Plant science: the key to preventing slow cadmium poisoning

The Challenges and Solutions for Cadmium-contaminated Rice in China: A Critical Review

The wide occurrence of Cd-contaminated rice in southern China poses significant public health risk and deserves immediate action, which arises primarily from extensive metal (including Cd) contamination of paddies with the fast expansion of nonferrous metal mining and smelting activities. Accumulation of Cd in rice grains can be reduced by removing Cd from the contaminated paddy soils, reducing its bioavailability, and controlling its uptake by rice plants. Although a range of measures can be taken to rehabilitate Cd-contaminated lands, including soil replacement and turnover, chemical washing, and phytoremediation, they are either too expensive and/or too slow. Various amendment materials, including lime, animal manures, and biochar, can be used to immobilize Cd in soils, but such fixation approach can only temporarily reduce Cd availability to rice uptake. Cultivation of alternative crops with low Cd accumulation in edible plant parts is impractical on large scales due to extensive contamination and food security concerns in southern China. Transgenic techniques can help develop rice cultivars with low Cd accumulation in grains, but little public acceptance is expected for such products. As an alternative, selection and development of low-Cd rice varieties and hybrids through plant biotechnology and breeding, particularly, by integration of marker-assisted selection (MAS) with traditional breeding, could be a practical and acceptable option that would allow continued rice production in soils with high bioavailability of Cd. Plant biotechnology and breeding can also help develop Cd-hyperaccumulating rice varieties, which can greatly facilitate phytoremediation of contaminated paddies. To eliminate the long-term risk of Cd entering the food chain, soils contaminated by Cd should be cleaned up when cost-effective remediation measures are available.

Identification of Key Proteins and Networks Related to Grain Development in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) by Comparative Transcription and Proteomic Analysis of Allelic Variants in TaGW2-6A

In wheat, coding region allelic variants of TaGW2-6A are closely associated with grain width and weight, but the genetic mechanisms involved remain unclear. Thus, to obtain insights into the key functions regulated by TaGW2-6A during wheat grain development, we performed transcriptional and proteomic analyses of TaGW2-6A allelic variants. The transcription results showed that the TaGW2-6A allelic variants differed significantly by several orders of magnitude. Each allelic variant of TaGW2-6A reached its first transcription peak at 6 days after anthesis (DAA), but the insertion type TaGW2-6A allelic variant reached its second peak earlier than the normal type, i.e., at 12 DAA rather than 20 DAA. In total, we identified 228 differentially accumulated protein spots representing 138 unique proteins by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and tandem MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS in these three stages. Based on the results, we found some key proteins that are closely related to wheat grain development. The results of this analysis improve our understanding of the genetic mechanisms related to TaGW2-6A during wheat grain development as well as providing insights into the biological processes involved in seed formation.

A SAL1 Loss-of-Function Arabidopsis Mutant Exhibits Enhanced Cadmium Tolerance in Association with Alleviation of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

SAL1, as a negative regulator of stress response signaling, has been studied extensively for its role in plant response to environmental stresses. However, the role of SAL1 in cadmium (Cd) stress response and the underlying mechanism is still unclear. Using an Arabidopsis thaliana loss-of-function mutant of SAL1, we assessed Cd resistance and further explored the Cd toxicity mechanism through analysis of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response. The loss of SAL1 function greatly improved Cd tolerance and significantly attenuated ER stress in Arabidopsis. Exposure to Cd induced an ER stress response in Arabidopsis as evidenced by unconventional splicing of AtbZIP60 and up-regulation of ER stress-responsive genes. Damage caused by Cd was markedly reduced in the ER stress response double mutant bzip28 bzip60 or by application of the ER stress-alleviating chemical agents, tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) and 4-phenyl butyric acid (4-PBA), in wild-type plants. The Cd-induced ER stress in Arabidopsis was also alleviated by loss of function of SAL1. These results identified SAL1 as a new component mediating Cd toxicity and established the role of the ER stress response in Cd toxicity. Additionally, the attenuated ER stress in the sal1 mutant might also shed new light on the mechanism of diverse abiotic stress resistance in the SAL1 loss-of-function mutants.

Determination the Usefulness of AhHMA4p1::AhHMA4 Expression in Biofortification Strategies

AhHMA4 from Arabidopsis thaliana encodes Zn/Cd export protein that controls Zn/Cd translocation to shoots. The focus of this manuscript is the evaluation of AhHMA4 expression in tomato for mineral biofortification (more Zn and less Cd in shoots and fruits). Hydroponic and soil-based experiments were performed. Transgenic and wild-type plants were grown on two dilution levels of Knop's medium (1/10, 1/2) with or without Cd, to determine if mineral composition affects the pattern of root/shoot partitioning of both metals due to AhHMA4 expression. Facilitation of Zn translocation to shoots of 19-day-old transgenic tomato was noted only when plants were grown in the more diluted medium. Moreover, the expression pattern of Zn-Cd-Fe cross-homeostasis genes (LeIRT1, LeChln, LeNRAMP1) was changed in transgenics in a medium composition-dependent fashion. In plants grown in soil (with/without Cd) up to maturity, expression of AhHMA4 resulted in more efficient translocation of Zn to shoots and restriction of Cd. These results indicate the usefulness of AhHMA4 expression to improve the growth of tomato on low-Zn soil, also contaminated with Cd.

Genome-wide characterization of soybean P 1B -ATPases gene family provides functional implications in cadmium responses

BACKGROUND

The P1B-ATPase subfamily is an important group involved in transporting heavy metals and has been extensively studied in model plants, such as Arabidopsis thaliana and Oryza sativa. Emerging evidence indicates that one homolog in Glycine max is also involved in cadmium (Cd) stress, but the gene family has not been fully investigated in soybean.

RESULTS

Here, we identified 20 heavy metal ATPase (HMA) family members in the soybean genome, presented as 10 paralogous pairs, which is significantly greater than the number in Arabidopsis or rice, and was likely caused by the latest whole genome duplication event in soybean. A phylogenetic analysis divided the 20 members into six groups, each having conserved or divergent gene structures and protein motif patterns. The integration of RNA-sequencing and qRT-PCR data from multiple tissues provided an overall expression pattern for the HMA family in soybean. Further comparisons of expression patterns and the single nucleotide polymorphism distribution between paralogous pairs suggested functional conservation and the divergence of HMA genes during soybean evolution. Finally, analyses of the HMAs expressed in response to Cd stress provided evidence on how plants manage Cd tolerance, at least in the two contrasting soybean genotypes examined.

CONCLUSIONS

The genome-wide identification, chromosomal distribution, gene structures, and evolutionary and expression analyses of the 20 HMA genes in soybean provide an overall insight into their potential involvement in Cd responses. These results will facilitate further research on the HMA gene family, and their conserved and divergent biological functions in soybean.

Combined effects of elevated CO2 and Cd-contaminated water on growth, photosynthetic response, Cd accumulation and thiolic components status in Lemna minor L

The objective of this study was to investigate the combined effects of elevated CO2 and cadmium (Cd) treatments on growth, photosynthetic efficiency and phytoremediation ability in Lemna minor L. Plants of L. minor were exposed to different Cd concentrations (0, 1.5, 2.5 and 5 mg L(-1) Cd) for periods of 24, 48 and 72 h at ambient (AC) and at elevated (EC) CO2 (350 and 700 ppm, respectively). Cadmium concentration, bioconcentration factor, enzyme activities and thiols content enhanced in plants with the increase of Cd treatments, time of exposure and at both CO2 levels. Glutathione levels increased only at AC. Growth, photosynthetic and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, and the reduced glutathione to oxidized glutathione ratio declined in plants with increasing exposure time, Cd treatments and at both CO2 levels. Our results suggested that the alleviation of toxicity, at low Cd doses, observed in L. minor grown at EC is dependent on both increased photosynthesis and an enhanced antioxidant capacity.

Silicon-induced reversibility of cadmium toxicity in rice

Silicon (Si) modulates tolerance to abiotic stresses, but little is known about the reversibility of stress effects by supplementing previously stressed plants with Si. This is surprising since recovery experiments might allow mechanisms of Si-mediated amelioration to be addressed. Rice was exposed to 10 µM CdCl2 for 4 d in hydroponics, followed by 0.6mM Si(OH)4 supplementation for 4 d. Si reversed the effects of Cd, as reflected in plant growth, photosynthesis, elemental composition, and some biochemical parameters. Cd-dependent deregulation of nutrient homeostasis was partially reversed by Si supply. Photosynthetic recovery within 48h following Si supply, coupled with strong stimulation of the ascorbate-glutathione system, indicates efficient activation of defense. The response was further verified by transcript analyses with emphasis on genes encoding members of the stress-associated protein (SAP) family. The transcriptional response to Cd was mostly reversed following Si supply. Reprogramming of the Cd response was obvious for Phytochelatin synthase 1, SAP1 , SAP14, and the transcription factor genes AP2/Erf020, Hsf31, and NAC6 whose transcript levels were strongly activated in roots of Cd-stressed rice, but down-regulated in the presence of Si. These findings, together with changes in biochemical parameters, highlight the significance of Si in growth recovery of Cd-stressed rice and indicate a decisive role for readjusting cell redox homeostasis.

Urinary cadmium and estimated dietary cadmium in the Women's Health Initiative

Cadmium, a heavy metal dispersed in the environment as a result of industrial and agricultural applications, has been implicated in several human diseases including renal disease, cancers, and compromised bone health. In the general population, the predominant sources of cadmium exposure are tobacco and diet. Urinary cadmium (uCd) reflects long-term exposure and has been frequently used to assess cadmium exposure in epidemiological studies; estimated dietary intake of cadmium (dCd) has also been used in several studies. The validity of dCd in comparison with uCd is unclear. This study aimed to compare dCd, estimated from food frequency questionnaires, to uCd measured in spot urine samples from 1,002 participants of the Women's Health Initiative. Using linear regression, we found that dCd was not statistically significantly associated with uCd (β=0.006, P-value=0.14). When stratified by smoking status, dCd was not significantly associated with uCd both in never smokers (β=0.006, P-value=0.09) and in ever smokers (β=0.003, P-value=0.67). Our results suggest that because of the lack of association between estimated dCd and measured uCd, dietary estimation of cadmium exposure should be used with caution in epidemiologic studies.

Toxic Heavy Metal and Metalloid Accumulation in Crop Plants and Foods

Arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury are toxic elements that are almost ubiquitously present at low levels in the environment because of anthropogenic influences. Dietary intake of plant-derived food represents a major fraction of potentially health-threatening human exposure, especially to arsenic and cadmium. In the interest of better food safety, it is important to reduce toxic element accumulation in crops. A molecular understanding of the pathways responsible for this accumulation can enable the development of crop varieties with strongly reduced concentrations of toxic elements in their edible parts. Such understanding is rapidly progressing for arsenic and cadmium but is in its infancy for lead and mercury. Basic discoveries have been made in Arabidopsis, rice, and other models, and most advances in crops have been made in rice. Proteins mediating the uptake of arsenic and cadmium have been identified, and the speciation and biotransformations of arsenic are now understood. Factors controlling the efficiency of root-to-shoot translocation and the partitioning of toxic elements through the rice node have also been identified.

Quantitative Trait Loci and Inter-Organ Partitioning for Essential Metal and Toxic Analogue Accumulation in Barley

The concentrations of both essential nutrients and chemically similar toxic analogues accumulated in cereal grains have a major impact on the nutritional quality and safety of crops. Naturally occurring genetic diversity can be exploited for the breeding of improved varieties through introgression lines (ILs). In this study, multi-element analysis was conducted on vegetative leaves, senesced flag leaves and mature grains of a set of 54 ILs of the wild ancestral Hordeum vulgare ssp. spontaneum in the cultivated variety Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare cv. Scarlett. Plants were cultivated on an anthropogenically heavy metal-contaminated soil collected in an agricultural field, thus allowing simultaneous localization of quantitative trait loci (QTL) for the accumulation of both essential nutrients and toxic trace elements in barley as a model cereal crop. For accumulation of the micronutrients Fe and Zn and the interfering toxin Cd, we identified 25, 16 and 5 QTL, respectively. By examining the gene content of the introgressions, we associated QTL with candidate genes based on homology to known metal homeostasis genes of Arabidopsis and rice. Global comparative analyses suggested the preferential remobilization of Cu and Fe, over Cd, from the flag leaf to developing grains. Our data identifies grain micronutrient filling as a regulated and nutrient-specific process, which operates differently from vegetative micronutrient homoeostasis. In summary, this study provides novel QTL for micronutrient accumulation in the presence of toxic analogues and supports a higher degree of metal specificity of trace element partitioning during grain filling in barley than previously reported for other cereals.

Reactions to cadmium stress in a cadmium-tolerant variety of cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.): is cadmium tolerance necessarily desirable in food crops?

Cadmium is a cumulative, chronic toxicant in humans for which the main exposure pathway is via plant foods. Cadmium-tolerant plants may be used to create healthier food products, provided that the tolerance is associated with the exclusion of Cd from the edible portion of the plant. An earlier study identified the cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.) variety, Pluto, as relatively Cd tolerant. We exposed the roots of intact, 4-week-old seedlings of Pluto to Cd (control ∼1 mg L(-1) treatment 500 μg L(-1)) for 4 weeks in flowing nutrient solutions and observed plant responses. Exposure began when leaf 3 started to emerge, plants were harvested after 4 weeks of Cd exposure and the high Cd treatment affected all measured parameters. The elongation rate of leaves 4-8, but not the duration of elongation was reduced; consequently, individual leaf area was also reduced (P < 0.001) and total leaf area and dry weight were approximately halved. A/C i curves immediately before harvest showed that Cd depressed the photosynthetic capacity of the last fully expanded leaf (leaf 5). Despite such large impairments of the source and sink capacities, specific leaf weight and the partitioning of photosynthate between roots, stems and leaves were unaffected (P > 0.1). Phytochelatins (PCs) and glutathione (GSH) were present in the roots even at the lowest Cd concentration in the nutrient medium, i.e. ∼1 μg Cd L(-1), which would not be considered contaminated if it were a soil solution. The Cd concentration in these roots was unexpectedly high (5 mg kg(-1) DW) and the molar ratio of -SH (in PCs plus GSH) to Cd was large (>100:1). In these control plants, the Cd concentration in the leaves was 1.1 mg kg(-1) DW, and PCs were undetectable. For the high Cd treatment, the concentration of Cd in roots exceeded 680 mg kg(-1) DW and the molar -SH to Cd ratio fell to ∼1.5:1. For these plants, Cd flooded into the leaves (107 mg kg(-1) DW) where it probably induced synthesis of PCs, and the molar -SH to Cd ratio was ∼3:1. Nonetheless, this was insufficient to sequester all the Cd, as evidenced by the toxic effects on photosynthesis and growth noted above. Lastly, Cd accumulation in the leaves was associated with lowered concentrations of some trace elements, such as Zn, a combination of traits that is highly undesirable in food plants.

Unraveling the role of dark septate endophyte (DSE) colonizing maize (Zea mays) under cadmium stress: physiological, cytological and genic aspects

A growing body of evidence suggests that plant root-associated fungi such as dark septate endophytes (DSE) can help plants overcome many biotic and abiotic stresses, of great interest is DSE-plant metal tolerance and alleviation capabilities on contaminated soils. However, the tolerance and alleviation mechanisms involved have not yet been elucidated. In the current study, the regulation and physiological response of Zea mays to its root-associated DSE, Exophiala pisciphila was analyzed under increased soil Cd stress (0, 10, 50, 100 mg kg⁻¹). Under Cd stress, DSE inoculation significantly enhanced the activities of antioxidant enzymes and low-molecular weight antioxidants, while also inducing increased Cd accumulation in the cell wall and conversion of Cd into inactive forms by shoot and root specific regulation of genes related to metal uptake, translocation and chelation. Our results showed that DSE colonization resulted in a marked tolerance to Cd, with a significant decrease in cadmium phytotoxicity and a significant increase in maize growth by triggering antioxidant systems, altering metal chemical forms into inactive Cd, and repartitioning subcellular Cd into the cell wall. These results provide comprehensive evidence for the mechanisms by which DSE colonization bioaugments Cd tolerance in maize at physiological, cytological and molecular levels.

Role of transpiration and metabolism in translocation and accumulation of cadmium in tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum L.)

Tobacco plants grown in pots and in hydroponic culture accumulated cadmium (Cd) particularly: the Cd content of tobacco leaves exceeded 100 mg/kg and the enrichment factor (the ratio of Cd in leaves to that in soil) was more than 4. These high levels of accumulation identify tobacco as a hyperaccumulator of Cd. Two transpiration inhibitors (paraffin or CaCl2) and shade decreased the Cd content of tobacco leaves, and the decrease showed a linear relationship with the leaf transpiration rate. A metabolism inhibitor, namely 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP), and low temperature (4 °C) also lowered the Cd content of tobacco leaves, but the inhibitory effect of low temperature was greater. In the half number of leaves that were shaded, the Cd content decreased to 26.5% of that in leaves that were not shaded in the same tobacco plants. These results suggests that translocation of Cd from the medium to the leaves is driven by the symplastic and the apoplastic pathways. Probably, of the two crucial steps in the translocation of Cd in tobacco plants, one, namely uptake from the medium to the xylem, is energy-dependent whereas the other, namely the transfer from the xylem to the leaves, is driven mainly by transpiration.

Accumulation of Cd, Cu and Zn in shoots of maize (Zea mays L.) exposed to 0.8 or 20 nM Cd during vegetative growth and the relation with xylem sap composition

This work focuses on the exposure of maize plants to nanomolar concentrations of Cd, which is relevant for agricultural soils cropped with food and feed plants. Maize plants were cultivated in nutrient solution at 0.8 or 20 nM Cd during the vegetative growth stages. No significant hormesis or toxic effects of Cd were observed on maize growth, but a decrease in the allocation of Cd to shoots between the 0.8 and 20 nM Cd exposures revealed that the plants already responded to these low concentrations of Cd according to a shoot Cd excluder strategy. The Cd, Cu and Zn concentrations in shoots decreased with time as the result of an early decrease in the root/shoot ratio and of a decrease in the coefficient of allocation to aboveground for Zn and Cd at 20 nM. As a consequence, shoots of young plants were richer in micronutrients Cu and Zn but also in toxic Cd. The rate of delivery of Cd, Cu and Zn from xylem sap was successfully used to predict the time course of concentrations of Cd, Cu and Zn in the shoot. However, it overestimated the actual concentrations of Cd in the shoot, presumably because the reallocation of this trace element from shoots back to roots was not taken into account.

Mitigation of cadmium and arsenic in rice grain by applying different silicon fertilizers in contaminated fields

A field experiment was established to support the hypothesis that application of different silicon (Si) fertilizers can simultaneously reduce cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) concentration in rice grain. The "semi-finished product of Si-potash fertilizer" treatment at the high application of 9000 kg/ha (NP+S-KSi9000) significantly reduced the As concentration in rice grain by up to 20.1%, compared with the control. Si fertilization reduces the Cd concentration in rice considerably more than the As concentration. All Si fertilizers apart from sodium metasilicate (Na2SiO3) exhibited a high ability to reduce Cd concentration in rice grain. The Si-calcium (CaSi) fertilizer is the most effective in the mitigation of Cd concentration in rice grain. The CaSi fertilizer applied at 9000 kg/ha (NPK+CaSi9000) and 900 kg/ha (NPK+CaSi900) reduced the Cd concentration in rice grain about 71.5 and 48.0%, respectively, while the Si-potash fertilizer at 900 kg/ha (NP+KSi900), the semi-finished product of Si-potash fertilizer at both 900 kg/ha (NP+S-KSi900) and 9000 kg/ha (NP+S-KSi9000), and the rice straw (NPK+RS) treatments reduced the Cd concentration in rice grain about 42, 26.5, 40.7, and 23.1%, respectively. The results of this investigation demonstrated the potential effects of Si fertilizers in reducing Cd and As concentrations in rice grain.

Characterization of long non-coding RNAs involved in cadmium toxic response in Brassica napus

There is increasing evidence of long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) involvement in a variety of biological responses to environmental stresses.

RNA-Seq Analysis of Rice Roots Reveals the Involvement of Post-Transcriptional Regulation in Response to Cadmium Stress

Widely-spread cadmium (Cd) pollution in the soil threatens both crop production and human health. How plants deal with the excess Cd are largely unknown. To evaluate the molecular mechanism by which plants respond to Cd stress, rice seedlings were treated with two concentrations of Cd and subjected to deep RNA sequencing. Comprehensive RNA-Seq analysis of rice roots under two gradients of Cd treatment revealed 1169 Cd toxicity-responsive genes. These genes were involved in the reactive oxygen species scavenging system, stress response, cell wall formation, ion transport, and signal transduction. Nine out of 93 predicted long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) were detected as Cd-responsive lncRNAs due to their high correlation with the Cd stress response. In addition, we analyzed alternative splicing (AS) events under different Cd concentrations. Four hundred and seventy-six differential alternatively spliced genes with 542 aberrant splicing events were identified. GO analysis indicated that these genes were highly enriched in oxidation reduction and cellular response to chemical stimulus. Real-time qRT-PCR validation analysis strengthened the reliability of our RNA-Seq results. The results suggest that post-transcriptional AS regulation may also be involved in plant responses to high Cd stress.

Protective effect of dietary chitosan on cadmium accumulation in rats

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Cadmium is a toxic metal that is an occupational and environmental concern especially because of its human carcinogenicity; it induces serious adverse effects in various organs and tissues. Even low levels of exposure to cadmium could be harmful owing to its extremely long half-life in the body. Cadmium intoxication may be prevented by the consumption of dietary components that potentially reduce its accumulation in the body. Dietary chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from animal sources; it has been known for its ability to bind to divalent cations including cadmium, in addition to other beneficial effects including hypocholesterolemic and anticancer effects. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the role of dietary chitosan in reducing cadmium accumulation using an in vivo system.

MATERIALS/METHODS

Cadmium was administered orally at 2 mg (three times per week) to three groups of Sprague-Dawley rats: control, low-dose, and high-dose (0, 3, and 5%, respectively) chitosan diet groups for eight weeks. Cadmium accumulation, as well as tissue functional and histological changes, was determined.

RESULTS

Compared to the control group, rats fed the chitosan diet showed significantly lower levels of cadmium in blood and tissues including the kidneys, liver, and femur. Biochemical analysis of liver function including the determination of aspartate aminotransferase and total bilirubin levels showed that dietary chitosan reduced hepatic tissue damage caused by cadmium intoxication and prevented the associated bone disorder.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that dietary chitosan has the potential to reduce cadmium accumulation in the body as well as protect liver function and bone health against cadmium intoxication.

Cadmium and zinc partitioning and accumulation during grain filling in two near isogenic lines of durum wheat

Plants can readily accumulate cadmium (Cd), transferring this element to edible leaves, fruits, and seeds. Rice and wheat are among the top crop sources of Cd. Toxic heavy metals like Cd have chemical properties similar to essential micronutrients such as zinc (Zn) and are generally transported in plants by the same transporters as those essential micronutrients. Unfortunately our knowledge of Cd translocation and accumulation in seeds is still unclear. We conducted a partitioning study to assess both the whole plant Cd distribution and accumulation and potential source-sink remobilization during grain filling period in two near-isogenic lines of durum wheat that differ in root to shoot translocation and grain Cd content. We also assessed the role of Zn fertilization in Cd translocation and accumulation in the grains. There was no remobilization of Cd in both lines during grain filling. Although majority of Cd partitioned to the roots in both lines, root to shoot translocation of Cd differed in both lines. In contrast, there were no significant differences in Zn partitioning between the lines and remobilization was observed in different tissues. Although there was some remobilization of Zn, the main source of Cd and Zn is continued uptake and translocation to sources during grain fill.

Cadmium and lead in vegetable and fruit produce selected from specific regional areas of the UK

Cadmium and lead were determined in fruit and vegetable produce (~1300 samples) collected from a field and market basket study of locally grown produce from the South-West of Britain (Devon and Cornwall). These were compared with similarly locally grown produce from the North-East of Britain (Aberdeenshire). The concentrations of cadmium and lead in the market basket produce were compared to the maximum levels (ML) set by the European Union (EU). For cadmium 0.2% of the samples exceeded the ML, and 0.6% of the samples exceeded the ML for lead. The location of cadmium and lead in potatoes was performed using laser ablation ICP-MS. All tested samples exhibited higher lead concentrations, and most exhibited increased concentrations of cadmium in the potato skin compared to the flesh. The concentrations of cadmium and lead found in fruits and vegetables sampled during this study do not increase concern about risk to human health.

Organization of the Mammalian Ionome According to Organ Origin, Lineage Specialization, and Longevity

Trace elements are essential to all mammals, but their distribution and utilization across species and organs remains unclear. Here, we examined 18 elements in the brain, heart, kidney, and liver of 26 mammalian species and report the elemental composition of these organs, the patterns of utilization across the species, and their correlation with body mass and longevity. Across the organs, we observed distinct distribution patterns for abundant elements, transition metals, and toxic elements. Some elements showed lineage-specific patterns, including reduced selenium utilization in African mole rats, and positive correlation between the number of selenocysteine residues in selenoprotein P and the selenium levels in liver and kidney across mammals. Body mass was linked positively to zinc levels, whereas species lifespan correlated positively with cadmium and negatively with selenium. This study provides insights into the variation of mammalian ionome by organ physiology, lineage specialization, body mass, and longevity.

Overexpression of the iron transporter NtPIC1 in tobacco mediates tolerance to cadmium

KEY MESSAGE

Overexpression of the iron transporter NtPIC1 increases iron concentration in shoots and reduces Cd uptake/accumulation in plants, mediating tolerance to cadmium. Cadmium (Cd) is toxic to plant cells and causes plants to display a typical iron (Fe) deficiency phenotype. NtPIC1 (Permease In Chloroplast1) is an Fe transporter protein in tobacco, required for Fe homeostasis. Based on preliminary results in transformed Saccharomyces cerevisiae BY4741 cells, which showed that NtPIC1 expression increased Cd tolerance, this study evaluated Cd tolerance in tobacco plants overexpressing NtPIC1 (NtPIC1-OE). We show that these plants have longer roots and higher fresh weights than wild-type (WT) plants after Cd exposure. Under Cd stress, WT plants display more chlorosis, stronger growth inhibition, and lower chlorophyll concentrations than NtPIC1-OE plants. Importantly, NtPIC1-OE plants had higher Fe concentrations in shoots and lower Fe concentrations in roots, and Cd concentrations in NtPIC1-OE plants were significantly lower compared to those in WT plants. Moreover, Fe transport-related genes (NtPIC1, NtNRAMP1, and NtFER1) were upregulated in NtPIC1-OE plants, while Fe deficiency-related genes (NtFRO1, NtIRT1, and NtZIP1) that mediate Cd uptake were downregulated. We also found that the activities of several antioxidative enzymes were significantly higher in NtPIC1-OE plants than in WT plants under Cd stress. Overall, our results demonstrate that overexpression of NtPIC1 is an efficient way to increase shoot Fe concentrations and reduce Cd uptake/accumulation in plants.

Genome-wide association mapping of cadmium accumulation in different organs of barley

The threshold value of cadmium (Cd) concentration in grains of barley (Hordeum vulgare) is the lowest among cereal crops; however, it is poorly understood how Cd accumulation in barley grain is genetically controlled. We investigated genotypic variation in Cd accumulation of different organs in 100 accessions from a subset of the barley core collection using both hydroponic and Cd-contaminated soil culture. We also performed a genome-wide association (GWA) mapping for Cd accumulation in different organs. A large genotypic variation in the Cd concentration was found in all organs. There was a good correlation between shoot Cd of solution and soil culture, the shoot Cd and grain Cd, but no correlation between the root Cd and grain Cd. GWA mapping detected 9 quantitative trait loci (QTL) for root Cd, 21 for shoot Cd, 14 for root-to-shoot translocation and 15 for grain Cd. A common QTL for the shoot Cd and root-to-shoot translocation was found at 132.6 cM on chromosome 5H. Two major QTL for grain Cd were identified on chromosome 2H and chromosome 5H. The genetic variation in Cd accumulation and major QTL detected provide useful information helpful for cloning candidate genes for Cd accumulation and breeding low-Cd barley cultivars in future.

Isolation and characterization of three cadmium-inducible promoters from Oryza sativa

Cadmium (Cd) is an important soil pollutant. Developing genetically engineered crops might be a feasible strategy for Cd decontamination and damage prevention. Both genes and promoters are critical for the effective construction of genetically modified plants. Although many functional genes for Cd tolerance and accumulation have been identified, few reports have focused on plant Cd-inducible promoters. Here, we identified three Cd-inducible genes in the rice genome: two tau class glutathione S-transferase (GSTU) genes, OsGSTU5 and OsGSTU37, and an HSP20/alpha crystallin family protein gene, OsHSP18.6. The promoter sequences were isolated and tested in transgenic rice lines using a GUSplus reporter gene. All of the promoters exhibited low background expression under normal conditions and could be strongly induced by Cd stress. Although their strength was comparable to that of the constitutive OsACTIN promoter under Cd stress, their time-dependent expression patterns under both short- and long-term Cd exposure were markedly different. The responses of the three promoters to other heavy metals were also examined. Furthermore, heavy metal-responsive cis elements in the promoters were computationally analyzed, and regions determining the Cd stress response were analyzed using a series of truncations. Our results indicate that the three Cd-inducible rice promoters described herein could potentially be used in applications aimed at improving heavy metal tolerance in crops or for the bio-monitoring of environmental contamination.

The N-terminal degenerated metal-binding domain is involved in the heavy metal transport activity of TaHMA2

We identified key residues of TaHMA2, and the N- and C-terminal regions of the protein have different roles in its transport function when heterologously expressed in yeast. TaHMA2, a P1B-type ATPase from wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), plays an important role in heavy metal homeostasis in plants. A previous study showed that overexpressing TaHMA2 in rice (Oryza sativa L.), Arabidopsis thaliana, or tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) resulted in various responses to heavy metals. Here, we report the heterologous expression of TaHMA2 in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. TaHMA2 expression increased the yeast's sensitivity to Cd, but not to Zn, Pb or Co, and increased Cd accumulation was concurrently observed. The eGFP-TaHMA2 fusion protein was localized to the plasma membrane and showed a discontinuous pattern. Mutagenesis of the cysteine and glutamate residues in the N-terminal metal-binding domain (N-MBD) impaired the function of TaHMA2. Deletion of most of the C terminus (TaHMA2ΔC, 712-1003) partially abolished the protein's function, whereas deletion of the N terminus (TaHMA2ΔN, 2-699) completely abolished Cd sensitivity. These data suggest that cysteine and glutamate residues are important for the metal-binding/translocation function of TaHMA2. Additional studies are needed to further understand the selectivity of TaHMA2 in planta.

Suppression of cadmium concentration in wheat grains by silicon is related to its application rate and cadmium accumulating abilities of cultivars

BACKGROUND

Cadmium concentration in food grains could be minimised through application of beneficial plant nutrients such as silicon. Therefore, the impact of silicon application on immobilisation of Cd in soil and its concentration in low and high shoot-Cd (LSCd and HSCd, respectively) cultivars of wheat were evaluated in a pot experiment. Selected LSCd cultivars (Iqbal-2000 and Lasani-2008) and HSCd cultivars (Inqlab-91 and Sehar-2006) were grown on artificially Cd contaminated soil at 10 mg Cd kg(-1) . Three levels of Si (50, 100 and 150 mg kg(-1) soil), applied as calcium silicate (CaSiO3 ), were tested.

RESULTS

None of the wheat cultivars showed any symptoms of toxicity or growth retardation against applied Cd stress. Silicon applied to Cd-treated plants did not improve root and shoot dry matter; however, it increased grain yield significantly at the highest rate of application (150 mg kg(-1) soil). Similarly, Si application at 150 mg kg(-1) decreased plant available soil Cd without affecting soil pH. Silicon application not only caused a linear decrease in Cd contents of shoots and grains but also decreased its translocation from roots to shoots and grains. Decrease in shoot Cd concentration was higher in HSCd than LSCd cultivars whereas the reverse was true for Cd concentration in grains.

CONCLUSION

Si addition decreased Cd concentration in wheat cultivars by causing a decrease in both plant-available soil Cd and its translocation from roots to shoots. Application of Si at 150 mg kg(-1) proved to be an effective level of Si that could significantly lower Cd concentration in wheat grains.

Route and Regulation of Zinc, Cadmium, and Iron Transport in Rice Plants (Oryza sativa L.) during Vegetative Growth and Grain Filling: Metal Transporters, Metal Speciation, Grain Cd Reduction and Zn and Fe Biofortification

Zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) are essential but are sometimes deficient in humans, while cadmium (Cd) is toxic if it accumulates in the liver and kidneys at high levels. All three are contained in the grains of rice, a staple cereal. Zn and Fe concentrations in rice grains harvested under different levels of soil/hydroponic metals are known to change only within a small range, while Cd concentrations show greater changes. To clarify the mechanisms underlying such different metal contents, we synthesized information on the routes of metal transport and accumulation in rice plants by examining metal speciation, metal transporters, and the xylem-to-phloem transport system. At grain-filling, Zn and Cd ascending in xylem sap are transferred to the phloem by the xylem-to-phloem transport system operating at stem nodes. Grain Fe is largely derived from the leaves by remobilization. Zn and Fe concentrations in phloem-sap and grains are regulated within a small range, while Cd concentrations vary depending on xylem supply. Transgenic techniques to increase concentrations of the metal chelators (nicotianamine, 2'-deoxymugineic acid) are useful in increasing grain Zn and Fe concentrations. The elimination of OsNRAMP5 Cd-uptake transporter and the enhancement of root cell vacuolar Cd sequestration reduce uptake and root-to-shoot transport, respectively, resulting in a reduction of grain Cd accumulation.

Identification of mutations allowing Natural Resistance Associated Macrophage Proteins (NRAMP) to discriminate against cadmium

Each essential transition metal plays a specific role in metabolic processes and has to be selectively transported. Living organisms need to discriminate between essential and non-essential metals such as cadmium (Cd(2+) ), which is highly toxic. However, transporters of the natural resistance-associated macrophage protein (NRAMP) family, which are involved in metal uptake and homeostasis, generally display poor selectivity towards divalent metal cations. In the present study we used a unique combination of yeast-based selection, electrophysiology on Xenopus oocytes and plant phenotyping to identify and characterize mutations that allow plant and mammalian NRAMP transporters to discriminate between their metal substrates. We took advantage of the increased Cd(2+) sensitivity of yeast expressing AtNRAMP4 to select mutations that decrease Cd(2+) sensitivity while maintaining the ability of AtNRAMP4 to transport Fe(2+) in a population of randomly mutagenized AtNRAMP4 cDNAs. The selection identified mutations in three residues. Among the selected mutations, several affect Zn(2+) transport, whereas only one, E401K, impairs Mn(2+) transport by AtNRAMP4. Introduction of the mutation F413I, located in a highly conserved domain, into the mammalian DMT1 transporter indicated that the importance of this residue in metal selectivity is conserved among NRAMP transporters from plant and animal kingdoms. Analyses of overexpressing plants showed that AtNRAMP4 affects the accumulation of metals in roots. Interestingly, the mutations selectively modify Cd(2+) and Zn(2+) accumulation without affecting Fe transport mediated by NRAMP4 in planta. This knowledge may be applicable for limiting Cd(2+) transport by other NRAMP transporters from animals or plants.

De novo sequencing of root transcriptome reveals complex cadmium-responsive regulatory networks in radish (Raphanus sativus L.)

Cadmium (Cd) is a nonessential metallic trace element that poses potential chronic toxicity to living organisms. To date, little is known about the Cd-responsive regulatory network in root vegetable crops including radish. In this study, 31,015 unigenes representing 66,552 assembled unique transcripts were isolated from radish root under Cd stress based on de novo transcriptome assembly. In all, 1496 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) consisted of 3579 transcripts were identified from Cd-free (CK) and Cd-treated (Cd200) libraries. Gene Ontology and pathway enrichment analysis indicated that the up- and down-regulated DEGs were predominately involved in glucosinolate biosynthesis as well as cysteine and methionine-related pathways, respectively. RT-qPCR showed that the expression profiles of DEGs were in consistent with results from RNA-Seq analysis. Several candidate genes encoding phytochelatin synthase (PCS), metallothioneins (MTs), glutathione (GSH), zinc iron permease (ZIPs) and ABC transporter were responsible for Cd uptake, accumulation, translocation and detoxification in radish. The schematic model of DEGs and microRNAs-involved in Cd-responsive regulatory network was proposed. This study represents a first comprehensive transcriptome-based characterization of Cd-responsive DEGs in radish. These results could provide fundamental insight into complex Cd-responsive regulatory networks and facilitate further genetic manipulation of Cd accumulation in root vegetable crops.

Evidence of various mechanisms of Cd sequestration in the hyperaccumulator Arabidopsis halleri, the non-accumulator Arabidopsis lyrata, and their progenies by combined synchrotron-based techniques

Arabidopsis halleri is a model plant for Zn and Cd hyperaccumulation. The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between the chemical forms of Cd, its distribution in leaves, and Cd accumulation and tolerance. An interspecific cross was carried out between A. halleri and the non-tolerant and non-hyperaccumulating relative A. lyrata providing progenies segregating for Cd tolerance and accumulation. Cd speciation and distribution were investigated using X-ray absorption spectroscopy and microfocused X-ray fluorescence. In A. lyrata and non-tolerant progenies, Cd was coordinated by S atoms only or with a small contribution of O groups. Interestingly, the proportion of O ligands increased in A. halleri and tolerant progenies, and they were predominant in most of them, while S ligands were still present. Therefore, the binding of Cd with O ligands was associated with Cd tolerance. In A. halleri, Cd was mainly located in the xylem, phloem, and mesophyll tissue, suggesting a reallocation process for Cd within the plant. The distribution of the metal at the cell level was further discussed. In A. lyrata, the vascular bundles were also Cd enriched, but the epidermis was richer in Cd as compared with the mesophyll. Cd was identified in trichomes of both species. This work demonstrated that both Cd speciation and localization were related to the tolerance character of the plant.

Adaptive Engineering of Phytochelatin-based Heavy Metal Tolerance

Metabolic engineering approaches are increasingly employed for environmental applications. Because phytochelatins (PC) protect plants from heavy metal toxicity, strategies directed at manipulating the biosynthesis of these peptides hold promise for the remediation of soils and groundwaters contaminated with heavy metals. Directed evolution of Arabidopsis thaliana phytochelatin synthase (AtPCS1) yields mutants that confer levels of cadmium tolerance and accumulation greater than expression of the wild-type enzyme in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Arabidopsis, or Brassica juncea. Surprisingly, the AtPCS1 mutants that enhance cadmium tolerance and accumulation are catalytically less efficient than wild-type enzyme. Metabolite analyses indicate that transformation with AtPCS1, but not with the mutant variants, decreases the levels of the PC precursors, glutathione and γ-glutamylcysteine, upon exposure to cadmium. Selection of AtPCS1 variants with diminished catalytic activity alleviates depletion of these metabolites, which maintains redox homeostasis while supporting PC synthesis during cadmium exposure. These results emphasize the importance of metabolic context for pathway engineering and broaden the range of tools available for environmental remediation.

A GSHS-like gene from Lycium chinense maybe regulated by cadmium-induced endogenous salicylic acid and overexpression of this gene enhances tolerance to cadmium stress in Arabidopsis

A GSHS gene, LcGSHS , was cloned from L. chinense for the first time. Evidence is presented here that endogenous SA accumulation maybe important for the regulation of LcGSHS expression level. Glutathione (GSH) plays a pivotal role in heavy metal detoxification. GSH synthetase (GSHS) catalyzes the rate-limiting step of GSH synthesis in plants. Salicylic acid (SA) is one of the important plant hormones, which plays a critical role in triggering plant responses to different stresses such as cadmium (Cd) stress. Until now, little has been done to explore the relationship among the accumulation of endogenous SA, GSHS transcript levels and the GSH content in plants under Cd treatment and we will investigate this link in this study. The chlorophyll content, transcripts level of LcGSHS gene, endogenous SA accumulation, GSH accumulation and Cd concentration in the leaves of Lycium chinense were studied under different treatment conditions. Endogenous SA, LcGSHS transcript expression and GSH content can be induced by Cd treatment in L. chinense, however, reduced by co-treatment with 2-aminoindan-2-phosphonic acid (AIP), an inhibitor of SA biosynthesis. Strong staining was observed in the leaves of Arabidopsis expressing ProLcGSHS::GUS under Cd stress and the staining was reduced by co-treatment with AIP. The transgenic Arabidopsis expressing ProLcGSHS::LcGSHS also showed greater tolerance to Cd stress than wild types. Evidence was presented here that under Cd stress, GSH accumulation occurred via enhanced LcGSHS gene expression and the SA signaling cascade was involved in this accumulation. Furthermore, the overexpression of LcGSHS in transgenic Arabidopsis resulted in greater tolerance to Cd stress than wild-type lines.

pH dependence of cadmium-contaminated drinking water on the development of cardiovascular injury in Wistar rats

The purpose of our study was to investigate the effect of water pH in the genesis of cardiovascular injury caused by cadmium poisoning. For this study, 90 male Wistar rats were used, divided into six groups: A, 15 rats that received 400 mg/l cadmium chloride (CdCl2) in drinking water at a neutral pH of 7.0; B, 15 rats that received CdCl2 (400 mg/l) in drinking water at an acidic pH of 5.0; C, 15 rats that received CdCl2 (400 mg/l) in drinking water at a basic pH of 8.0; D, 15 rats that received water at an acidic pH of 5.0; E, 15 rats that received water at a basic pH of 8.0; and F, 15 rats that received water at a neutral pH of 7.0. All animals were euthanized after 6 months. We collected the heart and aorta from each rat for microscopic analysis. No microscopic changes were observed in the hearts. In the aorta, fatty streaks appeared in a large proportion of animals in groups A (50 %) and B (46 %), but fatty streaks appeared in a smaller minority of animals in groups C (15.3 %), D (0 %), E (7 %), and F (13.3 %) (p < 0.05). Cadmium exposure caused the development of fatty streaks in the aorta of animals and the exposure to this metal in basic pH decreased the formation of these lesions.

Biotechnological and agronomic potential of endophytic pink-pigmented methylotrophic Methylobacterium spp

The genus Methylobacterium is composed of pink-pigmented facultative methylotrophic (PPFM) bacteria, which are able to synthesize carotenoids and grow on reduced organic compounds containing one carbon (C1), such as methanol and methylamine. Due to their high phenotypic plasticity, these bacteria are able to colonize different habitats, such as soil, water, and sediment, and different host plants as both endophytes and epiphytes. In plant colonization, the frequency and distribution may be influenced by plant genotype or by interactions with other associated microorganisms, which may result in increasing plant fitness. In this review, different aspects of interactions with the host plant are discussed, including their capacity to fix nitrogen, nodule the host plant, produce cytokinins, auxin and enzymes involved in the induction of systemic resistance, such as pectinase and cellulase, and therefore plant growth promotion. In addition, bacteria belonging to this group can be used to reduce environmental contamination because they are able to degrade toxic compounds, tolerate high heavy metal concentrations, and increase plant tolerance to these compounds. Moreover, genome sequencing and omics approaches have revealed genes related to plant-bacteria interactions that may be important for developing strains able to promote plant growth and protection against phytopathogens.

Wounding of Arabidopsis halleri leaves enhances cadmium accumulation that acts as a defense against herbivory

Approximately 0.2 % of all angiosperms are classified as metal hyperaccumulators based on their extraordinarily high leaf metal contents, for example >1 % zinc, >0.1 % nickel or >0.01 % cadmium (Cd) in dry biomass. So far, metal hyperaccumulation has been considered to be a taxon-wide, constitutively expressed trait, the extent of which depends solely on available metal concentrations in the soil. Here we show that in the facultative metallophyte Arabidopsis halleri, both insect herbivory and mechanical wounding of leaves trigger an increase specifically in leaf Cd accumulation. Moreover, the Cd concentrations accumulated in leaves can serve as an elemental defense against herbivory by larvae of the Brassicaceae specialist small white (Pieris rapae), thus allowing the plant to take advantage of this non-essential trace element and toxin. Metal homeostasis genes are overrepresented in the systemic transcriptional response of roots to the wounding of leaves in A. halleri, supporting that leaf Cd accumulation is preceded by systemic signaling events. A similar, but quantitatively less pronounced transcriptional response was observed in A. thaliana, suggesting that the systemically regulated modulation of metal homeostasis in response to leaf wounding also occurs in non-hyperaccumulator plants. This is the first report of an environmental stimulus influencing metal hyperaccumulation.

LcBiP, a endoplasmic reticulum chaperone binding protein gene from Lycium chinense, confers cadmium tolerance in transgenic tobacco

Cadmium (Cd) accumulation is very toxic to plants. The presence of Cd may lead to excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and then cause inhibition of plant growth. The endoplasmic reticulum chaperone binding protein (BiP) is an important functional protein, which has been shown to function as a sensor of alterations in the ER environment. BiP overexpression in plants was shown to increase drought tolerance through inhibition of ROS accumulation. Due to the above relationships, it is likely that there may be a link between Cd stress tolerance, ROS accumulation and the BiP transcript expression in plants. In this study, a BiP gene, LcBiP, from L. chinense was isolated and characterized. Overexpression of LcBiP in tobacco conferred Cd tolerance. Under Cd stress conditions, the transgenic tobacco lines exhibited better chlorophyll retention, less accumulation of ROS, longer root length, more glutathione (GSH) content, and less antioxidant enzyme activity than the wild type. These data demonstrated that LcBiP act as a positive regulator in Cd stress tolerance. It is hypothesized that the improved Cd tolerance of the transgenic tobacco plants may be due to the enhanced ROS scavenging capacity. The enhancement of GSH content might contribute to this ROS scavenging capacity in the transgenic plants. However, the underlying mechanism for BiP-mediated increase in Cd stress tolerance need to be further clarified.

Defective copper transport in the copt5 mutant affects cadmium tolerance

Cadmium toxicity interferes with essential metal homeostasis, which is a problem for both plant nutrition and the consumption of healthy food by humans. Copper uptake is performed by the members of the Arabidopsis high affinity copper transporter (COPT) family. One of the members, COPT5, is involved in copper recycling from the vacuole toward the cytosolic compartment. We show herein that copt5 mutants are more sensitive to cadmium stress than wild-type plants, as indicated by reduced growth. Exacerbated cadmium toxicity in copt5 mutants is due specifically to altered copper traffic through the COPT5 transporter. Three different processes which have been shown to affect cadmium tolerance are altered in copt5 mutants. First, ethylene biosynthesis diminishes under copper deficiency and, in the presence of cadmium, ethylene production diminishes further. Copper deficiency responses are also attenuated under cadmium treatment. Remarkably, while copt5 roots present higher oxidative stress toxicity symptoms than controls, aerial copt5 parts display lower oxidative stress, as seen by reduced cadmium delivery to shoots. Taken together, these results demonstrate that copper transport plays a key role in cadmium resistance, and suggest that oxidative stress triggers an NADPH oxidase-mediated signaling pathway, which contributes to cadmium translocation and basal plant resistance. The slightly lower cadmium levels that reach aerial parts in the copt5 mutants, irrespective of the copper content in the media, suggest a new biotechnological approach to minimize toxic cadmium entry into food chains.

Modification of nitrate uptake pathway in plants affects the cadmium uptake by roots

NRT1.1 is a dual-affinity nitrate (NO3(-)) transporter involved in both high- and low-affinity NO3(-) uptake in Arabidopsis plants. In a recent study, we showed that, under cadmium (Cd) exposure, blocking the NRT1.1-mediated NO3(-) uptake reduces Cd entry into roots, thus lowing Cd levels in plants and improving plant growth. In addition, we also found that the Cd levels in edible parts of 11 Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L. ssp. pekinensis) cultivars correlated well with the NO3(-) uptake rates of their roots. These results suggested that the NO3(-) uptake of roots negatively regulate Cd uptake. Modification of NO3(-) uptake in crops by modulating NO3(-) uptake pathway might provide a biological engineering approach to reducing Cd accumulation in edible organs, thus improving food safety.

PGPRs and nitrogen-fixing legumes: a perfect team for efficient Cd phytoremediation?

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic, biologically non-essential and highly mobile metal that has become an increasingly important environmental hazard to both wildlife and humans. In contrast to conventional remediation technologies, phytoremediation based on legume-rhizobia symbiosis has emerged as an inexpensive decontamination alternative which also revitalize contaminated soils due to the role of legumes in nitrogen cycling. In recent years, there is a growing interest in understanding symbiotic legume-rhizobia relationship and its interactions with Cd. The aim of the present review is to provide a comprehensive picture of the main effects of Cd in N2-fixing leguminous plants and the benefits of exploiting this symbiosis together with plant growth promoting rhizobacteria to boost an efficient reclamation of Cd-contaminated soils.

Overexpression of bacterial γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase mediates changes in cadmium influx, allocation and detoxification in poplar

Overexpression of bacterial γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase in the cytosol of Populus tremula × P. alba produces higher glutathione (GSH) concentrations in leaves, thereby indicating the potential for cadmium (Cd) phytoremediation. However, the net Cd(2+) influx in association with H(+) /Ca(2+) , Cd tolerance, and the underlying molecular and physiological mechanisms are uncharacterized in these poplars. We assessed net Cd(2+) influx, Cd tolerance and the transcriptional regulation of several genes involved in Cd(2+) transport and detoxification in wild-type and transgenic poplars. Poplars exhibited highest net Cd(2+) influxes into roots at pH 5.5 and 0.1 mM Ca(2+) . Transgenics had higher Cd(2+) uptake rates and elevated transcript levels of several genes involved in Cd(2+) transport and detoxification compared with wild-type poplars. Transgenics exhibited greater Cd accumulation in the aerial parts than wild-type plants in response to Cd(2+) exposure. Moreover, transgenic poplars had lower concentrations of O2 ˙(-) and H2 O2 ; higher concentrations of total thiols, GSH and oxidized GSH in roots and/or leaves; and stimulated foliar GSH reductase activity compared with wild-type plants. These results indicate that transgenics are more tolerant of 100 μM Cd(2+) than wild-type plants, probably due to the GSH-mediated induction of the transcription of genes involved in Cd(2+) transport and detoxification.

Cadmium exposure affects iron acquisition in barley (Hordeum vulgare) seedlings

This study addresses the question of the interference between iron (Fe) nutrition and cadmium (Cd) toxicity at the level of growth performance, phytosiderophores (PS) release, micronutrient accumulation and expression of genes involved in Fe homeostasis in barley seedlings, a plant with strategy II-based response to Fe shortage. Cd exposure induced responses similar to those of genuine Fe deficiency also in Fe-sufficient plants. Most genes involved in PS biosynthesis and secretion (HvNAS3, HvNAS4, HvNAS6, HvNAS7, HvNAAT-A, HvDMAS1 and HvTOM1) induced by Fe deprivation were also significantly upregulated in the presence of Cd under Fe sufficient conditions. Accordingly, the enhanced expression of these genes in roots under Cd exposure was accompanied by an increase of PS release. However, induced expression of HvIRO2 and the downregulation of HvIDEF1 and HvIRT1, after Cd exposure, suggested the presence of a pathway that induces HvIRO2-mediated PS biosynthesis under Cd stress, which probably is not simply caused by Fe deficiency. The downregulation of HvIRT1 and HvNramp5 may represent a protective mechanism at transcriptional level against further Cd uptake by these transporters. These results likely indicate that Cd itself may be able to activate Fe acquisition mechanism in an Fe-independent manner.

Can ligand addition to soil enhance Cd phytoextraction? A mechanistic model study

Phytoextraction is a potential method for cleaning Cd-polluted soils. Ligand addition to soil is expected to enhance Cd phytoextraction. However, experimental results show that this addition has contradictory effects on plant Cd uptake. A mechanistic model simulating the reaction kinetics (adsorption on solid phase, complexation in solution), transport (convection, diffusion) and root absorption (symplastic, apoplastic) of Cd and its complexes in soil was developed. This was used to calculate plant Cd uptake with and without ligand addition in a great number of combinations of soil, ligand and plant characteristics, varying the parameters within defined domains. Ligand addition generally strongly reduced hydrated Cd (Cd(2+)) concentration in soil solution through Cd complexation. Dissociation of Cd complex ([Formula: see text]) could not compensate for this reduction, which greatly lowered Cd(2+) symplastic uptake by roots. The apoplastic uptake of [Formula: see text] was not sufficient to compensate for the decrease in symplastic uptake. This explained why in the majority of the cases, ligand addition resulted in the reduction of the simulated Cd phytoextraction. A few results showed an enhanced phytoextraction in very particular conditions (strong plant transpiration with high apoplastic Cd uptake capacity), but this enhancement was very limited, making chelant-enhanced phytoextraction poorly efficient for Cd.

Overexpression of OsHMA3 enhances Cd tolerance and expression of Zn transporter genes in rice

As a member of the heavy metal ATPase (HMA) family, OsHMA3 is a tonoplast-localized transporter for Cd in the roots of rice (Oryza sativa). Overexpression of OsHMA3 selectively reduces Cd accumulation in the grain. Further characterization in the present study revealed that overexpression of OsHMA3 also enhances the tolerance to toxic Cd. The growth of both the roots and shoots was similar in the absence of Cd between an OsHMA3-overexpressed line and vector control, but the Cd-inhibited growth was significantly alleviated in the OsHMA3-overexpressed line. The overexpressed line showed higher Cd concentration in the roots, but lower Cd concentration in the shoots compared with the wild-type rice and vector control line, indicating that overexpression of OsHMA3 enhanced vacuolar sequestration of Cd in the roots. The Zn concentration in the roots of the OsHMA3-overexpressed line was constantly higher than that of vector control, but the Zn concentration in the shoots was similar between the overexpressed line and vector control. Five transporter genes belonging to the ZIP family were constitutively up-regulated in the OsHMA3-overexpressed line. These results suggest that shoot Zn level was maintained by up-regulating these genes involved in the Zn uptake/translocation. Taken together, overexpression of OsHMA3 is an efficient way to reduce Cd accumulation in the grain and to enhance Cd tolerance in rice.

Levels of heavy metals in adolescents living in the industrialised area of Milazzo-Valle del Mela (northern Sicily)

In the Milazzo-Valle del Mela area, the presence of industrial plants and the oil refinery make local residents concerned for their health. For this reason, we evaluated the levels of heavy metals in 226 children aged 12-14 years, living in the 7 municipalities of the area. A control age-matched population (n = 29) living 45 km far from the industrial site was also enrolled. Arsenic, cadmium, chromium, mercury, nickel, and vanadium were analysed in 24 h urine samples, while lead concentration was evaluated in blood samples. A questionnaire regarding life style and risk perception was also administered. Adolescents from Milazzo-Valle del Mela had cadmium levels significantly higher compared to either controls  (P < 0.0001) or the reference values of the European Germany Environmental Survey (GerES-IV) and the American National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Furthermore, children had higher perception of living in a high-risk environment. The present data, for the first time, clearly indicate that adolescents living in Milazzo-Valle del Mela have increased body concentration of cadmium, which may be harmful to human health. These results deserve particular attention by the local and regional government to initiate prevention programmes in this susceptible population.

Comparative proteomic analysis provides new insights into cadmium accumulation in rice grain under cadmium stress

Rice is one of the most important staple crops. During the growth season, rice plants are inevitably subjected to numerous stresses, among which heavy metal stress represented by cadmium contamination not only hindering the yield of rice but also affecting the food safety by Cd accumulating in rice grains. The mechanism of Cd accumulation in rice grains has not been well elucidated. In this study, we compare the proteomic difference between two genotypes with different Cd accumulation ability in grains. Verification of differentially expressed protein-encoding genes was analyzing by quantitative PCR (QPCR) and reanalysis of microarray expression data. Forty-seven proteins in total were successfully identified through proteomic screening. GO and KEGG enrichment analysis showed Cd accumulation triggered stress-related pathways in the cells, and strongly affecting metabolic pathways. Many proteins associated with nutrient reservoir and starch-related enzyme were identified in this study suggesting that a considerably damage on grain quality was caused. The results also implied stress response was initiated by the abnormal cells and the transmission of signals may mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Our research will provide new insights into Cd accumulation in rice grain under Cd stress.

OsNRAMP5 contributes to manganese translocation and distribution in rice shoots

Manganese (Mn) is an essential micronutrient for plants playing an important role in many physiological functions. OsNRAMP5 is a major transporter responsible for Mn and cadmium uptake in rice, but whether it is involved in the root-to-shoot translocation and distribution of these metals is unknown. In this work, OsNRAMP5 was found to be highly expressed in hulls. It was also expressed in leaves but the expression level decreased with leaf age. High-magnification observations revealed that OsNRAMP5 was enriched in the vascular bundles of roots and shoots especially in the parenchyma cells surrounding the xylem. The osnramp5 mutant accumulated significantly less Mn in shoots than the wild-type plants even at high levels of Mn supply. Furthermore, a high supply of Mn could compensate for the loss in the root uptake ability in the mutant, but not in the root-to-shoot translocation of Mn, suggesting that the absence of OsNRAMP5 reduces the transport of Mn from roots to shoots. The results suggest that OsNRAMP5 plays an important role in the translocation and distribution of Mn in rice plants in addition to its role in Mn uptake.