651
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Rudolph U, Möhler H. GABAA receptor subtypes: Therapeutic potential in Down syndrome, affective disorders, schizophrenia, and autism. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2013; 54:483-507. [PMID: 24160694 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-011613-135947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 231] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) system plays a pivotal role in orchestrating the synchronicity of local networks and the functional coupling of different brain regions. Here we review the impact of the GABAA receptor subtypes on cognitive and emotional behavior, paying particular attention to five disease states: cognitive dysfunction and Down syndrome, anxiety disorders, depression, schizophrenia, and autism. Through the bidirectional modulation of tonic inhibition, α5-subunit-containing GABAA receptors permit the bidirectional modulation of cognitive processes, and a partial inverse agonist acting at the α5-subunit-containing GABAA receptor is in a clinical trial in individuals with Down syndrome. With regard to anxiety disorders, the viability of nonsedative anxiolytics based on the modulation of α2- and α3-subunit-containing GABAA receptors has been established in clinical proof-of-concept trials. Regarding the remaining three disease states, the GABA hypothesis of depression offers new options for antidepressant drug development; cognitive symptoms in schizophrenia are attributed to a cortical GABAergic deficit, and dysfunctional GABAergic inhibition is increasingly understood to contribute to the pathophysiology of autism spectrum disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uwe Rudolph
- Laboratory of Genetic Neuropharmacology, McLean Hospital and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts 02478;
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652
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Sampath S, Bhat S, Gupta S, O’Connor A, West AB, Arking DE, Chakravarti A. Defining the contribution of CNTNAP2 to autism susceptibility. PLoS One 2013; 8:e77906. [PMID: 24147096 PMCID: PMC3798378 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0077906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2013] [Accepted: 09/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple lines of genetic evidence suggest a role for CNTNAP2 in autism. To assess its population impact we studied 2148 common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) using transmission disequilibrium test (TDT) across the entire ~3.3 Mb CNTNAP2 locus in 186 (408 trios) multiplex and 323 simplex families with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). This analysis yielded two SNPs with nominal statistical significance (rs17170073, p = 2.0 x 10-4; rs2215798, p = 1.6 x 10-4) that did not survive multiple testing. In a combined analysis of all families, two highly correlated (r2 = 0.99) SNPs in intron 14 showed significant association with autism (rs2710093, p = 9.0 x 10-6; rs2253031, p = 2.5 x 10-5). To validate these findings and associations at SNPs from previous autism studies (rs7794745, rs2710102 and rs17236239) we genotyped 2051 additional families (572 multiplex and 1479 simplex). None of these variants were significantly associated with ASD after corrections for multiple testing. The analysis of Mendelian errors within each family did not indicate any segregating deletions. Nevertheless, a study of CNTNAP2 gene expression in brains of autistic patients and of normal controls, demonstrated altered expression in a subset of patients (p = 1.9 x10-5). Consequently, this study suggests that although CNTNAP2 dysregulation plays a role in some cases, its population contribution to autism susceptibility is limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srirangan Sampath
- Center for Complex Disease Genomics, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetics Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Shambu Bhat
- Center for Complex Disease Genomics, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetics Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Simone Gupta
- Center for Complex Disease Genomics, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetics Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Ashley O’Connor
- Center for Complex Disease Genomics, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetics Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Andrew B. West
- Department of Neurology and Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Dan E. Arking
- Center for Complex Disease Genomics, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetics Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Aravinda Chakravarti
- Center for Complex Disease Genomics, McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetics Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
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653
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Worthey EA, Raca G, Laffin JJ, Wilk BM, Harris JM, Jakielski KJ, Dimmock DP, Strand EA, Shriberg LD. Whole-exome sequencing supports genetic heterogeneity in childhood apraxia of speech. J Neurodev Disord 2013; 5:29. [PMID: 24083349 PMCID: PMC3851280 DOI: 10.1186/1866-1955-5-29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) is a rare, severe, persistent pediatric motor speech disorder with associated deficits in sensorimotor, cognitive, language, learning and affective processes. Among other neurogenetic origins, CAS is the disorder segregating with a mutation in FOXP2 in a widely studied, multigenerational London family. We report the first whole-exome sequencing (WES) findings from a cohort of 10 unrelated participants, ages 3 to 19 years, with well-characterized CAS. Methods As part of a larger study of children and youth with motor speech sound disorders, 32 participants were classified as positive for CAS on the basis of a behavioral classification marker using auditory-perceptual and acoustic methods that quantify the competence, precision and stability of a speaker’s speech, prosody and voice. WES of 10 randomly selected participants was completed using the Illumina Genome Analyzer IIx Sequencing System. Image analysis, base calling, demultiplexing, read mapping, and variant calling were performed using Illumina software. Software developed in-house was used for variant annotation, prioritization and interpretation to identify those variants likely to be deleterious to neurodevelopmental substrates of speech-language development. Results Among potentially deleterious variants, clinically reportable findings of interest occurred on a total of five chromosomes (Chr3, Chr6, Chr7, Chr9 and Chr17), which included six genes either strongly associated with CAS (FOXP1 and CNTNAP2) or associated with disorders with phenotypes overlapping CAS (ATP13A4, CNTNAP1, KIAA0319 and SETX). A total of 8 (80%) of the 10 participants had clinically reportable variants in one or two of the six genes, with variants in ATP13A4, KIAA0319 and CNTNAP2 being the most prevalent. Conclusions Similar to the results reported in emerging WES studies of other complex neurodevelopmental disorders, our findings from this first WES study of CAS are interpreted as support for heterogeneous genetic origins of this pediatric motor speech disorder with multiple genes, pathways and complex interactions. We also submit that our findings illustrate the potential use of WES for both gene identification and case-by-case clinical diagnostics in pediatric motor speech disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Worthey
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI, 53705, USA.
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654
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von Hohenberg CC, Wigand MC, Kubicki M, Leicht G, Giegling I, Karch S, Hartmann AM, Konte B, Friedl M, Ballinger T, Eckbo R, Bouix S, Jäger L, Shenton ME, Rujescu D, Mulert C. CNTNAP2 polymorphisms and structural brain connectivity: a diffusion-tensor imaging study. J Psychiatr Res 2013; 47:1349-56. [PMID: 23871450 PMCID: PMC3780783 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2013] [Revised: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 07/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
CNTNAP2 is a gene on chromosome 7 that has shown associations with autism and schizophrenia, and there is evidence that it plays an important role for neuronal synchronization and brain connectivity. In this study, we assessed the relationship between Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI), a putative marker of anatomical brain connectivity, and multiple single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) spread out over this large gene. 81 healthy controls and 44 patients with schizophrenia (all Caucasian) underwent DTI and genotyping of 31 SNPs within CNTNAP2. We employed Tract-based Spatial Statistics (TBSS) for inter-subject brain registration and computed average diffusivity values for six major white matter tracts. Analyses of Covariance (ANCOVAs) were computed to test for possible associations with genotypes. The strongest association, which survived rigorous Bonferroni correction, was between rs2710126 genotype and Fractional Anisotropy (FA) in the uncinate fasciculus (p = .00003). This anatomical location is particularly interesting given the enriched fronto-temporal expression of CNTNAP2 in the developing brain. For this SNP, no phenotype association has been reported before. There were several further genotype-DTI associations that were nominally significant but did not survive Bonferroni correction, including an association between axial diffusivity in the dorsal cingulum bundle and a region in intron 13 (represented by rs2710102, rs759178, rs2538991), which has previously been reported to be associated with anterior-posterior functional connectivity. We present new evidence about the effects of CNTNAP2 on brain connectivity, whose disruption has been hypothesized to be central to schizophrenia pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Clemm von Hohenberg
- Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Brigham and Women's
Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA,Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine,
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany,Psychiatry Neuroimaging Branch, Imaging Center NeuroImage Nord and
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center
Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
| | - Marlene C. Wigand
- Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Brigham and Women's
Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA,Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine,
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany,Psychiatry Neuroimaging Branch, Imaging Center NeuroImage Nord and
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center
Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
| | - Marek Kubicki
- Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Brigham and Women's
Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA,Departments of Psychiatry and Radiology, Harvard Medical School,
Boston, MA
| | - Gregor Leicht
- Psychiatry Neuroimaging Branch, Imaging Center NeuroImage Nord and
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center
Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
| | - Ina Giegling
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine,
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany
| | - Susanne Karch
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine,
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany
| | - Annette M. Hartmann
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine,
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany
| | - Bettina Konte
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine,
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany
| | - Marion Friedl
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine,
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Ballinger
- Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Brigham and Women's
Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Ryan Eckbo
- Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Brigham and Women's
Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Sylvain Bouix
- Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Brigham and Women's
Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA,Departments of Psychiatry and Radiology, Harvard Medical School,
Boston, MA
| | - Lorenz Jäger
- Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medicine,
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany
| | - Martha E. Shenton
- Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Brigham and Women's
Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA,Departments of Psychiatry and Radiology, Harvard Medical School,
Boston, MA,Clinical Neuroscience Division, Laboratory of Neuroscience, Veterans
Affairs Boston Healthcare System, Brockton Division, Brockton, MA
| | - Dan Rujescu
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine,
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany,Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital and Faculty of
Medicine, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Germany
| | - Christoph Mulert
- Psychiatry Neuroimaging Branch, Imaging Center NeuroImage Nord and
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center
Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
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655
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Abstract
Developing new pharmacotherapies for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a challenge. ASD has a complex genetic architecture, several neurobiological phenotypes and multiple symptom domains. However, new opportunities are emerging that could lead to the development of 'targeted' and individualized pharmacological interventions. Here, first we review these important new insights into the aetiology and neurobiology of ASD with particular focus on (i) genetic variants mediating synaptic structure and functioning and (ii) differences in brain anatomy, chemistry and connectivity in this condition. The characterization of the genotypic and phenotypic differences underlying ASD might in the future be invaluable for stratifying the large range of different individuals on the autism spectrum into genetically and/or biologically homogeneous subgroups that might respond to similar targeted interventions. Secondly, we propose a strategic framework for the development of targeted pharmacotherapies for ASD, which comprises several different stages in which research findings are translated into clinical applications. The establishment of animal models and cellular assays is important for developing and testing new pharmacological targets before initiating large-scale clinical trials. Finally, we present the European Autism Interventions - A Multicentre Study for Developing New Medications (EU-AIMS) Initiative, which was set up in the context of the EU Innovative Medicines Initiative as the first European platform for integrated translational research in ASD. The EU-AIMS Initiative consists of academic and industrial partners working in collaboration to deliver a more 'personalized' approach to diagnosing and treating ASD in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Ecker
- Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK
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656
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Pax6-Dependent Cortical Glutamatergic Neuronal Differentiation Regulates Autism-Like Behavior in Prenatally Valproic Acid-Exposed Rat Offspring. Mol Neurobiol 2013; 49:512-28. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-013-8535-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2013] [Accepted: 08/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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657
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Lai KO, Ip NY. Structural plasticity of dendritic spines: the underlying mechanisms and its dysregulation in brain disorders. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2013; 1832:2257-63. [PMID: 24012719 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2013.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2013] [Revised: 08/13/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic spines are specialized structures on neuronal processes where the majority of excitatory synapses are localized. Spines are highly dynamic, and their stabilization and morphology are influenced by synaptic activity. This extrinsic regulation of spine morphogenesis underlies experience-dependent brain development and information storage within the brain circuitry. In this review, we summarize recent findings that demonstrate the phenomenon of activity-dependent structural plasticity and the molecular mechanisms by which synaptic activity sculpt neuronal connections. Impaired structural plasticity is associated with perturbed brain function in neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism. Information from the mechanistic studies therefore provides important insights into the design of therapeutic strategies for these brain disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwok-On Lai
- Division of Life Science, Molecular Neuroscience Center and State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong
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658
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Evsyukova I, Plestant C, Anton ES. Integrative mechanisms of oriented neuronal migration in the developing brain. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2013; 29:299-353. [PMID: 23937349 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio-101512-122400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of functional neuronal connectivity in the developing cerebral cortex depends on neuronal migration. This process enables appropriate positioning of neurons and the emergence of neuronal identity so that the correct patterns of functional synaptic connectivity between the right types and numbers of neurons can emerge. Delineating the complexities of neuronal migration is critical to our understanding of normal cerebral cortical formation and neurodevelopmental disorders resulting from neuronal migration defects. For the most part, the integrated cell biological basis of the complex behavior of oriented neuronal migration within the developing mammalian cerebral cortex remains an enigma. This review aims to analyze the integrative mechanisms that enable neurons to sense environmental guidance cues and translate them into oriented patterns of migration toward defined areas of the cerebral cortex. We discuss how signals emanating from different domains of neurons get integrated to control distinct aspects of migratory behavior and how different types of cortical neurons coordinate their migratory activities within the developing cerebral cortex to produce functionally critical laminar organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Evsyukova
- Neuroscience Center and the Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599;
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659
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MPP3 is required for maintenance of the apical junctional complex, neuronal migration, and stratification in the developing cortex. J Neurosci 2013; 33:8518-27. [PMID: 23658188 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5627-12.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
During mammalian cortical development, division of progenitor cells occurs at the apical ventricular zone. Apical complex proteins and adherens junctions regulate the different modes of division. Here, we have identified the membrane-associated guanylate kinase protein membrane palmitoylated protein 3 (MPP3) as an essential protein for the maintenance of these complexes. MPP3 localizes at the apical membrane in which it shows partial colocalization with adherens junction proteins and apical proteins. We generated Mpp3 conditional knock-out mice and specifically ablated Mpp3 expression in cortical progenitor cells. Conditional deletion of Mpp3 during cortical development resulted in a gradual loss of the apical complex proteins and disrupted adherens junctions. Although there is cellular disorganization in the ventricular zone, gross morphology of the cortex was unaffected during loss of MPP3. However, in the ventricular zone, removal of MPP3 resulted in randomization of spindle orientation and ectopically localized mitotic cells. Loss of MPP3 in the developing cortex resulted in delayed migration of progenitor cells, whereas the rate of cell division and exit from the cell cycle was not affected. This resulted in defects in cortical stratification and ectopically localized layer II-IV pyramidal neurons and interneurons. These data show that MPP3 is required for maintenance of the apical protein complex and adherens junctions and for stratification and proper migration of neurons during the development of the cortex.
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660
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Won H, Mah W, Kim E. Autism spectrum disorder causes, mechanisms, and treatments: focus on neuronal synapses. Front Mol Neurosci 2013; 6:19. [PMID: 23935565 PMCID: PMC3733014 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2013.00019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of developmental disabilities characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication and restricted and repetitive interests/behaviors. Advances in human genomics have identified a large number of genetic variations associated with ASD. These associations are being rapidly verified by a growing number of studies using a variety of approaches, including mouse genetics. These studies have also identified key mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of ASD, many of which involve synaptic dysfunctions, and have investigated novel, mechanism-based therapeutic strategies. This review will try to integrate these three key aspects of ASD research: human genetics, animal models, and potential treatments. Continued efforts in this direction should ultimately reveal core mechanisms that account for a larger fraction of ASD cases and identify neural mechanisms associated with specific ASD symptoms, providing important clues to efficient ASD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyejung Won
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and TechnologyDaejeon, South Korea
| | - Won Mah
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and TechnologyDaejeon, South Korea
- Center for Synaptic Brain Dysfunctions, Institute for Basic ScienceDaejeon, South Korea
| | - Eunjoon Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and TechnologyDaejeon, South Korea
- Center for Synaptic Brain Dysfunctions, Institute for Basic ScienceDaejeon, South Korea
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661
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Argyropoulos A, Gilby KL, Hill-Yardin EL. Studying autism in rodent models: reconciling endophenotypes with comorbidities. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7:417. [PMID: 23898259 PMCID: PMC3722572 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) patients commonly exhibit a variety of comorbid traits including seizures, anxiety, aggressive behavior, gastrointestinal problems, motor deficits, abnormal sensory processing, and sleep disturbances for which the cause is unknown. These features impact negatively on daily life and can exaggerate the effects of the core diagnostic traits (social communication deficits and repetitive behaviors). Studying endophenotypes relevant to both core and comorbid features of ASD in rodent models can provide insight into biological mechanisms underlying these disorders. Here we review the characterization of endophenotypes in a selection of environmental, genetic, and behavioral rodent models of ASD. In addition to exhibiting core ASD-like behaviors, each of these animal models display one or more endophenotypes relevant to comorbid features including altered sensory processing, seizure susceptibility, anxiety-like behavior, and disturbed motor functions, suggesting that these traits are indicators of altered biological pathways in ASD. However, the study of behaviors paralleling comorbid traits in animal models of ASD is an emerging field and further research is needed to assess altered gastrointestinal function, aggression, and disorders of sleep onset across models. Future studies should include investigation of these endophenotypes in order to advance our understanding of the etiology of this complex disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Argyropoulos
- Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne , Parkville, VIC , Australia
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662
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Abstract
The autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are characterized by impairments in social interaction and stereotyped behaviors. For the majority of individuals with ASD, the causes of the disorder remain unknown; however, in up to 25% of cases, a genetic cause can be identified. Chromosomal rearrangements as well as rare and de novo copy-number variants are present in ∼10-20% of individuals with ASD, compared with 1-2% in the general population and/or unaffected siblings. Rare and de novo coding-sequence mutations affecting neuronal genes have also been identified in ∼5-10% of individuals with ASD. Common variants such as single-nucleotide polymorphisms seem to contribute to ASD susceptibility, but, taken individually, their effects appear to be small. Despite a heterogeneous genetic landscape, the genes implicated thus far-which are involved in chromatin remodeling, metabolism, mRNA translation, and synaptic function-seem to converge in common pathways affecting neuronal and synaptic homeostasis. Animal models developed to study these genes should lead to a better understanding of the diversity of the genetic landscapes of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Huguet
- Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions Unit, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France;
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663
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Current progress and challenges in the search for autism biomarkers. DISEASE MARKERS 2013; 35:55-65. [PMID: 24167349 PMCID: PMC3774962 DOI: 10.1155/2013/476276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2013] [Accepted: 04/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) encompass a range of neurodevelopmental conditions that are clinically and etiologically very heterogeneous. ASD is currently diagnosed entirely on behavioral criteria, but intensive research efforts are focused on identifying biological markers for disease risk and early diagnosis. Here, we discuss recent progress toward identifying biological markers for ASD and highlight specific challenges as well as ethical aspects of translating ASD biomarker research into the clinic.
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664
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Verpelli C, Galimberti I, Gomez-Mancilla B, Sala C. Molecular basis for prospective pharmacological treatment strategies in intellectual disability syndromes. Dev Neurobiol 2013; 74:197-206. [PMID: 23695997 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2012] [Revised: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A number of mutated genes that code for proteins concerned with brain synapse function and circuit formation have been identified in patients affected by intellectual disability (ID) syndromes over the past 15 years. These genes are involved in synapse formation and plasticity, the regulation of dendritic spine morphology, the regulation of the synaptic cytoskeleton, the synthesis and degradation of specific synapse proteins, and the control of correct balance between excitatory and inhibitory synapses. In most of the cases, even mild alterations in synapse morphology, function, and balance give rise to mild or severe IDs. These studies provided a rationale for the development of pharmacological agents that are able to counteract functional synaptic anomalies and potentially improve the symptoms of some of these conditions. This review summarizes recent findings on the functions of some of the genes responsible for ID syndromes and some of the new potential pharmacological treatments for these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Verpelli
- CNR Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
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665
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Affiliation(s)
- Z. Josh Huang
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724;
| | - Hongkui Zeng
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, Washington 98103;
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666
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Paschou P. The genetic basis of Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:1026-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2012] [Revised: 01/02/2013] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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667
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Automated multi-day tracking of marked mice for the analysis of social behaviour. J Neurosci Methods 2013; 219:10-9. [PMID: 23810825 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2013.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2013] [Revised: 05/29/2013] [Accepted: 05/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
A quantitative description of animal social behaviour is informative for behavioural biologists and clinicians developing drugs to treat social disorders. Social interaction in a group of animals has been difficult to measure because behaviour develops over long periods of time and requires tedious manual scoring, which is subjective and often non-reproducible. Computer-vision systems with the ability to measure complex social behaviour automatically would have a transformative impact on biology. Here, we present a method for tracking group-housed mice individually as they freely interact over multiple days. Each mouse is bleach-marked with a unique fur pattern. The patterns are automatically learned by the tracking software and used to infer identities. Trajectories are analysed to measure behaviour as it develops over days, beyond the range of acute experiments. We demonstrate how our system may be used to study the development of place preferences, associations and social relationships by tracking four mice continuously for five days. Our system enables accurate and reproducible characterisation of wild-type mouse social behaviour and paves the way for high-throughput long-term observation of the effects of genetic, pharmacological and environmental manipulations.
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668
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Genetic insights into the functional elements of language. Hum Genet 2013; 132:959-86. [PMID: 23749164 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-013-1317-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 05/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Language disorders cover a wide range of conditions with heterologous and overlapping phenotypes and complex etiologies harboring both genetic and environmental influences. Genetic approaches including the identification of genes linked to speech and language phenotypes and the characterization of normal and aberrant functions of these genes have, in recent years, unraveled complex details of molecular and cognitive mechanisms and provided valuable insight into the biological foundations of language. Consistent with this approach, we have reviewed the functional aspects of allelic variants of genes which are currently known to be either causally associated with disorders of speech and language or impact upon the spectrum of normal language ability. We have also reviewed candidate genes associated with heritable speech and language disorders. In addition, we have evaluated language phenotypes and associated genetic components in developmental syndromes that, together with a spectrum of altered language abilities, manifest various phenotypes and offer details of multifactorial determinants of language function. Data from this review have revealed a predominance of regulatory networks involved in the control of differentiation and functioning of neurons, neuronal tracks and connections among brain structures associated with both cognitive and language faculties. Our findings, furthermore, have highlighted several multifactorial determinants in overlapping speech and language phenotypes. Collectively this analysis has revealed an interconnected developmental network and a close association of the language faculty with cognitive functions, a finding that has the potential to provide insight into linguistic hypotheses defining in particular, the contribution of genetic elements to and the modular nature of the language faculty.
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669
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Progress toward treatments for synaptic defects in autism. Nat Med 2013; 19:685-94. [PMID: 23744158 DOI: 10.1038/nm.3193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) encompasses a range of disorders that are characterized by social and communication deficits and repetitive behaviors. For the majority of affected individuals, the cause of ASD remains unknown, but in at least 20% of the cases, a genetic cause can be identified. There is currently no cure for ASD; however, results from mouse models indicate that some forms of the disorder could be alleviated even at the adult stage. Genes involved in ASD seem to converge on common pathways altering synaptic homeostasis. We propose, given the clinical heterogeneity of ASD, that specific 'synaptic clinical trials' should be designed and launched with the aim of establishing whether phenotype 'reversals' could also occur in humans.
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670
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Gandal MJ, Anderson RL, Billingslea EN, Carlson GC, Roberts TPL, Siegel SJ. Mice with reduced NMDA receptor expression: more consistent with autism than schizophrenia? GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2013; 11:740-50. [PMID: 22726567 DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-183x.2012.00816.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Reduced NMDA-receptor (NMDAR) function has been implicated in the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disease, most strongly in schizophrenia but also recently in autism spectrum disorders (ASD). To determine the direct contribution of NMDAR dysfunction to disease phenotypes, a mouse model with constitutively reduced expression of the obligatory NR1 subunit has been developed and extensively investigated. Adult NR1(neo-/-) mice show multiple abnormal behaviors, including reduced social interactions, locomotor hyperactivity, self-injury, deficits in prepulse inhibition (PPI) and sensory hypersensitivity, among others. Whereas such phenotypes have largely been interpreted in the context of schizophrenia, these behavioral abnormalities are rather non-specific and are frequently present across models of diseases characterized by negative symptom domains. This study investigated auditory electrophysiological and behavioral paradigms relevant to autism, to determine whether NMDAR hypofunction may be more consistent with adult ASD-like phenotypes. Indeed, transgenic mice showed behavioral deficits relevant to all core ASD symptoms, including decreased social interactions, altered ultrasonic vocalizations and increased repetitive behaviors. NMDAR disruption recapitulated clinical endophenotypes including reduced PPI, auditory-evoked response N1 latency delay and reduced gamma synchrony. Auditory electrophysiological abnormalities more closely resembled those seen in clinical studies of autism than schizophrenia. These results suggest that NMDAR hypofunction may be associated with a continuum of neuropsychiatric diseases, including schizophrenia and autism. Neural synchrony abnormalities suggest an imbalance of glutamatergic and GABAergic coupling and may provide a target, along with behavioral phenotypes, for preclinical screening of novel therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Gandal
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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671
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Abstract
Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder whose diagnosis is based on three behavioral criteria: unusual reciprocal social interactions, deficits in communication, and stereotyped repetitive behaviors with restricted interests. A large number of de novo single gene mutations and chromosomal deletions are associated with autism spectrum disorders. Based on the strong genetic evidence, mice with targeted mutations in homologous genes have been generated as translational research tools. Mouse models of autism have revealed behavioral and biological outcomes of mutations in risk genes. The field is now poised to employ the most robust phenotypes in the most replicable mouse models for preclinical screening of novel therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline N Crawley
- Robert Chason Chair in Translational Research, M.I.N.D. Institute Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA.
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672
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Ayub Q, Yngvadottir B, Chen Y, Xue Y, Hu M, Vernes SC, Fisher SE, Tyler-Smith C. FOXP2 targets show evidence of positive selection in European populations. Am J Hum Genet 2013; 92:696-706. [PMID: 23602712 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2012] [Revised: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 03/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Forkhead box P2 (FOXP2) is a highly conserved transcription factor that has been implicated in human speech and language disorders and plays important roles in the plasticity of the developing brain. The pattern of nucleotide polymorphisms in FOXP2 in modern populations suggests that it has been the target of positive (Darwinian) selection during recent human evolution. In our study, we searched for evidence of selection that might have followed FOXP2 adaptations in modern humans. We examined whether or not putative FOXP2 targets identified by chromatin-immunoprecipitation genomic screening show evidence of positive selection. We developed an algorithm that, for any given gene list, systematically generates matched lists of control genes from the Ensembl database, collates summary statistics for three frequency-spectrum-based neutrality tests from the low-coverage resequencing data of the 1000 Genomes Project, and determines whether these statistics are significantly different between the given gene targets and the set of controls. Overall, there was strong evidence of selection of FOXP2 targets in Europeans, but not in the Han Chinese, Japanese, or Yoruba populations. Significant outliers included several genes linked to cellular movement, reproduction, development, and immune cell trafficking, and 13 of these constituted a significant network associated with cardiac arteriopathy. Strong signals of selection were observed for CNTNAP2 and RBFOX1, key neurally expressed genes that have been consistently identified as direct FOXP2 targets in multiple studies and that have themselves been associated with neurodevelopmental disorders involving language dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qasim Ayub
- The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK.
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673
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Schreiner MJ, Lazaro MT, Jalbrzikowski M, Bearden CE. Converging levels of analysis on a genomic hotspot for psychosis: insights from 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Neuropharmacology 2013; 68:157-73. [PMID: 23098994 PMCID: PMC3677073 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2012] [Revised: 09/04/2012] [Accepted: 09/17/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a devastating neurodevelopmental disorder that, despite extensive research, still poses a considerable challenge to attempts to unravel its heterogeneity, and the complex biochemical mechanisms by which it arises. While the majority of cases are of unknown etiology, accumulating evidence suggests that rare genetic mutations, such as 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome (22qDS), can play a significant role in predisposition to the illness. Up to 25% of individuals with 22qDS eventually develop schizophrenia; conversely, this deletion is estimated to account for 1-2% of schizophrenia cases overall. This locus of Chromosome 22q11.2 contains genes that encode for proteins and enzymes involved in regulating neurotransmission, neuronal development, myelination, microRNA processing, and post-translational protein modifications. As a consequence of the deletion, affected individuals exhibit cognitive dysfunction, structural and functional brain abnormalities, and neurodevelopmental anomalies that parallel many of the phenotypic characteristics of schizophrenia. As an illustration of the value of rare, highly penetrant genetic subtypes for elucidating pathological mechanisms of complex neuropsychiatric disorders, we provide here an overview of the cellular, network, and systems-level anomalies found in 22qDS, and review the intriguing evidence for this disorder's association with schizophrenia. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Neurodevelopmental Disorders'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J. Schreiner
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Maria T. Lazaro
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | | | - Carrie E. Bearden
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
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674
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Silverman JL, Babineau BA, Oliver CF, Karras MN, Crawley JN. Influence of stimulant-induced hyperactivity on social approach in the BTBR mouse model of autism. Neuropharmacology 2013; 68:210-22. [PMID: 22968082 PMCID: PMC3522798 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.07.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2012] [Revised: 07/09/2012] [Accepted: 07/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Translational research is needed to discover pharmacological targets and treatments for the diagnostic behavioral domains of autism spectrum disorders. Animal models with phenotypic relevance to diagnostic criteria offer clear experimental strategies to test the efficacy and safety of novel treatments. Antagonists of mGluR5 receptors are in clinical trials for Fragile X syndrome and under investigation for the treatment of autism spectrum disorders. However, in preclinical studies of mGluR5 compounds tested in our laboratory and others, increased locomotion following mGluR5 modulation has been observed. Understanding the influence of general activity on sociability and repetitive behaviors will increase the accuracy of interpretations of positive outcomes measured from pharmacological treatment that produces locomotor activating or sedating effects. In the present studies, dose-response curves for d-amphetamine (AMPH)-induced hyperlocomotion were similar in standard B6 mice and in the BTBR mouse model of autism. AMPH produced significant, robust reductions in the high level of repetitive self-grooming that characterizes BTBR, and also reduced the low baseline grooming in B6, indicating that AMPH-induced hyperlocomotion competes with time spent engaged in self-grooming. We then tested AMPH in B6 and BTBR on the 3-chambered social approach task. One component of sociability, the time spent in the chamber with the novel mouse, in B6 mice was reduced, while the sniffing time component of sociability in BTBR mice was enhanced. This finding replicated across multiple cohorts treated with AMPH and saline vehicle. In-depth analysis revealed that AMPH increased the number and decreased the duration of sniffing bouts in BTBR, suggesting BTBR treated with AMPH mostly engaged in brief sniffs rather than true social interactions with the novel mouse during the social approach task. Our data suggest that compounds with stimulant properties may have some direct benefits on reducing repetitive behaviors in autism spectrum disorders, particularly in the subset of autistic individuals with hyperactivity. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Neurodevelopmental Disorders'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill L Silverman
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-3730, USA.
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675
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Poot M. Towards identification of individual etiologies by resolving genomic and biological conundrums in patients with autism spectrum disorders. Mol Syndromol 2013; 4:213-26. [PMID: 23885228 DOI: 10.1159/000350041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent genomic research into autism spectrum disorders (ASD) has revealed a remarkably complex genetic architecture. Large numbers of common variants, copy number variations and single nucleotide variants have been identified, yet each of them individually afforded only a small phenotypic impact. A polygenic model in which multiple genes interact either in an additive or a synergistic way appears the most plausible for the majority of ASD patients. Based on recently identified ASD candidate genes, transgenic mouse models for neuroligins/neurorexins and genes such as Cntnap2, Cntn5, Tsc1, Tsc2, Akt3, Cyfip1, Scn1a, En2, Slc6a4, and Bckdk have been generated and studied with respect to behavioral and neuroanatomical phenotypes and sensitivity to drug treatments. From these models, a few clues for potential pharmacologic intervention emerged. The Fmr1, Shank2 and Cntn5 knockout mice exhibited alterations of glutamate receptors, which may become a target for pharmacologic modulation. Some of the phenotypes of Mecp2 knockout mice can be ameliorated by administering IGF1. In the near future, comprehensive genotyping of individual patients and siblings combined with the novel insights generated from the transgenic animal studies may provide us with personalized treatment options. Eventually, autism may indeed turn out to be a phenotypically heterogeneous group of disorders ('autisms') caused by combinations of changes in multiple possible candidate genes, being different in each patient and requiring for each combination of mutations a distinct, individually tailored treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Poot
- Department of Medical Genetics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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676
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Gkogkas CG, Sonenberg N. Translational control and autism-like behaviors. CELLULAR LOGISTICS 2013; 3:e24551. [PMID: 24516777 PMCID: PMC3906422 DOI: 10.4161/cl.24551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2013] [Revised: 03/25/2013] [Accepted: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) consist of a spectrum of neurodevelopmental diseases with three salient features: reduced social interactions, impaired communication and repetitive/stereotyped behaviors. In a recent study we found that increased eIF4E (eukaryotic initiation factor 4E)-dependent protein synthesis as a result of genetic deletion of Eif4ebp2 (eIF4E-binding protein 2) in mice, stimulates the production of neuroligins (Nlgns, synaptic cell-adhesion molecules important for synapse regulation) and engenders an imbalance of excitatory to inhibitory synaptic transmission (E/I) in CA1 pyramidal neurons. This imbalance is accompanied with deficits in social interaction, communication and repetitive/stereotyped behaviors in Eif4ebp2−/− mice. Using a compound that blocks cap-dependent translation or by knocking down Nlgn1, we restored the E/I balance and reversed the autism-like social deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christos G Gkogkas
- Department of Biochemistry and Goodman Cancer Research Centre; McGill University; Montreal, QC Canada
| | - Nahum Sonenberg
- Department of Biochemistry and Goodman Cancer Research Centre; McGill University; Montreal, QC Canada
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677
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Hall D, Huerta MF, McAuliffe MJ, Farber GK. Sharing heterogeneous data: the national database for autism research. Neuroinformatics 2013; 10:331-9. [PMID: 22622767 DOI: 10.1007/s12021-012-9151-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The National Database for Autism Research (NDAR) is a secure research data repository designed to promote scientific data sharing and collaboration among autism spectrum disorder investigators. The goal of the project is to accelerate scientific discovery through data sharing, data harmonization, and the reporting of research results. Data from over 25,000 research participants are available to qualified investigators through the NDAR portal. Summary information about the available data is available to everyone through that portal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Hall
- OMNITEC Solutions, Inc., 6001 Executive Boulevard, Suite 7161, Rockville, MD 20892-9640, USA.
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678
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Abstract
The transcription factor FoxP2 has been associated with the development of human speech but the underlying cellular function of FoxP2 is still unclear. Here we provide evidence that FoxP2 regulates genesis of some intermediate progenitors and neurons in the mammalian cortex, one of the key centers for human speech. Specifically, knockdown of FoxP2 in embryonic cortical precursors inhibits neurogenesis, at least in part by inhibiting the transition from radial glial precursors to neurogenic intermediate progenitors. Moreover, overexpression of human, but not mouse, FoxP2 enhances the genesis of intermediate progenitors and neurons. In contrast, expression of a human FoxP2 mutant that causes vocalization deficits decreases neurogenesis, suggesting that in the murine system human FoxP2 acts as a gain-of-function protein, while a human FoxP2 mutant acts as a dominant-inhibitory protein. These results support the idea that FoxP2 regulates the transition from neural precursors to transit-amplifying progenitors and ultimately neurons, and shed light upon the molecular changes that might contribute to evolution of the mammalian cortex.
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679
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Thirtamara Rajamani K, Doherty-Lyons S, Bolden C, Willis D, Hoffman C, Zelikoff J, Chen LC, Gu H. Prenatal and Early-Life Exposure to High-Level Diesel Exhaust Particles Leads to Increased Locomotor Activity and Repetitive Behaviors in Mice. Autism Res 2013; 6:248-57. [DOI: 10.1002/aur.1287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 02/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Shannon Doherty-Lyons
- Department of Environmental Medicine; New York University Langone Medical Center; Tuxedo; New York
| | - Crystal Bolden
- Department of Pharmacology; The Ohio State University; Columbus; Ohio
| | - Daniel Willis
- Department of Environmental Medicine; New York University Langone Medical Center; Tuxedo; New York
| | - Carol Hoffman
- Department of Environmental Medicine; New York University Langone Medical Center; Tuxedo; New York
| | - Judith Zelikoff
- Department of Environmental Medicine; New York University Langone Medical Center; Tuxedo; New York
| | - Lung-Chi Chen
- Department of Environmental Medicine; New York University Langone Medical Center; Tuxedo; New York
| | - Howard Gu
- Department of Pharmacology; The Ohio State University; Columbus; Ohio
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680
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Grillo E, Lo Rizzo C, Bianciardi L, Bizzarri V, Baldassarri M, Spiga O, Furini S, De Felice C, Signorini C, Leoncini S, Pecorelli A, Ciccoli L, Mencarelli MA, Hayek J, Meloni I, Ariani F, Mari F, Renieri A. Revealing the complexity of a monogenic disease: rett syndrome exome sequencing. PLoS One 2013; 8:e56599. [PMID: 23468869 PMCID: PMC3585308 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0056599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2012] [Accepted: 01/11/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Rett syndrome (OMIM#312750) is a monogenic disorder that may manifest as a large variety of phenotypes ranging from very severe to mild disease. Since there is a weak correlation between the mutation type in the Xq28 disease-gene MECP2/X-inactivation status and phenotypic variability, we used this disease as a model to unveil the complex nature of a monogenic disorder. Whole exome sequencing was used to analyze the functional portion of the genome of two pairs of sisters with Rett syndrome. Although each pair of sisters had the same MECP2 (OMIM*300005) mutation and balanced X-inactivation, one individual from each pair could not speak or walk, and had a profound intellectual deficit (classical Rett syndrome), while the other individual could speak and walk, and had a moderate intellectual disability (Zappella variant). In addition to the MECP2 mutation, each patient has a group of variants predicted to impair protein function. The classical Rett girls, but not their milder affected sisters, have an enrichment of variants in genes related to oxidative stress, muscle impairment and intellectual disability and/or autism. On the other hand, a subgroup of variants related to modulation of immune system, exclusive to the Zappella Rett patients are driving toward a milder phenotype. We demonstrate that genome analysis has the potential to identify genetic modifiers of Rett syndrome, providing insight into disease pathophysiology. Combinations of mutations that affect speaking, walking and intellectual capabilities may represent targets for new therapeutic approaches. Most importantly, we demonstrated that monogenic diseases may be more complex than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Grillo
- Medical Genetics, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Caterina Lo Rizzo
- Medical Genetics, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
- Genetica Medica, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Senese, Siena, Italy
| | | | - Veronica Bizzarri
- Medical Genetics, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
- Genetica Medica, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Senese, Siena, Italy
| | | | - Ottavia Spiga
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Simone Furini
- Department of Surgery and Bioengineering University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Claudio De Felice
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit University Hospital Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Senese (AOUS) of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Cinzia Signorini
- Department of Molecular and Developmental Medicine, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Silvia Leoncini
- Department of Molecular and Developmental Medicine, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, University Hospital, AOUS, Siena, Italy
| | - Alessandra Pecorelli
- Department of Molecular and Developmental Medicine, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, University Hospital, AOUS, Siena, Italy
| | - Lucia Ciccoli
- Department of Molecular and Developmental Medicine, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Maria Antonietta Mencarelli
- Medical Genetics, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
- Genetica Medica, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Senese, Siena, Italy
| | - Joussef Hayek
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, University Hospital, AOUS, Siena, Italy
| | | | | | - Francesca Mari
- Medical Genetics, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
- Genetica Medica, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Senese, Siena, Italy
| | - Alessandra Renieri
- Medical Genetics, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
- Genetica Medica, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Senese, Siena, Italy
- * E-mail:
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681
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Kamm GB, Pisciottano F, Kliger R, Franchini LF. The developmental brain gene NPAS3 contains the largest number of accelerated regulatory sequences in the human genome. Mol Biol Evol 2013; 30:1088-102. [PMID: 23408798 PMCID: PMC3670734 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/mst023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
To identify the evolutionary genetic novelties that contributed to shape human-specific traits such as the use of a complex language, long-term planning and exceptional learning abilities is one of the ultimate frontiers of modern biology. Evolutionary signatures of functional shifts could be detected by comparing noncoding regions that are highly conserved across mammals or primates and rapidly accumulated nucleotide substitutions only in the lineage leading to humans. As gene loci densely populated with human-accelerated elements (HAEs) are more likely to have contributed to human-specific novelties, we sought to identify the transcriptional units and genomic 1 Mb intervals of the entire human genome carrying the highest number of HAEs. To this end, we took advantage of four available data sets of human genomic accelerated regions obtained through different comparisons and algorithms and performed a meta-analysis of the combined data. We found that the brain developmental transcription factor neuronal PAS domain-containing protein 3 (NPAS3) contains the largest cluster of noncoding-accelerated regions in the human genome with up to 14 elements that are highly conserved in mammals, including primates, but carry human-specific nucleotide substitutions. We then tested the ability of the 14 HAEs identified at the NPAS3 locus to act as transcriptional regulatory sequences in a reporter expression assay performed in transgenic zebrafish. We found that 11 out of the 14 HAEs present in NPAS3 act as transcriptional enhancers during development, particularly within the nervous system. As NPAS3 is known to play a crucial role during mammalian brain development, our results indicate that the high density of HAEs present in the human NPAS3 locus could have modified the spatiotemporal expression pattern of NPAS3 in the developing human brain and, therefore, contributed to human brain evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gretel B Kamm
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular, INGEBI, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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682
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Washington SD, Gordon EM, Brar J, Warburton S, Sawyer AT, Wolfe A, Mease-Ference ER, Girton L, Hailu A, Mbwana J, Gaillard WD, Kalbfleisch ML, VanMeter JW. Dysmaturation of the default mode network in autism. Hum Brain Mapp 2013; 35:1284-96. [PMID: 23334984 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.22252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2012] [Accepted: 12/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Two hypotheses of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) propose that this condition is characterized by deficits in Theory of Mind and by hypoconnectivity between remote cortical regions with hyperconnectivity locally. The default mode network (DMN) is a set of remote, functionally connected cortical nodes less active during executive tasks than at rest and is implicated in Theory of Mind, episodic memory, and other self-reflective processes. We show that children with ASD have reduced connectivity between DMN nodes and increased local connectivity within DMN nodes and the visual and motor resting-state networks. We show that, like the trajectory of synaptogenesis, internodal DMN functional connectivity increased as a quadratic function of age in typically developing children, peaking between, 11 and 13 years. In children with ASD, these long-distance connections fail to develop during adolescence. These findings support the "developmental disconnection model" of ASD, provide a possible mechanistic explanation for the Theory-of-Mind hypothesis of ASD, and show that the window for effectively treating ASD could be wider than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart D Washington
- Center for Functional and Molecular Imaging, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, District of Columbia; Department of Neurology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, District of Columbia; Children's National Medical Center, Northwest, Washington, District of Columbia
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683
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Mercati O, Danckaert A, André-Leroux G, Bellinzoni M, Gouder L, Watanabe K, Shimoda Y, Grailhe R, De Chaumont F, Bourgeron T, Cloëz-Tayarani I. Contactin 4, -5 and -6 differentially regulate neuritogenesis while they display identical PTPRG binding sites. Biol Open 2013; 2:324-34. [PMID: 23519440 PMCID: PMC3603414 DOI: 10.1242/bio.20133343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2012] [Accepted: 11/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural cell-adhesion molecules contactin 4, contactin 5 and contactin 6 are involved in brain development, and disruptions in contactin genes may confer increased risk for autism spectrum disorders (ASD). We describe a co-culture of rat cortical neurons and HEK293 cells overexpressing and delivering the secreted forms of rat contactin 4-6. We quantified their effects on the length and branching of neurites. Contactin 4-6 effects were different depending on the contactin member and duration of co-culture. At 4 days in culture, contactin 4 and -6 increased the length of neurites, while contactin 5 increased the number of roots. Up to 8 days in culture, contactin 6 progressively increased the length of neurites while contactin 5 was more efficient on neurite branching. We studied the molecular sites of interaction between human contactin 4, -5 or -6 and the human Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase Receptor Gamma (PTPRG), a contactin partner, by modeling their 3D structures. As compared to contactin 4, we observed differences in the Ig2 and Ig3 domains of contactin 5 and -6 with the appearance of an omega loop that could adopt three distinct conformations. However, interactive residues between human contactin 4-6 and PTPRG were strictly conserved. We did not observe any differences in PTPRG binding on contactin 5 and -6 either. Our data suggest that the differential contactin effects on neurite outgrowth do not result from distinct interactions with PTPRG. A better understanding of the contactin cellular properties should help elucidate their roles in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oriane Mercati
- Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, Institut Pasteur , 75015 Paris , France ; CNRS URA 2182 'Genes, synapses and cognition', Institut Pasteur , 75015 Paris , France ; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions , 75013 Paris , France
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684
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Maloney SE, Rieger MA, Dougherty JD. Identifying essential cell types and circuits in autism spectrum disorders. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2013; 113:61-96. [PMID: 24290383 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-418700-9.00003-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is highly genetic in its etiology, with potentially hundreds of genes contributing to risk. Despite this heterogeneity, these disparate genetic lesions may result in the disruption of a limited number of key cell types or circuits-information which could be leveraged for the design of therapeutic interventions. While hypotheses for cellular disruptions can be identified by postmortem anatomical analysis and expression studies of ASD risk genes, testing these hypotheses requires the use of animal models. In this review, we explore the existing evidence supporting the contribution of different cell types to ASD, specifically focusing on rodent studies disrupting serotonergic, GABAergic, cerebellar, and striatal cell types, with particular attention to studies of the sufficiency of specific cellular disruptions to generate ASD-related behavioral abnormalities. This evidence suggests multiple cellular routes can create features of the disorder, though it is currently unclear if these cell types converge on a final common circuit. We hope that in the future, systematic studies of cellular sufficiency and genetic interaction will help to classify patients into groups by type of cellular disruptions which suggest tractable therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan E Maloney
- Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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685
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Connecting signaling pathways underlying communication to ASD vulnerability. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2013; 113:97-133. [PMID: 24290384 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-418700-9.00004-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Language is a human-specific trait that likely facilitated the rapid increase in higher cognitive function in our species. A consequence of the selective pressures that have permitted language and cognition to flourish in humans is the unique vulnerability of humans to developing cognitive disorders such as autism. Therefore, progress in understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms of language evolution should provide insight into such disorders. Here, we discuss the few genes that have been identified in both autism-related pathways and language. We also detail the use of animal models to uncover the function of these genes at a mechanistic and circuit level. Finally, we present the use of comparative genomics to identify novel genes and gene networks involved in autism. Together, all of these approaches will allow for a broader and deeper view of the molecular brain mechanisms involved in the evolution of language and the gene disruptions associated with autism.
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686
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Kwan KY. Transcriptional dysregulation of neocortical circuit assembly in ASD. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2013; 113:167-205. [PMID: 24290386 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-418700-9.00006-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) impair social cognition and communication, key higher-order functions centered in the human neocortex. The assembly of neocortical circuitry is a precisely regulated developmental process susceptible to genetic alterations that can ultimately affect cognitive abilities. Because ASD is an early onset neurodevelopmental disorder that disrupts functions executed by the neocortex, miswiring of neocortical circuits has been hypothesized to be an underlying mechanism of ASD. This possibility is supported by emerging genetic findings and data from imaging studies. Recent research on neocortical development has identified transcription factors as key determinants of neocortical circuit assembly, mediating diverse processes including neuronal specification, migration, and wiring. Many of these TFs (TBR1, SOX5, FEZF2, and SATB2) have been implicated in ASD. Here, I will discuss the functional roles of these transcriptional programs in neocortical circuit development and their neurobiological implications for the emerging etiology of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Y Kwan
- Department of Human Genetics, Molecular & Behavioral Neuroscience Institute (MBNI), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
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687
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Peng Y, Huentelman M, Smith C, Qiu S. MET receptor tyrosine kinase as an autism genetic risk factor. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2013; 113:135-65. [PMID: 24290385 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-418700-9.00005-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
In this chapter, we will briefly discuss recent literature on the role of MET receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) in brain development and how perturbation of MET signaling may alter normal neurodevelopmental outcomes. Recent human genetic studies have established MET as a risk factor for autism, and the molecular and cellular underpinnings of this genetic risk are only beginning to emerge from obscurity. Unlike many autism risk genes that encode synaptic proteins, the spatial and temporal expression pattern of MET RTK indicates this signaling system is ideally situated to regulate neuronal growth, functional maturation, and establishment of functional brain circuits, particularly in those brain structures involved in higher levels of cognition, social skills, and executive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Peng
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
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688
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Greco B, Managò F, Tucci V, Kao HT, Valtorta F, Benfenati F. Autism-related behavioral abnormalities in synapsin knockout mice. Behav Brain Res 2012; 251:65-74. [PMID: 23280234 PMCID: PMC3730181 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Revised: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 12/10/2012] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Several synaptic genes predisposing to autism-spectrum disorder (ASD) have been identified. Nonsense and missense mutations in the SYN1 gene encoding for Synapsin I have been identified in families segregating for idiopathic epilepsy and ASD and genetic mapping analyses have identified variations in the SYN2 gene as significantly contributing to epilepsy predisposition. Synapsins (Syn I/II/III) are a multigene family of synaptic vesicle-associated phosphoproteins playing multiple roles in synaptic development, transmission and plasticity. Lack of SynI and/or SynII triggers a strong epileptic phenotype in mice associated with mild cognitive impairments that are also present in the non-epileptic SynIII(-/-) mice. SynII(-/-) and SynIII(-/-) mice also display schizophrenia-like traits, suggesting that Syns could be involved in the regulation of social behavior. Here, we studied social interaction and novelty, social recognition and social dominance, social transmission of food preference and social memory in groups of male SynI(-/-), SynII(-/-) and SynIII(-/-) mice before and after the appearance of the epileptic phenotype and compared their performances with control mice. We found that deletion of Syn isoforms widely impairs social behaviors and repetitive behaviors, resulting in ASD-related phenotypes. SynI or SynIII deletion altered social behavior, whereas SynII deletion extensively impaired various aspects of social behavior and memory, altered exploration of a novel environment and increased self-grooming. Social impairments of SynI(-/-) and SynII(-/-) mice were evident also before the onset of seizures. The results demonstrate an involvement of Syns in generation of the behavioral traits of ASD and identify Syn knockout mice as a useful experimental model of ASD and epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Greco
- Department of Neuroscience and Brain Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
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689
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Abstract
The dorsal striatum, with its functional microcircuits galore, serves as the primary gateway of the basal ganglia and is known to play a key role in implicit learning. Initially, excitatory inputs from the cortex and thalamus arrive on the direct and indirect pathways, where the precise flow of information is then regulated by local GABAergic interneurons. The balance of excitatory and inhibitory transmission in the dorsal striatum is modulated by neuromodulators such as dopamine and acetylcholine. Under pathophysiological states in the dorsal striatum, an alteration in excitatory and inhibitory transmission may underlie dysfunctional motor control. Here, we review the cellular connections and modulation of striatal microcircuits and propose that modulating the excitatory and inhibitory balance in synaptic transmission of the dorsal striatum is important for regulating locomotion.
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690
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Loss of CDKL5 disrupts kinome profile and event-related potentials leading to autistic-like phenotypes in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:21516-21. [PMID: 23236174 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1216988110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the X-linked cyclin-dependent kinase-like 5 (CDKL5) gene have been identified in neurodevelopmental disorders including atypical Rett syndrome (RTT), autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), and early infantile epileptic encephalopathy. The biological function of CDKL5 and its role in the etiology of these disorders, however, remain unclear. Here we report the development of a unique knockout mouse model of CDKL5-related disorders and demonstrate that mice lacking CDKL5 show autistic-like deficits in social interaction, as well as impairments in motor control and fear memory. Neurophysiological recordings reveal alterations in event-related potentials (ERPs) similar to those observed in RTT and ASDs. Moreover, kinome profiling uncovers disruption of multiple signal transduction pathways, including the AKT-mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) cascade, upon Cdkl5 loss-of-function. These data demonstrate that CDKL5 regulates signal transduction pathways and mediates autistic-like phenotypes and together establish a causal role for Cdkl5 loss-of-function in neurodevelopmental disorders.
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691
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Abstract
Autism has been described as a disorder of general neural processing, but the particular processing characteristics that might be abnormal in autism have mostly remained obscure. Here, we present evidence of one such characteristic: poor evoked response reliability. We compared cortical response amplitude and reliability (consistency across trials) in visual, auditory, and somatosensory cortices of high-functioning individuals with autism and controls. Mean response amplitudes were statistically indistinguishable across groups, yet trial-by-trial response reliability was significantly weaker in autism, yielding smaller signal-to-noise ratios in all sensory systems. Response reliability differences were evident only in evoked cortical responses and not in ongoing resting-state activity. These findings reveal that abnormally unreliable cortical responses, even to elementary nonsocial sensory stimuli, may represent a fundamental physiological alteration of neural processing in autism. The results motivate a critical expansion of autism research to determine whether (and how) basic neural processing properties such as reliability, plasticity, and adaptation/habituation are altered in autism.
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692
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Brennand KJ, Simone A, Tran N, Gage FH. Modeling psychiatric disorders at the cellular and network levels. Mol Psychiatry 2012; 17:1239-53. [PMID: 22472874 PMCID: PMC3465628 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2012.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Although psychiatric disorders such as autism spectrum disorders, schizophrenia and bipolar disorder affect a number of brain regions and produce a complex array of clinical symptoms, basic phenotypes likely exist at the level of single neurons and simple networks. Being highly heritable, it is hypothesized that these disorders are amenable to cell-based studies in vitro. Using induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons and/or induced neurons from fibroblasts, limitless numbers of live human neurons can now be generated from patients with a genetic background permissive to the disease state. We predict that cell-based studies will ultimately contribute to our understanding of the initiation, progression and treatment of these psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- KJ Brennand
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - A Simone
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - N Tran
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - FH Gage
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
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693
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Effects of Korean red ginseng extracts on neural tube defects and impairment of social interaction induced by prenatal exposure to valproic acid. Food Chem Toxicol 2012; 51:288-96. [PMID: 23104247 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2012.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2012] [Revised: 09/20/2012] [Accepted: 10/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Ginseng is one of the most widely used medicinal plants, which belongs to the genus Panax. Compared to uncured white ginseng, red ginseng has been generally regarded to produce superior pharmacological effects with lesser side/adverse effects, which made it popular in a variety of formulation from tea to oriental medicine. Using the prenatal valproic acid (VPA)-injection model of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in rats, which produces social impairrment and altered seizure susceptibility as in human ASD patients as well as mild neural tube defects like crooked tail phenotype, we examined whether chronic administration of red ginseng extract may rescue the social impairment and crooked tail phenotype in prenatally VPA-exposed rat offspring. VPA-induced impairment in social interactions tested using sociability and social preference paradigms as well as crooked tail phenotypes were significantly improved by administration of Korean red ginseng (KRG) in a dose dependent manner. Rat offspring prenatally exposed to VPA showed higher sensitivity to electric shock seizure and increased locomotor activity in open-field test. KRG treatment reversed abnormal locomotor activity and sensitivity to electric shock to control level. These results suggest that KRG may modulate neurobehavioral and structural organization of nervous system adversely affected by prenatal exposure to VPA.
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694
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Candidate autism gene screen identifies critical role for cell-adhesion molecule CASPR2 in dendritic arborization and spine development. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:18120-5. [PMID: 23074245 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1216398109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the contactin-associated protein 2 (CNTNAP2) gene encoding CASPR2, a neurexin-related cell-adhesion molecule, predispose to autism, but the function of CASPR2 in neural circuit assembly remains largely unknown. In a knockdown survey of autism candidate genes, we found that CASPR2 is required for normal development of neural networks. RNAi-mediated knockdown of CASPR2 produced a cell-autonomous decrease in dendritic arborization and spine development in pyramidal neurons, leading to a global decline in excitatory and inhibitory synapse numbers and a decrease in synaptic transmission without a detectable change in the properties of these synapses. Our data suggest that in addition to the previously described role of CASPR2 in mature neurons, where CASPR2 organizes nodal microdomains of myelinated axons, CASPR2 performs an earlier organizational function in developing neurons that is essential for neural circuit assembly and operates coincident with the time of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) pathogenesis.
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695
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696
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Mining and modeling human genetics for autism therapeutics. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2012; 22:902-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2012.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2012] [Accepted: 03/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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697
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Pathogenetic model for Tourette syndrome delineates overlap with related neurodevelopmental disorders including Autism. Transl Psychiatry 2012; 2:e158. [PMID: 22948383 PMCID: PMC3565204 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2012.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Tourette syndrome (TS) is a highly heritable neuropsychiatric disorder characterised by motor and vocal tics. Despite decades of research, the aetiology of TS has remained elusive. Recent successes in gene discovery backed by rapidly advancing genomic technologies have given us new insights into the genetic basis of the disorder, but the growing collection of rare and disparate findings have added confusion and complexity to the attempts to translate these findings into neurobiological mechanisms resulting in symptom genesis. In this review, we explore a previously unrecognised genetic link between TS and a competing series of trans-synaptic complexes (neurexins (NRXNs), neuroligins (NLGNs), leucine-rich repeat transmembrane proteins (LRRTMs), leucine rich repeat neuronals (LRRNs) and cerebellin precursor 2 (CBLN2)) that links it with autism spectrum disorder through neurodevelopmental pathways. The emergent neuropathogenetic model integrates all five genes so far found to be uniquely disrupted in TS into a single pathogenetic chain of events described in context with clinical and research implications.
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698
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Huang H, Jeon T, Sedmak G, Pletikos M, Vasung L, Xu X, Yarowsky P, Richards LJ, Kostovic I, Sestan N, Mori S. Coupling diffusion imaging with histological and gene expression analysis to examine the dynamics of cortical areas across the fetal period of human brain development. Cereb Cortex 2012; 23:2620-31. [PMID: 22933464 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhs241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
As a prominent component of the human fetal brain, the structure of the cerebral wall is characterized by its laminar organization which includes the radial glial scaffold during fetal development. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is useful to quantitatively delineate the microstructure of the developing brain and to clearly identify transient fetal layers in the cerebral wall. In our study, the spatio-temporal microstructural changes in the developing human fetal cerebral wall were quantitatively characterized with high-resolution DTI data of postmortem fetal brains from 13 to 21 gestational weeks. Eleven regions of interest for each layer in the entire cerebral wall were included. Distinctive time courses of microstructural changes were revealed for 11 regions of the neocortical plate. A histological analysis was also integrated to elucidate the relationship between DTI fractional anisotropy (FA) and histology. High FA values correlated with organized radial architecture in histological image. Expression levels of 17565 genes were quantified for each of 11 regions of human fetal neocortex from 13 to 21 gestational weeks to identify transcripts showing significant correlation with FA change. These correlations suggest that the heterogeneous and regionally specific microstructural changes of the human neocortex are related to different gene expression patterns.
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699
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Xing L, Hoshijima K, Grunwald DJ, Fujimoto E, Quist TS, Sneddon J, Chien CB, Stevenson TJ, Bonkowsky JL. Zebrafish foxP2 zinc finger nuclease mutant has normal axon pathfinding. PLoS One 2012; 7:e43968. [PMID: 22937139 PMCID: PMC3427223 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Accepted: 07/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
foxP2, a forkhead-domain transcription factor, is critical for speech and language development in humans, but its role in the establishment of CNS connectivity is unclear. While in vitro studies have identified axon guidance molecules as targets of foxP2 regulation, and cell culture assays suggest a role for foxP2 in neurite outgrowth, in vivo studies have been lacking regarding a role for foxP2 in axon pathfinding. We used a modified zinc finger nuclease methodology to generate mutations in the zebrafish foxP2 gene. Using PCR-based high resolution melt curve analysis (HRMA) of G0 founder animals, we screened and identified three mutants carrying nonsense mutations in the 2(nd) coding exon: a 17 base-pair (bp) deletion, an 8bp deletion, and a 4bp insertion. Sequence analysis of cDNA confirmed that these were frameshift mutations with predicted early protein truncations. Homozygous mutant fish were viable and fertile, with unchanged body morphology, and no apparent differences in CNS apoptosis, proliferation, or patterning at embryonic stages. There was a reduction in expression of the known foxP2 target gene cntnap2 that was rescued by injection of wild-type foxP2 transcript. When we examined axon pathfinding using a pan-axonal marker or transgenic lines, including a foxP2-neuron-specific enhancer, we did not observe any axon guidance errors. Our findings suggest that foxP2 is not necessary for axon pathfinding during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingyan Xing
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- Interdepartmental Program in Neurosciences, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Kazuyuki Hoshijima
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - David J. Grunwald
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Esther Fujimoto
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Tyler S. Quist
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Jacob Sneddon
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Chi-Bin Chien
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- Interdepartmental Program in Neurosciences, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Tamara J. Stevenson
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Joshua L. Bonkowsky
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- Interdepartmental Program in Neurosciences, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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700
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Han S, Tai C, Westenbroek RE, Yu FH, Cheah CS, Potter GB, Rubenstein JL, Scheuer T, de la Iglesia HO, Catterall WA. Autistic-like behaviour in Scn1a+/- mice and rescue by enhanced GABA-mediated neurotransmission. Nature 2012; 489:385-90. [PMID: 22914087 PMCID: PMC3448848 DOI: 10.1038/nature11356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 470] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2012] [Accepted: 06/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Haploinsufficiency of the SCN1A gene encoding voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.1 causes Dravet Syndrome (DS), a childhood neuropsychiatric disorder including recurrent intractable seizures, cognitive deficit, and autism-spectrum behaviors. The neural mechanisms responsible for cognitive deficit and autism-spectrum behaviors in DS are poorly understood. Here we show that mice with Scn1a haploinsufficiency display hyperactivity, stereotyped behaviors, social interaction deficits, and impaired context-dependent spatial memory. Olfactory sensitivity is retained, but novel food odors and social odors are aversive to Scn1a+/− mice. GABAergic neurotransmission is specifically impaired by this mutation, and selective deletion of NaV1.1 channels in forebrain interneurons is sufficient to cause these behavioral and cognitive impairments. Remarkably, treatment with low-dose clonazepam, a positive allosteric modulator of GABAA receptors, completely rescued the abnormal social behaviors and deficits in fear memory in DS mice, demonstrating that they are caused by impaired GABAergic neurotransmission and not by neuronal damage from recurrent seizures. These results demonstrate a critical role for NaV1.1 channels in neuropsychiatric functions and provide a potential therapeutic strategy for cognitive deficit and autism-spectrum behaviors in DS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Han
- Graduate Program in Neurobiology & Behavior, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
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