, and methylmercury. This review examines current literature on the role of autophagy in the mechanisms of disease pathogenesis amongst common neurodegenerative disorders and of metal-induced neurotoxicity.

A Nanoengineered Conductometric Device for Accurate Analysis of Elemental Mercury Vapor

We developed a novel conductometric device with nanostructured gold (Au) sensitive layer which showed high-performance for elemental mercury (Hg(0)) vapor detection under simulated conditions that resemble harsh industrial environments. That is, the Hg(0) vapor sensing performance of the developed sensor was investigated under different operating temperatures (30-130 °C) and working conditions (i.e., humid) as well as in the presence of various interfering gas species, including ammonia (NH3), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), nitric oxide (NO), carbon mono-oxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as ethylmercaptan (EM), acetaldehyde (MeCHO) and methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) among others. The results indicate that the introduction of Au nanostructures (referred to as nanospikes) on the sensor's surface enhanced the sensitivity toward Hg(0) vapor by up-to 450%. The newly developed sensor exhibited a limit of detection (LoD) (∼35 μg/m(3)), repeatability (∼94%), desorption efficiency (100%) and selectivity (∼93%) when exposed to different concentrations of Hg(0) vapor (0.5 to 9.1 mg/m(3)) and interfering gas species at a chosen operating temperature of 105 °C. Furthermore, the sensor was also found to show 91% average selectivity when exposed toward harsher industrial gases such as NO, CO, CO2, and SO2 along with same concentrations of Hg(0) vapor in similar operating conditions. In fact, this is the first time a conductometric sensor is shown to have high selectivity toward Hg(0) vapor even in the presence of H2S. Overall results indicate that the developed sensor has immense potential to be used as accurate online Hg(0) vapor monitoring technology within industrial processes.

Aerobic Mercury-resistant bacteria alter Mercury speciation and retention in the Tagus Estuary (Portugal)

Aerobic mercury-resistant bacteria were isolated from the sediments of two highly mercury-polluted areas of the Tagus Estuary (Barreiro and Cala do Norte) and one natural reserve area (Alcochete) in order to test their capacity to transform mercury. Bacterial species were identified using 16S rRNA amplification and sequencing techniques and the results indicate the prevalence of Bacillus sp. Resistance patterns to mercurial compounds were established by the determination of minimal inhibitory concentrations. Representative Hg-resistant bacteria were further tested for transformation pathways (reduction, volatilization and methylation) in cultures containing mercury chloride. Bacterial Hg-methylation was carried out by Vibrio fluvialis, Bacillus megaterium and Serratia marcescens that transformed 2-8% of total mercury into methylmercury in 48h. In addition, most of the HgR bacterial isolates showed Hg(2+)-reduction andHg(0)-volatilization resulting 6-50% mercury loss from the culture media. In summary, the results obtained under controlled laboratory conditions indicate that aerobic Hg-resistant bacteria from the Tagus Estuary significantly affect both the methylation and reduction of mercury and may have a dual face by providing a pathway for pollution dispersion while forming methylmercury, which is highly toxic for living organisms.

Influence of rice straw amendment on mercury methylation and nitrification in paddy soils

Currently, rice straw return in place of burning is becoming more intensive in China than observed previously. However, little is known on the effect of returned rice straw on mercury (Hg) methylation and microbial activity in contaminated paddy fields. Here, we conduct a microcosm experiment to evaluate the effect of rice straw amendment on the Hg methylation and potential nitrification in two paddy soils with distinct Hg levels. Our results show that amended rice straw enhanced Hg methylation for relatively high Hg content soil, but not for low Hg soil, spiking the same additional fresh Hg. methylmercury (MeHg) concentration was significantly correlated to the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) content and relative abundance of dominant microbes associated with Hg methylation. Similarly, amended rice straw was found to only enhance the potential nitrification rate in soil with relatively high Hg content. These findings provide evidence that amended rice straw differentially modulates Hg methylation and nitrification in Hg contaminated soils possibly resulting from different characteristics in the soil microbial community. This highlights that caution should be taken when returning rice straw to contaminated paddy fields, as this practice may increase the risk of more MeHg production.

MAIN FINDING

Rice straw amendment enhanced both Hg methylation and nitrification potential in the relatively high, but not low, Hg soil.

A silver electrode based surface acoustic wave (SAW) mercury vapor sensor: a physio-chemical and analytical investigation

In this study, a surface acoustic wave based Hg⁰ vapour sensor was developed where Ag IDT electrodes were employed as lone sensing elements.

Development and comparative investigation of Ag-sensitive layer based SAW and QCM sensors for mercury sensing applications

Here, we developed Ag sensitive layer-based surface acoustic wave (SAW) and quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) sensors and focused on their comparative analysis for Hg sensing applications.

An examination of the factors influencing mercury and methylmercury particulate distributions, methylation and demethylation rates in laboratory-generated marine snow

In the marine environment, settling particulates have been widely studied for their role as effective vertical transporters of nutrients and metals scavenged from the euphotic zone to the benthos. These particulates are composed of transparent exopolymers, plankton and bacterial cells, detritus and organic matter, and form various size fractions from colloids (<0.2μm) to aggregates, and finally marine snow (>300 μm). As marine snow forms in the water column, anoxic layers form around and within the aggregation potentially creating a prime environment for the methylation of mercury (Hg), which occurs primarily in low oxygen environments. To examine this process, marine aggregates were produced from sieved estuarine seawater (100 μm) in 1-L glass bottles spiked with stable isotope enriched methylmercury (CH₃¹⁹⁹Hg) and inorganic mercury (²⁰⁰Hg(II)) at 18° C using a roller-table. After the rolling period, different particle-size fractions were collected and analyzed, including: visible marine snow (>300μm), particulates 8 to 300 μm, and particulates 0.2 to 8μm. Particulate analysis indicated higher incorporation of both forms of Hg into marine snow compared to unrolled treatments, with greater incorporation of ²⁰⁰Hg(II) than CH₃¹⁹⁹Hg. In addition, inorganic Hg was methylated and CH₃Hg was demethylated in the larger particulate fractions (>8μm). Methylation and demethylation rates were assessed based on changes in isotopic composition of Hg(II) and CH₃Hg, and found to be comparable to methylation rates found in sediments. These results indicate that net Hg methylation can occur in marine snow and smaller aggregates in oxic coastal waters, and that this net formation of CH₃Hg may be an important source of CH₃Hg in both coastal and open ocean surface environments.

The Effect of Natural Organic Matter on Mercury Methylation by Desulfobulbus propionicus 1pr3

Methylation of tracer and ambient mercury ((200)Hg and (202)Hg, respectively) equilibrated with four different natural organic matter (NOM) isolates was investigated in vivo using the Hg-methylating sulfate-reducing bacterium Desulfobulbus propionicus 1pr3. Desulfobulbus cultures grown fermentatively with environmentally representative concentrations of dissolved NOM isolates, Hg[II], and HS(-) were assayed for absolute methylmercury (MeHg) concentration and conversion of Hg(II) to MeHg relative to total unfiltered Hg(II). Results showed the (200)Hg tracer was methylated more efficiently in the presence of hydrophobic NOM isolates than in the presence of transphilic NOM, or in the absence of NOM. Different NOM isolates were associated with variable methylation efficiencies for either the (202)Hg tracer or ambient (200)Hg. One hydrophobic NOM, F1 HpoA derived from dissolved organic matter from the Florida Everglades, was equilibrated for different times with Hg tracer, which resulted in different methylation rates. A 5 day equilibration with F1 HpoA resulted in more MeHg production than either the 4 h or 30 day equilibration periods, suggesting a time dependence for NOM-enhanced Hg bioavailability for methylation.

Methyl mercury concentrations in edible fish and shellfish from Dunedin, and other regions around the South Island, New Zealand

Methyl mercury (MeHg) concentrations were determined in edible fish and shellfish available in local markets in Dunedin, New Zealand. While most of the fish species were sourced in Dunedin, some specimens of fish were also collected from waters off Picton, around Stewart Island and also off-shore of the South Island in the Puysegur and Subantarctic regions. The concentrations of MeHg were analysed in 25 different fish species and shellfish (103 muscle tissue samples). Total mercury (HgT) levels were also analysed in a few (n=12) selected fish samples. Most of the Hg was in the form of MeHg (≥ 96%). Higher MeHg concentrations were found in fish at higher trophic levels, particularly in predatory fish species such as ling, school shark, spiny dogfish and albacore tuna. Concentrations of MeHg in all samples ranged from 0.002 to 2.515 μg MeHg/g.

The role of gut microbiota in fetal methylmercury exposure: Insights from a pilot study

PURPOSE

The mechanisms by which gut microbiota contribute to methylmercury metabolism remain unclear. Among a cohort of pregnant mothers, the objectives of our pilot study were to determine (1) associations between gut microbiota and mercury concentrations in biomarkers (stool, hair and cord blood) and (2) the contributions of gut microbial mercury methylation/demethylation to stool methylmercury.

METHODS

Pregnant women (36-39 weeks gestation, n=17) donated hair and stool specimens, and cord blood was collected for a subset (n=7). The diversity of gut microbiota was determined using 16S rRNA gene profiling (n=17). For 6 stool samples with highest/lowest methylmercury concentrations, metagenomic whole genome shotgun sequencing was employed to search for the mercury methylation gene (hgcA), and two mer operon genes involved in methylmercury detoxification (merA and merB).

RESULTS

Seventeen bacterial genera were significantly correlated (increasing or decreasing) with stool methylmercury, stool inorganic mercury, or hair total mercury; however, aside from one genus, there was no overlap between biomarkers. There were no definitive matches for hgcA or merB, while merA was detected at low concentrations in all six samples.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Proportional differences in stool methylmercury were not likely attributed to gut microbiota through methylation/demethylation. Gut microbiota potentially altered methylmercury metabolism using indirect pathways.

The corrinoid cofactor of reductive dehalogenases affects dechlorination rates and extents in organohalide-respiring Dehalococcoides mccartyi

Corrinoid auxotrophic organohalide-respiring Dehalococcoides mccartyi (Dhc) strains are keystone bacteria for reductive dechlorination of toxic and carcinogenic chloroorganic contaminants. We demonstrate that the lower base attached to the essential corrinoid cofactor of reductive dehalogenase (RDase) enzyme systems modulates dechlorination activity and affects the vinyl chloride (VC) RDases BvcA and VcrA differently. Amendment of 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazolyl-cobamide (DMB-Cba) to Dhc strain BAV1 and strain GT cultures supported cis-1,2-dichloroethene-to-ethene reductive dechlorination at rates of 107.0 (±12.0) μM and 67.4 (±1.4) μM Cl(-) released per day, respectively. Strain BAV1, expressing the BvcA RDase, reductively dechlorinated VC to ethene, although at up to fivefold lower rates in cultures amended with cobamides carrying 5-methylbenzimidazole (5-MeBza), 5-methoxybenzimidazole (5-OMeBza) or benzimidazole (Bza) as the lower base. In contrast, strain GT harboring the VcrA RDase failed to grow and dechlorinate VC to ethene in medium amended with 5-OMeBza-Cba or Bza-Cba. The amendment with DMB to inactive strain GT cultures restored the VC-to-ethene-dechlorinating phenotype and intracellular DMB-Cba was produced, demonstrating cobamide uptake and remodeling. The distinct responses of Dhc strains with BvcA versus VcrA RDases to different cobamides implicate that the lower base exerts control over Dhc reductive dechlorination rates and extents (that is, detoxification), and therefore the dynamics of Dhc strains with discrete reductive dechlorination capabilities. These findings emphasize that the role of the corrinoid/lower base synthesizing community must be understood to predict strain-specific Dhc activity and achieve efficacious contaminated site cleanup.

Global prevalence and distribution of genes and microorganisms involved in mercury methylation

Mercury (Hg) methylation produces the neurotoxic, highly bioaccumulative methylmercury (MeHg). The highly conserved nature of the recently identified Hg methylation genes hgcAB provides a foundation for broadly evaluating spatial and niche-specific patterns of microbial Hg methylation potential in nature. We queried hgcAB diversity and distribution in >3500 publicly available microbial metagenomes, encompassing a broad range of environments and generating a new global view of Hg methylation potential. The hgcAB genes were found in nearly all anaerobic (but not aerobic) environments, including oxygenated layers of the open ocean. Critically, hgcAB was effectively absent in ~1500 human and mammalian microbiomes, suggesting a low risk of endogenous MeHg production. New potential methylation habitats were identified, including invertebrate digestive tracts, thawing permafrost soils, coastal "dead zones," soils, sediments, and extreme environments, suggesting multiple routes for MeHg entry into food webs. Several new taxonomic groups capable of methylating Hg emerged, including lineages having no cultured representatives. Phylogenetic analysis points to an evolutionary relationship between hgcA and genes encoding corrinoid iron-sulfur proteins functioning in the ancient Wood-Ljungdahl carbon fixation pathway, suggesting that methanogenic Archaea may have been the first to perform these biotransformations.

Identification of mercury methylation product by tert-butyl compounds in aqueous solution under light irradiation

The methylation of mercury (Hg) is of great concern as methylmercury (MeHg), the most toxic species, is produced. This study examined the possibilities of tert-butyl compounds (tert-butyl alcohol (TBA) and tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBH)) and other alcohols serving as methyl donors for Hg photo-methylation under light irradiation. The yield of MeHg varied among the methyl donors, and it was also significantly influenced by salinity and pH. MeHg could be generated in the presence of TBH under visible light irradiation. The hydroxyl radical (OH) was found to promote MeHg production at low levels, but degrade MeHg in excess. The photo-production of MeHg was tentatively proposed via the complexation of Hg and methyl donors, the formation of an intermediate (O(Hg)C(CH3)3), and the intramolecular methyl transfer from methyl donors to Hg. This study implicates photoreactions between Hg and organic pollutants in understanding the fate and transformation of Hg in the aquatic environment.

Relative contributions of mercury bioavailability and microbial growth rate on net methylmercury production by anaerobic mixed cultures

Monomethylmercury (MeHg) is produced in many aquatic environments by anaerobic microorganisms that take up and methylate inorganic forms of Hg(II). Net methylation of Hg(II) appears to be correlated with factors that affect the activity of the anaerobic microbial community and factors that increase the bioavailability of Hg(II) to these organisms. However, the relative importance of one versus the other is difficult to elucidate even though this information can greatly assist remediation efforts and risk assessments. Here, we investigated the effects of Hg speciation (dissolved Hg and nanoparticulate HgS) and microbial activity on the net production of MeHg using two mixed microbial cultures that were enriched from marine sediments under sulfate reducing conditions. The cultures were amended with dissolved Hg (added as a dissolved nitrate salt) and nanoparticulate HgS, and grown under different carbon substrate concentrations. The results indicated that net mercury methylation was the highest for cultures incubated in the greatest carbon substrate concentration (60 mM) compared to incubations with less carbon (0.6 and 6 mM), regardless of the form of mercury amended. Net MeHg production in cultures exposed to HgS nanoparticles was significantly slower than in cultures exposed to dissolved Hg; however, the difference diminished with slower growing cultures with low carbon addition (0.6 mM). The net Hg methylation rate was found to correlate with sulfate reduction rate in cultures exposed to dissolved Hg, while methylation rate was roughly constant for cultures exposed to nanoparticulate HgS. These results indicated a potential threshold of microbial productivity: below this point net MeHg production was limited by microbial activity, regardless of Hg bioavailability. Above this threshold of productivity, Hg speciation became a contributing factor towards net MeHg production.

High methylmercury production under ferruginous conditions in sediments impacted by sewage treatment plant discharges

Sewage treatment plants (STPs) are important point sources of mercury (Hg) to the environment. STPs are also significant sources of iron when hydrated ferric oxide (HFO) is used as a dephosphatation agent during water purification. In this study, we combined geochemical and microbiological characterization with Hg speciation and sediment amendments to evaluate the impact of STP's effluents on monomethylmercury (MMHg) production. The highest in-situ Hg methylation was found close to the discharge pipe in subsurface sediments enriched with Hg, organic matter, and iron. There, ferruginous conditions were prevailing with high concentrations of dissolved Fe(2+) and virtually no free sulfide in the porewater. Sediment incubations demonstrated that the high MMHg production close to the discharge was controlled by low demethylation yields. Inhibition of dissimilatory sulfate reduction with molybdate led to increased iron reduction rates and Hg-methylation, suggesting that sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) may not have been the main Hg methylators under these conditions. However, Hg methylation in sediments amended with amorphous Fe(III)-oxides was only slightly higher than control conditions. Thus, in addition to iron-reducing bacteria, other non-SRB most likely contributed to Hg methylation. Overall, this study highlights that sediments impacted by STP discharges can become local hot-spots for Hg methylation due to the combined inputs of i) Hg, ii) organic matter, which fuels bacterial activities and iii) iron, which keeps porewater sulfide concentration low and hence Hg bioavailable.

Relationships between bacterial energetic metabolism, mercury methylation potential, and hgcA/hgcB gene expression in Desulfovibrio dechloroacetivorans BerOc1

The proteins encoded by the hgcA and hgcB genes are currently the only ones known to be involved in the mercury methylation by anaerobic microorganisms. However, no studies have been published to determine the relationships between their expression level and the net/gross methylmercury production. This study aimed to decipher the effect of growth conditions on methylmercury production and the relationships between hgcA and hgcB expression levels and net methylation. Desulfovibrio dechloroacetivorans strain BerOc1 was grown under sulfidogenic conditions with different carbon sources and electron donors as well as under fumarate respiration. A good correlation was found between the biomass production and the methylmercury production when the strain was grown under sulfate-reducing conditions. Methylmercury production was much higher under fumarate respiration when no sulfide was produced. During exponential growth, hgcA and hgcB gene expression levels were only slightly higher in the presence of inorganic mercury, and it was difficult to conclude whether there was a significant induction of hgcA and hgcB genes by inorganic mercury. Besides, no relationships between hgcA and hgcB expression levels and net mercury methylation could be observed when the strain was grown either under sulfate reduction or fumarate respiration, indicating that environmental factors had more influence than expression levels.

Geochemical influences and mercury methylation of a dental wastewater microbiome

The microbiome of dental clinic wastewater and its impact on mercury methylation remains largely unknown. Waste generated during dental procedures enters the sewer system and contributes a significant fraction of the total mercury (tHg) and methyl mercury (MeHg) load to wastewater treatment facilities. Investigating the influence of geochemical factors and microbiome structure is a critical step linking the methylating microorganisms in dental wastewater (DWW) ecosystems. DWW samples from a dental clinic were collected over eight weeks and analyzed for geochemical parameters, tHg, MeHg and bacterio-toxic heavy metals. We employed bacterial fingerprinting and pyrosequencing for microbiome analysis. High concentrations of tHg, MeHg and heavy metals were detected in DWW. The microbiome was dominated by Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Chloroflexi and many unclassified bacteria. Significant correlations were found between the bacterial community, Hg levels and geochemical factors including pH and the predicted total amount (not fraction) of neutral Hg-sulfide species. The most prevalent known methylators included Desulfobulbus propionicus, Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, Desulfovibrio magneticus and Geobacter sulfurreducens. This study is the first to investigate the impact of high loads of Hg, MeHg and other heavy metals on the dental clinic wastewater microbiome, and illuminates the role of many known and unknown sulfate-reducing bacteria in Hg methylation.

Mechanistic pathways of mercury removal from the organomercurial lyase active site

Bacterial populations present in Hg-rich environments have evolved biological mechanisms to detoxify methylmercury and other organometallic mercury compounds. The most common resistance mechanism relies on the H⁺-assisted cleavage of the Hg–C bond of methylmercury by the organomercurial lyase MerB. Although the initial reaction steps which lead to the loss of methane from methylmercury have already been studied experimentally and computationally, the reaction steps leading to the removal of Hg²⁺ from MerB and regeneration of the active site for a new round of catalysis have not yet been elucidated. In this paper, we have studied the final steps of the reaction catalyzed by MerB through quantum chemical computations at the combined MP2/CBS//B3PW91/6-31G(d) level of theory. While conceptually simple, these reaction steps occur in a complex potential energy surface where several distinct pathways are accessible and may operate concurrently. The only pathway which clearly emerges as forbidden in our analysis is the one arising from the sequential addition of two thiolates to the metal atom, due to the accumulation of negative charges in the active site. The addition of two thiols, in contrast, leads to two feasible mechanistic possibilities. The most straightforward pathway proceeds through proton transfer from the attacking thiol to Cys159 , leading to its removal from the mercury coordination sphere, followed by a slower attack of a second thiol, which removes Cys96. The other pathway involves Asp99 in an accessory role similar to the one observed earlier for the initial stages of the reaction and affords a lower activation enthalpy, around 14 kcal mol⁻¹, determined solely by the cysteine removal step rather than by the thiol ligation step. Addition of one thiolate to the intermediates arising from either thiol attack occurs without a barrier and produces an intermediate bound to one active site cysteine and from which Hg(SCH₃)₂ may be removed only after protonation by solvent-provided H₃O⁺. Thiolate addition to the active site (prior to any attack by thiols) leads to pathways where the removal of the first cysteine becomes the rate-determining step, irrespective of whether Cys159 or Cys96 leaves first. Comparisons with the recently computed mechanism of the related enzyme MerA further underline the important role of Asp99 in the energetics of the MerB reaction. Kinetic simulation of the mechanism derived from our computations strongly suggests that in vivo the thiolate-only pathway is operative, and the Asp-assisted pathway (as well as the conversion of intermediates of the thiolate pathway into intermediates of the Cys-assisted pathway) is prevented by steric factors absent from our model and related to the precise geometry of the organomercurial binding-pocket.

A Post-Genomic View of the Ecophysiology, Catabolism and Biotechnological Relevance of Sulphate-Reducing Prokaryotes

Dissimilatory sulphate reduction is the unifying and defining trait of sulphate-reducing prokaryotes (SRP). In their predominant habitats, sulphate-rich marine sediments, SRP have long been recognized to be major players in the carbon and sulphur cycles. Other, more recently appreciated, ecophysiological roles include activity in the deep biosphere, symbiotic relations, syntrophic associations, human microbiome/health and long-distance electron transfer. SRP include a high diversity of organisms, with large nutritional versatility and broad metabolic capacities, including anaerobic degradation of aromatic compounds and hydrocarbons. Elucidation of novel catabolic capacities as well as progress in the understanding of metabolic and regulatory networks, energy metabolism, evolutionary processes and adaptation to changing environmental conditions has greatly benefited from genomics, functional OMICS approaches and advances in genetic accessibility and biochemical studies. Important biotechnological roles of SRP range from (i) wastewater and off gas treatment, (ii) bioremediation of metals and hydrocarbons and (iii) bioelectrochemistry, to undesired impacts such as (iv) souring in oil reservoirs and other environments, and (v) corrosion of iron and concrete. Here we review recent advances in our understanding of SRPs focusing mainly on works published after 2000. The wealth of publications in this period, covering many diverse areas, is a testimony to the large environmental, biogeochemical and technological relevance of these organisms and how much the field has progressed in these years, although many important questions and applications remain to be explored.

Relationship between Extracellular Low-Molecular-Weight Thiols and Mercury Species in Natural Lake Periphytic Biofilms

The uptake of mercury by microorganisms is a key step in the production of methylmercury, a biomagnifiable toxin. Mercury complexation by low-molecular-weight (LMW) thiols can affect its bioavailability and thus the production of methylmercury. Freshwater biofilms were sampled in the summer using artificial Teflon substrates submerged for over a year to allow natural community colonization in the littoral zone of a Boreal Shield lake. Inside biofilms, concentrations of different extracellular thiol species (thioglycolic acid, l-cysteine-l-glycine, cysteine, and glutathione) were up to 3 orders of magnitude greater than in the surrounding water column, potentially more readily controlling mercury speciation than in the water column. All biofilm thiols except thioglycolic acid were highly correlated to chlorophyll a, likely indicating an algal origin. Extracellular total mercury represented 3 ± 1% of all biofilm mercury and was preferentially found in the capsular fraction. Levels of LMW thiols of presumed algal origins were highly correlated with total mercury in the mobile colloidal fraction of biofilms. We propose that periphytic phototrophic microorganisms such as algae likely affect the bioavailability of mercury through the exudation of LMW thiols, and thus they may play a key role in the production of methylmercury in biofilms.

Influence of a chlor-alkali superfund site on mercury bioaccumulation in periphyton and low-trophic level fauna

In Berlin, New Hampshire, USA, the Androscoggin River flows adjacent to a former chlor-alkali facility that is a US Environmental Protection Agency Superfund site and source of mercury (Hg) to the river. The present study was conducted to determine the fate and bioaccumulation of methylmercury (MeHg) to lower trophic-level taxa in the river. Surface sediment directly adjacent to the source showed significantly elevated MeHg (10-40× increase, mean ± standard deviation [SD]: 20.1 ± 24.8 ng g(-1) dry wt) and total mercury (THg; 10-30× increase, mean ± SD: 2045 ± 2669 ng g(-1) dry wt) compared with all other reaches, with sediment THg and MeHg from downstream reaches elevated (3-7× on average) relative to the reference (THg mean ± SD: 33.5 ± 9.33 ng g(-1) dry wt; MeHg mean ± SD: 0.52 ± 0.21 ng g(-1) dry wt). Water column THg concentrations adjacent to the point source for both particulate (0.23 ng L(-1)) and dissolved (0.76 ng L(-1)) fractions were 5-fold higher than at the reference sites, and 2-fold to 5-fold higher than downstream. Methylmercury production potential of periphyton material was highest (2-9 ng g(-1) d(-1) dry wt) adjacent to the Superfund site; other reaches were close to or below reporting limits (0. 1 ng g(-1) d(-1) dry wt). Total Hg and MeHg bioaccumulation in fauna was variable across sites and taxa, with no clear spatial patterns downstream of the contamination source. Crayfish, mayflies, and shiners showed a weak positive relationship with porewater MeHg concentration.

Chemical speciation of MeHg+ and Hg2+ in aqueous solution and HEK cells nuclei by means of DNA interacting fluorogenic probes

Selected new fluorogenic probes that interact in different ways with Hg2+ and MeHg+ have been prepared and used for the chemical speciation of both cations in aqueous solution as well as in HEK293 cells. The best selective speciation of Hg2+ and MeHg+ has been achieved by in vitro approaches based on fluorogenic probes supported in cultured cells, due to the particular sensitivity of the HEK293 cells to permeation by Hg2+, MeHg+ and the fluorogenic probes. In particular, MeHg+ was selectively detected in cell nuclei by probe JG45.

Effect of thiols, zinc, and redox conditions on Hg uptake in Shewanella oneidensis

Mercury uptake in bacteria represents a key first step in the production and accumulation of methylmercury in biota. Previous experiments with mercury methylating bacteria have shown that Hg uptake is enhanced by some thiols, in particular cysteine, and that it is an energy-dependent process through heavy metal transporters [Schaefer et al. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 3007]. In this study, we examine Hg uptake in the nonmethylating facultative aerobe, Shewanella oneidensis, under both anaerobic and aerobic conditions. Our results demonstrate similar characteristics of the Hg uptake system to those of the Hg methylating strains: (1) uptake is enhanced in the presence of some thiols but not others; (2) uptake is energy dependent as evidenced by inhibition by a protonophore, and (3) uptake is inhibited by high Zn(II) concentrations. Initial cellular uptake rates in S. oneidensis were remarkably similar under aerobic and fumarate-reducing conditions. These data support a similar Hg(II) uptake mechanism within the proteobacteria of accidental Hg(II) transport through heavy metal transporters with similar rates of uptake but differences in the ability to take up Hg bound to different thiols.

Microbial DNA records historical delivery of anthropogenic mercury

Mercury (Hg) is an anthropogenic pollutant that is toxic to wildlife and humans, but the response of remote ecosystems to globally distributed Hg is elusive. Here, we use DNA extracted from a dated sediment core to infer the response of microbes to historical Hg delivery. We observe a significant association between the mercuric reductase gene (merA) phylogeny and the timing of Hg deposition. Using relaxed molecular clock models, we show a significant increase in the scaled effective population size of the merA gene beginning ~200 years ago, coinciding with the Industrial Revolution and a coincident strong signal for positive selection acting on residues in the terminal region of the mercuric reductase. This rapid evolutionary response of microbes to changes in the delivery of anthropogenic Hg indicates that microbial genomes record ecosystem response to pollutant deposition in remote regions.

In situ remediation technologies for mercury-contaminated soil

Mercury from anthropogenic activities is a pollutant that poses significant risks to humans and the environment. In soils, mercury remediation can be technically challenging and costly, depending on the subsurface mercury distribution, the types of mercury species, and the regulatory requirements. This paper introduces the chemistry of mercury and its implications for in situ mercury remediation, which is followed by a detailed discussion of several in situ Hg remediation technologies in terms of applicability, cost, advantages, and disadvantages. The effect of Hg speciation on remediation performance, as well as Hg transformation during different remediation processes, was detailed. Thermal desorption, electrokinetic, and soil flushing/washing treatments are removal technologies that mobilize and capture insoluble Hg species, while containment, solidification/stabilization, and vitrification immobilize Hg by converting it to less soluble forms. Two emerging technologies, phytoremediation and nanotechnology, are also discussed in this review.

Dietary input of microbes and host genetic variation shape among-population differences in stickleback gut microbiota

To explain differences in gut microbial communities we must determine how processes regulating microbial community assembly (colonization, persistence) differ among hosts and affect microbiota composition. We surveyed the gut microbiota of threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) from 10 geographically clustered populations and sequenced environmental samples to track potential colonizing microbes and quantify the effects of host environment and genotype. Gut microbiota composition and diversity varied among populations. These among-population differences were associated with multiple covarying ecological variables: habitat type (lake, stream, estuary), lake geomorphology and food- (but not water-) associated microbiota. Fish genotype also covaried with gut microbiota composition; more genetically divergent populations exhibited more divergent gut microbiota. Our results suggest that population level differences in stickleback gut microbiota may depend more on internal sorting processes (host genotype) than on colonization processes (transient environmental effects).

Mercury methylation and demethylation by periphyton biofilms and their host in a fluvial wetland of the St. Lawrence River (QC, Canada)

Wetlands in large rivers are important sites of production of the neurotoxin methylmercury (MeHg), and the periphyton growing on wetland macrophytes are increasingly recognized as key players in this production and transfer in food webs. Information is lacking about mercury methylation (Km) and demethylation (Kd) rates in periphytic biofilms from the Northern Hemisphere, as well as about the drivers of net MeHg production, hampering ecosystem modeling of Hg cycling. Mercury methylation and demethylation rates were measured in periphytic biofilms growing on submerged plants in a shallow fluvial lake located in a temperate cold region (St. Lawrence River, Quebec, Canada). Incubations were performed in situ within macrophyte beds using low-level spikes of (199)HgO and Me(200)Hg stable isotopes as tracers. A direct relationship was observed between Km (0.002 to 0.137 d(-1)) and [MeHg] in periphyton. A similar relationship was found between Kd (0.096 to 0.334 d(-1)) and [inorganic Hg]. Periphyton of Lake St. Pierre reached high levels of net MeHg production that were two orders of magnitude higher than those found in local sediment. This production varied through the plant growing season and was mainly driven by environmental variables such as depth of growth, available light, dissolved oxygen, temperature, plant community structure, and productivity of the habitat.

Influence of soil mercury concentration and fraction on bioaccumulation process of inorganic mercury and methylmercury in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Recent studies showed that rice is the major pathway for methylmercury (MeHg) exposure to inhabitants in mercury (Hg) mining areas in China. There is, therefore, a concern regarding accumulation of Hg in rice grown in soils with high Hg concentrations. A soil pot experimental study was conducted to investigate the effects of Hg-contaminated soil on the growth of rice and uptake and speciation of Hg in the rice. Our results imply that the growth of rice promotes residual fraction of Hg transforming to organic-bound fraction in soil and increased the potential risks of MeHg production. Bioaccumulation factors deceased for IHg but relatively stabilized for MeHg with soil total mercury (THg) increasing. IHg in soil was the major source of Hg in the root and stalk, but leaf was contributed by Hg from both atmosphere and soil. Soluble and exchangeable Hg fraction can predict the bioavailability of IHg and MeHg in soils, and that can provide quantitative description of the rate of uptake of the bioavailable Hg. Soluble and exchangeable Hg fraction in paddy soil exceeding 0.0087 mg kg(-1) may cause THg concentration in rice grain above the permissible limit standard, and MeHg concentration in paddy soil more than 0.0091 mg kg(-1) may have the health risks to humans.

Multifactorial Origin of Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Approaches to Understanding Complex Etiologies

A significant body of evidence supports the multifactorial etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) affecting children. The present review focuses on early exposure to environmental chemicals as a risk factor for neurodevelopment, and presents the major lines of evidence derived from epidemiological studies, underlying key uncertainties and research needs in this field. We introduce the exposome concept that, encompassing the totality of human environmental exposures to multiple risk factors, aims at explaining individual vulnerability and resilience to early chemical exposure. In this framework, we synthetically review the role of variable gene backgrounds, the involvement of epigenetic mechanisms as well as the function played by potential effect modifiers such as socioeconomic status. We describe laboratory rodent studies where the neurodevelopmental effects of environmental chemicals are assessed in the presence of either a “vulnerable” gene background or adverse pregnancy conditions (i.e., maternal stress). Finally, we discuss the need for more descriptive and “lifelike” experimental models of NDDs, to identify candidate biomarkers and pinpoint susceptible groups or life stages to be translated to large prospective studies within the exposome framework.

Genomes of Geoalkalibacter ferrihydriticus Z-0531T and Geoalkalibacter subterraneus Red1T, Two Haloalkaliphilic Metal-Reducing Deltaproteobacteria

We sequenced and annotated genomes of two haloalkaliphilic Deltaproteobacteria, Geoalkalibacter ferrihydriticus Z-0531^T (DSM 17813) and Geoalkalibacter subterraneus Red1^T (DSM 23483). During assembly, we discovered that the DSMZ stock culture of G. subterraneus was contaminated. We reisolated G. subterraneus in axenic culture and redeposited it in DSMZ and JCM.

Complete Genome of Geobacter pickeringii G13T, a Metal-Reducing Isolate from Sedimentary Kaolin Deposits

We used PacBio sequencing to assemble the genome of the pristine freshwater isolate Geobacter pickeringii G13(T) into a single 3,618,700-bp circular chromosome polished to 99.999% accuracy (quality value [QV], 50). This isolate shares several features with other Geobacter spp., including genes for degradation of aromatics and an abundance of multiheme c-type cytochromes.

Mercury methylation coupled to iron reduction by dissimilatory iron-reducing bacteria

Iron reduction and mercury methylation by dissimilatory iron-reducing bacteria (DIRB), Geobacter sulfurreducens and Shewanella oneidensis, were studied, and the relationship of mercury methylation coupled to iron reduction was determined. The ability of both bacteria for reducing iron was tested, and Fe(III) reduction occurred with the highest rate when ferric oxyhydroxide was used as a terminal electron acceptor. G. sulfurreducens had proven to mediate the production of methylmercury (MeHg), and a notable increase of MeHg following the addition of inorganic Hg was observed. When the initial concentration of HgCl2 was 500nM, about 177.03nM of MeHg was determined at 8d after G. sulfurreducens inoculation. S. oneidensis was tested negligible for Hg methylation and only 12.06nM of MeHg was determined. Iron reduction could potentially influence Hg methylation rates. The increase in MeHg was consistent with high rate of iron reduction, indicating that Fe(III) reduction stimulated the formation of MeHg. Furthermore, the net MeHg concentration increased at low Fe(III) additions from 1.78 to 3.57mM, and then decreased when the added Fe(III) was high from 7.14 to 17.85mM. The mercury methylation rate was suppressed with high Fe(III) additions, which might have been attributable to mercury complexation and low availability.

Identification and prioritization of management practices to reduce methylmercury exports from wetlands and irrigated agricultural lands

The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta's (Delta) beneficial uses for humans and wildlife are impaired by elevated methylmercury (MeHg) concentrations in fish. MeHg is a neurotoxin that bioaccumulates in aquatic food webs. The total maximum daily load (TMDL) implementation plan aimed at reducing MeHg in Delta fish obligates dischargers to conduct MeHg control studies. Over 150 stakeholders collaborated to identify 24 management practices (MPs) addressing MeHg nonpoint sources (NPS) in three categories: biogeochemistry (6), hydrology (14), and soil/vegetation (4). Land uses were divided into six categories: permanently and seasonally flooded wetlands, flooded and irrigated agricultural lands, floodplains, and brackish-fresh tidal marshes. Stakeholders scored MPs based on seven criteria: scientific certainty, costs, MeHg reduction potential, spatial applicability, technical capacity to implement, negative impacts to beneficial uses, and conflicting requirements. Semi-quantitative scoring for MPs applicable to each land use (totaling >400 individual scores) led to consensus-based prioritization. This process relied on practical experience from diverse and accomplished NPS stakeholders and synthesis of 17 previous studies. Results provide a comprehensive, stakeholder-driven prioritization of MPs for wetland and irrigated agricultural land managers. Final prioritization highlights the most promising MPs for practical application and control study, and a secondary set of MPs warranting further evaluation. MPs that address hydrology and soil/vegetation were prioritized because experiences were positive and implementation appeared more feasible. MeHg control studies will need to address the TMDL conundrum that MPs effective at reducing MeHg exports could both exacerbate MeHg exposure and contend with other management objectives on site.

Site-directed mutagenesis of HgcA and HgcB reveals amino acid residues important for mercury methylation

Methylmercury is a potent neurotoxin that is produced by anaerobic microorganisms from inorganic mercury by a recently discovered pathway. A two-gene cluster, consisting of hgcA and hgcB, encodes two of the proteins essential for this activity. hgcA encodes a corrinoid protein with a strictly conserved cysteine proposed to be the ligand for cobalt in the corrinoid cofactor, whereas hgcB encodes a ferredoxin-like protein thought to be an electron donor to HgcA. Deletion of either gene eliminates mercury methylation by the methylator Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ND132. Here, site-directed mutants of HgcA and HgcB were constructed to determine amino acid residues essential for mercury methylation. Mutations of the strictly conserved residue Cys93 in HgcA, the proposed ligand for the corrinoid cobalt, to Ala or Thr completely abolished the methylation capacity, but a His substitution produced measurable methylmercury. Mutations of conserved amino acids near Cys93 had various impacts on the methylation capacity but showed that the structure of the putative "cap helix" region harboring Cys93 is crucial for methylation function. In the ferredoxin-like protein HgcB, only one of two conserved cysteines found at the C terminus was necessary for methylation, but either cysteine sufficed. An additional, strictly conserved cysteine, Cys73, was also determined to be essential for methylation. This study supports the previously predicted importance of Cys93 in HgcA for methylation of mercury and reveals additional residues in HgcA and HgcB that facilitate the production of this neurotoxin.

Identical Hg isotope mass dependent fractionation signature during methylation by sulfate-reducing bacteria in sulfate and sulfate-free environment

Inorganic mercury (iHg) methylation in aquatic environments is the first step leading to monomethylmercury (MMHg) bioaccumulation in food webs and might play a role in the Hg isotopic composition measured in sediments and organisms. Methylation by sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) under sulfate-reducing conditions is probably one of the most important sources of MMHg in natural aquatic environments, but its influence on natural Hg isotopic composition remains to be ascertained. In this context, the methylating SRB Desulfovibrio dechloracetivorans (strain BerOc1) was incubated under sulfate reducing and fumarate respiration conditions (SR and FR, respectively) to determine Hg species specific (MMHg and IHg) isotopic composition associated with methylation and demethylation kinetics. Our results clearly establish Hg isotope mass-dependent fractionation (MDF) during biotic methylation (-1.20 to +0.58‰ for δ(202)Hg), but insignificant mass-independent fractionation (MIF) (-0.12 to +0.15‰ for Δ(201)Hg). During the 24h of the time-course experiments Hg isotopic composition in the produced MMHg becomes significantly lighter than the residual IHg after 1.5h and shows similar δ(202)Hg values under both FR and SR conditions at the end of the experiments. This suggests a unique pathway responsible for the MDF of Hg isotopes during methylation by this strain regardless the metabolism of the cells. After 9 h of experiment, significant simultaneous demethylation is occurring in the culture and demethylates preferentially the lighter Hg isotopes of MMHg. Therefore, depending on their methylation/demethylation capacities, SRB communities in natural sulfate reducing conditions likely have a significant and specific influence on the Hg isotope composition of MMHg (MDF) in sediments and aquatic organisms.