651
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Ghosh K, Weiss LM. T cell response and persistence of the microsporidia. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2011; 36:748-60. [PMID: 22126330 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00318.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2011] [Revised: 10/28/2011] [Accepted: 11/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The microsporidia are a diverse phylum of obligate intracellular parasites related to the fungi that cause significant and sometimes life-threatening disease in immune-compromised hosts, such as AIDS and organ transplant patients. More recently, their role in causing pathology in immune-competent populations has also been appreciated. Interestingly, in several instances, the microsporidia have been shown to persist in their hosts long term, causing at opposite ends of the spectrum either an intractable chronic diarrhea and wasting in patients with advanced-stage AIDS or asymptomatic shedding of spores in healthy populations. Much remains to be studied regarding the immune response to these pathogens, but it seems clear that CD8+ T cells are essential in clearing infection. However, in the infection models examined thus far, the role for CD4+ T cells is unclear at best. Here, we discuss the possible reasons and ramifications of what may be a weak primary CD4+ T cell response against Encephalitozoon cuniculi. Given the central role of the CD4+ T cell in other models of adaptive immunity, a better appreciation of its role in responding to microsporidia may provide insight into the survival strategies of these pathogens, which allow them to persist in hosts of varied immune status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaya Ghosh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
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652
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Ernerudh J, Berg G, Mjösberg J. Regulatory T helper cells in pregnancy and their roles in systemic versus local immune tolerance. Am J Reprod Immunol 2011; 66 Suppl 1:31-43. [PMID: 21726336 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2011.01049.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM During pregnancy, the maternal immune system needs to adapt in order not to reject the semi-allogenic fetus. METHOD In this review, we describe and discuss the role of regulatory T (Treg) cells in fetal tolerance. RESULTS Treg cells constitute a T helper lineage that is derived from thymus (natural Treg cells) or is induced in the periphery (induced Treg cells). Treg cells are enriched at the fetal-maternal interface, showing a suppressive phenotype. In contrast, Treg cells are not increased in the circulation of pregnant women, and the suppressive capacity is similar to that in non-pregnant women. However, aberrations in Treg frequencies and functions, both systemically and in the uterus, may be involved in the complications of pregnancy. CONCLUSION Treg cells seem to have distinguished roles locally versus systemically, based on their distribution and phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Ernerudh
- Division of Clinical Immunology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
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653
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Pankhurst MW, Bennett W, Kirkcaldie MTK, West AK, Chung RS. Increased circulating leukocyte numbers and altered macrophage phenotype correlate with the altered immune response to brain injury in metallothionein (MT)-I/II null mutant mice. J Neuroinflammation 2011; 8:172. [PMID: 22152221 PMCID: PMC3251619 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-8-172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Accepted: 12/07/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Metallothionein-I and -II (MT-I/II) is produced by reactive astrocytes in the injured brain and has been shown to have neuroprotective effects. The neuroprotective effects of MT-I/II can be replicated in vitro which suggests that MT-I/II may act directly on injured neurons. However, MT-I/II is also known to modulate the immune system and inflammatory processes mediated by the immune system can exacerbate brain injury. The present study tests the hypothesis that MT-I/II may have an indirect neuroprotective action via modulation of the immune system. METHODS Wild type and MT-I/II(-/-) mice were administered cryolesion brain injury and the progression of brain injury was compared by immunohistochemistry and quantitative reverse-transcriptase PCR. The levels of circulating leukocytes in the two strains were compared by flow cytometry and plasma cytokines were assayed by immunoassay. RESULTS Comparison of MT-I/II(-/-) mice with wild type controls following cryolesion brain injury revealed that the MT-I/II(-/-) mice only showed increased rates of neuron death after 7 days post-injury (DPI). This coincided with increases in numbers of T cells in the injury site, increased IL-2 levels in plasma and increased circulating leukocyte numbers in MT-I/II(-/-) mice which were only significant at 7 DPI relative to wild type mice. Examination of mRNA for the marker of alternatively activated macrophages, Ym1, revealed a decreased expression level in circulating monocytes and brain of MT-I/II(-/-) mice that was independent of brain injury. CONCLUSIONS These results contribute to the evidence that MT-I/II(-/-) mice have altered immune system function and provide a new hypothesis that this alteration is partly responsible for the differences observed in MT-I/II(-/-) mice after brain injury relative to wild type mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael W Pankhurst
- Menzies Research Institute Tasmania, University of Tasmania, 17 Liverpool Street, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, 270 Great King St, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - William Bennett
- Menzies Research Institute Tasmania, University of Tasmania, 17 Liverpool Street, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Matthew TK Kirkcaldie
- School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, 17 Liverpool Street, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Adrian K West
- Menzies Research Institute Tasmania, University of Tasmania, 17 Liverpool Street, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Roger S Chung
- Menzies Research Institute Tasmania, University of Tasmania, 17 Liverpool Street, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
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654
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655
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Wiede F, Shields BJ, Chew SH, Kyparissoudis K, van Vliet C, Galic S, Tremblay ML, Russell SM, Godfrey DI, Tiganis T. T cell protein tyrosine phosphatase attenuates T cell signaling to maintain tolerance in mice. J Clin Invest 2011; 121:4758-74. [PMID: 22080863 PMCID: PMC3226006 DOI: 10.1172/jci59492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2011] [Accepted: 10/07/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Many autoimmune diseases exhibit familial aggregation, indicating that they have genetic determinants. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in PTPN2, which encodes T cell protein tyrosine phosphatase (TCPTP), have been linked with the development of several autoimmune diseases, including type 1 diabetes and Crohn's disease. In this study, we have identified TCPTP as a key negative regulator of TCR signaling, which might explain the association of PTPN2 SNPs with autoimmune disease. We found that TCPTP dephosphorylates and inactivates Src family kinases to regulate T cell responses. Using T cell-specific TCPTP-deficient mice, we established that TCPTP attenuates T cell activation and proliferation in vitro and blunts antigen-induced responses in vivo. TCPTP deficiency lowered the in vivo threshold for TCR-dependent CD8(+) T cell proliferation. Consistent with this, T cell-specific TCPTP-deficient mice developed widespread inflammation and autoimmunity that was transferable to wild-type recipient mice by CD8(+) T cells alone. This autoimmunity was associated with increased serum levels of proinflammatory cytokines and anti-nuclear antibodies, T cell infiltrates in non-lymphoid tissues, and liver disease. These data indicate that TCPTP is a critical negative regulator of TCR signaling that sets the threshold for TCR-induced naive T cell responses to prevent autoimmune and inflammatory disorders arising.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Antinuclear/biosynthesis
- Autoimmune Diseases/enzymology
- Autoimmune Diseases/etiology
- Autoimmune Diseases/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/cytology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/transplantation
- Immune Tolerance/immunology
- Inflammation/blood
- Inflammation/genetics
- Inflammation/immunology
- Lymphocyte Activation
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- Phosphorylation
- Protein Processing, Post-Translational
- Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase, Non-Receptor Type 2/deficiency
- Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase, Non-Receptor Type 2/genetics
- Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase, Non-Receptor Type 2/physiology
- Radiation Chimera
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/immunology
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/enzymology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- Thymocytes/pathology
- ZAP-70 Protein-Tyrosine Kinase/physiology
- src-Family Kinases/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Wiede
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
McGill Cancer Centre and Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Immune Signaling Laboratory, Cancer Immunology, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Centre for MicroPhotonics, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
| | - Benjamin J. Shields
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
McGill Cancer Centre and Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Immune Signaling Laboratory, Cancer Immunology, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Centre for MicroPhotonics, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sock Hui Chew
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
McGill Cancer Centre and Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Immune Signaling Laboratory, Cancer Immunology, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Centre for MicroPhotonics, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
| | - Konstantinos Kyparissoudis
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
McGill Cancer Centre and Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Immune Signaling Laboratory, Cancer Immunology, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Centre for MicroPhotonics, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
| | - Catherine van Vliet
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
McGill Cancer Centre and Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Immune Signaling Laboratory, Cancer Immunology, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Centre for MicroPhotonics, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sandra Galic
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
McGill Cancer Centre and Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Immune Signaling Laboratory, Cancer Immunology, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Centre for MicroPhotonics, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michel L. Tremblay
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
McGill Cancer Centre and Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Immune Signaling Laboratory, Cancer Immunology, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Centre for MicroPhotonics, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sarah M. Russell
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
McGill Cancer Centre and Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Immune Signaling Laboratory, Cancer Immunology, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Centre for MicroPhotonics, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
| | - Dale I. Godfrey
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
McGill Cancer Centre and Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Immune Signaling Laboratory, Cancer Immunology, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Centre for MicroPhotonics, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
| | - Tony Tiganis
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
McGill Cancer Centre and Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Immune Signaling Laboratory, Cancer Immunology, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Centre for MicroPhotonics, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
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656
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Saadoun D, Rosenzwajg M, Joly F, Six A, Carrat F, Thibault V, Sene D, Cacoub P, Klatzmann D. Regulatory T-cell responses to low-dose interleukin-2 in HCV-induced vasculitis. N Engl J Med 2011; 365:2067-77. [PMID: 22129253 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa1105143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 585] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with vasculitis induced by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) have reduced levels of regulatory T cells (Tregs). Resolution of HCV infection correlates with cure of vasculitis and the recovery of Treg levels. We reasoned that interleukin-2, a cytokine that promotes Treg survival and function, could be beneficial for patients with vasculitis that is resistant to HCV therapy. METHODS We investigated the safety and immunologic effects of the administration of low-dose interleukin-2 in a prospective open-label, phase 1-phase 2a study. Ten patients with HCV-induced vasculitis that was refractory to conventional antiviral therapy, rituximab therapy, or both and who were not receiving glucocorticoid or immunosuppressant therapy, received one course of interleukin-2 (1.5 million IU per day) for 5 days, followed by three 5-day courses of 3 million IU per day at weeks 3, 6, and 9. Both the safety of the treatment and its effectiveness were evaluated, the latter by monitoring the Treg response and the clinical signs of HCV vasculitis. RESULTS No adverse events reached a level higher than grade 1. The treatment did not induce effector T-cell activation, vasculitis flare, or increased HCV viremia. We observed a reduction in cryoglobulinemia in 9 of 10 patients and improvement of vasculitis in 8 of 10. Administration of low-dose interleukin-2 was followed by an increase in the percentage of CD4+, CD25(high), forkhead box P3 (FOXP3+) Tregs [E(max) (maximum value)÷baseline value×100=420%] with potent suppressive activity in all subjects and by a concomitantly decreased proportion of marginal-zone B cells. Transcriptome studies of peripheral-blood mononuclear cells revealed that interleukin-2 induced a global attenuation of the signatures for inflammation and oxidative stress mediators. CONCLUSIONS The trial showed that low-dose interleukin-2 was not associated with adverse effects and led to Treg recovery and concomitant clinical improvement in patients with HCV-induced vasculitis, an autoimmune condition. (Funded by the French Agency for Research on AIDS and Viral Hepatitis [ANRS] and others; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00574652.).
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Affiliation(s)
- David Saadoun
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie Université Paris 06, Paris, France
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657
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Bihl F, Germain C, Luci C, Braud VM. Mechanisms of NK cell activation: CD4(+) T cells enter the scene. Cell Mol Life Sci 2011; 68:3457-67. [PMID: 21861183 PMCID: PMC11114938 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-011-0796-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2011] [Revised: 08/08/2011] [Accepted: 08/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are innate lymphocytes involved in immunosurveillance through their cytotoxic activity and their capacity to secrete inflammatory cytokines. NK cell activation is necessary to initiate effector functions and results from a complex series of molecular and cellular events. We review here the signals that trigger NK cells and discuss recent findings showing that, besides antigen-presenting cells, T cells can play a central role in the initiation of NK cell activation in lymph nodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franck Bihl
- Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, UMR6097, 660, route des Lucioles, 06560 Valbonne, France
| | - Claire Germain
- Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, UMR6097, 660, route des Lucioles, 06560 Valbonne, France
| | - Carmelo Luci
- Faculté de Médecine Pasteur, Inserm, U634, 06107 Nice cedex 2, France
| | - Veronique M. Braud
- Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, UMR6097, 660, route des Lucioles, 06560 Valbonne, France
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658
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Tong HV, Toan NL, Song LH, Kremsner PG, Kun JFJ, Tp V. Association of CISH -292A/T genetic variant with hepatitis B virus infection. Immunogenetics 2011; 64:261-5. [PMID: 22033525 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-011-0584-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2011] [Accepted: 10/13/2011] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Cytokine-inducible SRC homology 2 domain protein (CISH) is a suppressor of cytokine signaling that controls interleukin-2 signaling pathway. We investigated the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) -292A>T in 473 Vietnamese hepatitis B virus (HBV) carriers and 416 healthy controls. CISH variants at -292A>T were associated to HBV infection (Allelic: OR, 1.22 95% CI, 1-1.49; P = 0.04; Recessive: OR, 1.69 95% CI 1.23-2.54; P = 0.007). A gene dose effect for the risk allele -292T was observed (P = 0.04). The level of interleukin 2 and liver enzymes such as alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, total bilirubin, and direct bilirubin were not associated to CISH polymorphism at position -292A>T This study associated the vital role of CISH SNP -292A>T variant to hepatitis B virus infection in a Vietnamese population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoang V Tong
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Wilhelmstrasse, 27, 72074, Tübingen, Germany
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659
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Tenorio EP, Fernández J, Castellanos C, Olguín JE, Saavedra R. CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells mediate Toxoplasma gondii-induced T-cell suppression through an IL-2-related mechanism but independently of IL-10. Eur J Immunol 2011; 41:3529-41. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.201141507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2011] [Revised: 08/04/2011] [Accepted: 09/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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660
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The autoimmune disease-associated IL2RA locus is involved in the clinical manifestations of systemic sclerosis. Genes Immun 2011; 13:191-6. [DOI: 10.1038/gene.2011.72] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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661
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Ohl K, Tenbrock K. Inflammatory cytokines in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Biomed Biotechnol 2011; 2011:432595. [PMID: 22028588 PMCID: PMC3196871 DOI: 10.1155/2011/432595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2011] [Accepted: 08/14/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease of unknown origin affecting virtually all organ systems. Beyond genetic and environmental factors, cytokine imbalances contribute to immune dysfunction, trigger inflammation, and induce organ damage. The key cytokine that is involved in SLE pathogenesis is interferon alpha. Interferon secretion is induced by immune complexes and leads to upregulation of several inflammatory proteins, which account for the so-called IFN signature that can be found in the majority of SLE PBMCs. Additionally IL-6 and IFN-y as well as T-cell-derived cytokines like IL-17, IL-21, and IL-2 are dysregulated in SLE. The latter induce a T-cell phenotype that is characterized by enhanced B-cell help and enhanced secretion of proinflammatory cytokines but reduced induction of suppressive T cells and activation-induced cell death. This paper will focus on these cytokines and highlights pathophysiological approaches and therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim Ohl
- Division of Pediatric Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstraße 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Klaus Tenbrock
- Division of Pediatric Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstraße 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
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662
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Castro I, Yu A, Dee MJ, Malek TR. The basis of distinctive IL-2- and IL-15-dependent signaling: weak CD122-dependent signaling favors CD8+ T central-memory cell survival but not T effector-memory cell development. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 187:5170-82. [PMID: 21984699 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1003961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Recent work suggests that IL-2 and IL-15 induce distinctive levels of signaling through common receptor subunits and that such varied signaling directs the fate of Ag-activated CD8(+) T cells. In this study, we directly examined proximal signaling by IL-2 and IL-15 and CD8(+) T cell primary and memory responses as a consequence of varied CD122-dependent signaling. Initially, IL-2 and IL-15 induced similar p-STAT5 and p-S6 activation, but these activities were only sustained by IL-2. Transient IL-15-dependent signaling is due to limited expression of IL-15Rα. To investigate the outcome of varied CD122 signaling for CD8(+) T cell responses in vivo, OT-I T cells were used from mouse models where CD122 signals were attenuated by mutations within the cytoplasmic tail of CD122 or intrinsic survival function was provided in the absence of CD122 expression by transgenic Bcl-2. In the absence of CD122 signaling, generally normal primary response occurred, but the primed CD8(+) T cells were not maintained. In marked contrast, weak CD122 signaling supported development and survival of T central-memory (T(CM)) but not T effector-memory (T(EM)) cells. Transgenic expression of Bcl-2 in CD122(-/-) CD8(+) T cells also supported the survival and persistence of T(CM) cells but did not rescue T(EM) development. These data indicate that weak CD122 signals readily support T(CM) development largely through providing survival signals. However, stronger signals, independent of Bcl-2, are required for T(EM) development. Our findings are consistent with a model whereby low, intermediate, and high CD122 signaling support T(CM) memory survival, T(EM) programming, and terminal T effector cell differentiation, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Castro
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33101, USA
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663
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Differential mTOR and ERK pathway utilization by effector CD4 T cells suggests combinatorial drug therapy of arthritis. Clin Immunol 2011; 142:127-38. [PMID: 22075384 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2011.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2011] [Revised: 09/14/2011] [Accepted: 09/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The signaling pathways utilized by naïve and experienced effector CD4 T cells during activation and proliferation were evaluated. While inhibition of either mTOR or MAPK alone was able to inhibit naïve T cell proliferation, both mTOR and MAPK (ERK) pathway inhibition was required to efficiently block experienced, effector CD4 T cell proliferation. This was demonstrated both in vitro, and in vivo by treating mice with collagen-induced arthritis using mTOR and/or ERK inhibitors. The combination of mTOR and ERK inhibition prevented or treated disease more efficiently than either agent alone. These data illustrate the different requirements of naïve and experienced effector CD4 T cells in the use of the mTOR and MAPK pathways in proliferation, and suggest that therapies targeting both the mTOR and MAPK pathways may be more effective than targeting either pathway alone in the treatment of CD4 T cell-mediated autoimmunity.
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664
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In vivo accumulation of T cells in response to IL-2/anti-IL-2 mAb complexes is dependent in part on the TNF family ligand 4-1BBL. Immunol Cell Biol 2011; 90:743-7. [PMID: 21946662 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2011.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Immune complexes combining IL-2 with particular anti-IL-2 antibodies can be used to selectively expand regulatory T cells or memory T cells. Combining IL-2 with anti-IL-2 (Clone S4B6) greatly enhances the biological potency of IL-2 in vivo leading to selective expansion of CD8 memory T cells and NK cells compared with regulatory T cells. Here we show that in vivo administration of IL-2/anti-IL-2 mAb (IL-2/mAb) complexes induces 4-1BB expression on both adoptively transferred antigen-specific memory CD8 T cells as well as on endogenous memory phenotype cells. Remarkably, the accumulation of adoptively transferred memory CD8 T cells following in vivo IL-2/mAb-complex treatment was found to be dependent in part on the presence of 4-1BBL in the host. These effects were independent of IL-2-induced cell division, suggesting that 4-1BBL-induced survival signals contribute to IL-2/mAb-complex-induced T-cell accumulation in vivo.
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665
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Genetics and the environment converge to dysregulate N-glycosylation in multiple sclerosis. Nat Commun 2011; 2:334. [PMID: 21629267 PMCID: PMC3133923 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms1333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2011] [Accepted: 05/04/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
How environmental factors combine with genetic risk at the molecular level to promote complex trait diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS) is largely unknown. In mice, N-glycan branching by the Golgi enzymes Mgat1 and/or Mgat5 prevents T cell hyperactivity, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) endocytosis, spontaneous inflammatory demyelination and neurodegeneration, the latter pathologies characteristic of MS. Here we show that MS risk modulators converge to alter N-glycosylation and/or CTLA-4 surface retention conditional on metabolism and vitamin D3, including genetic variants in interleukin-7 receptor-α (IL7RA*C), interleukin-2 receptor-α (IL2RA*T), MGAT1 (IVAVT−T) and CTLA-4 (Thr17Ala). Downregulation of Mgat1 by IL7RA*C and IL2RA*T is opposed by MGAT1 (IVAVT−T) and vitamin D3, optimizing branching and mitigating MS risk when combined with enhanced CTLA-4 N-glycosylation by CTLA-4 Thr17. Our data suggest a molecular mechanism in MS whereby multiple environmental and genetic inputs lead to dysregulation of a final common pathway, namely N-glycosylation. Complex diseases such as multiple sclerosis have both genetic and environmental components. This study demonstrates that variants of genes implicated in multiple sclerosis, and alterations in cellular metabolism and vitamin D3 levels, alter N-glycosylation, a post-translational modification causal of the disease in mice.
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666
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Ponce RA. Safety assessment of immunomodulatory biologics: The promise and challenges of regulatory T-cell modulation. J Immunotoxicol 2011; 8:389-97. [DOI: 10.3109/1547691x.2011.603390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
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667
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Liao W, Lin JX, Leonard WJ. IL-2 family cytokines: new insights into the complex roles of IL-2 as a broad regulator of T helper cell differentiation. Curr Opin Immunol 2011. [PMID: 21889323 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2011.08.003.] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/30/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is a pleiotropic cytokine that drives T-cell growth, augments NK cytolytic activity, induces the differentiation of regulatory T cells, and mediates activation-induced cell death. Along with IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15, and IL-21, IL-2 shares the common cytokine receptor γ chain, γ(c), which is mutated in humans with X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency. Herein, we primarily focus on the recently discovered complex roles of IL-2 in broadly modulating T cells for T helper cell differentiation. IL-2 does not specify the type of Th differentiation that occurs; instead, IL-2 modulates expression of receptors for other cytokines and transcription factors, thereby either promoting or inhibiting cytokine cascades that correlate with each Th differentiation state. In this fashion, IL-2 can prime and potentially maintain Th1 and Th2 differentiation as well as expand such populations of cells, whereas it inhibits Th17 differentiation but also can expand Th17 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liao
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1674, USA
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668
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Weidanz WP, Lafleur G, Kita-Yarbro A, Nelson K, Burns JM. Signalling through the IL-2 receptor γ(c) peptide (CD132) is essential for the expression of immunity to Plasmodium chabaudi adami blood-stage malaria. Parasite Immunol 2011; 33:512-6. [PMID: 21585397 PMCID: PMC3155670 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2011.01298.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A genetic dissection approach was employed to determine whether the IL-2 receptor complex (IL-2R) comprised of α, β and γ chains is required for the suppression of Plasmodium chabaudi adami parasitemia. Blood-stage infections in IL-2Rγ(c)(-/y) mice failed to cure with parasitemia remaining elevated for > 50 days indicating the IL-2Rγ(c) through which all members of the γ(c) family of cytokines signal has an essential role in protective immunity against blood-stage malarial parasites. In contrast, the curing of parasitemia in IL-2/15Rβ⁻/⁻ mice, deficient in both IL-2 and IL-15 signalling was significantly delayed but did occur, indicating that neither cytokine plays an essential role in parasite clearance. Moreover, the observation that the time course of parasitemia in IL-15⁻/⁻ mice was nearly identical to that seen in controls suggests that the parasitemia-suppressing role of stimulating through the IL-2/15Rβ chain is owing to IL-2 signalling and not a redundant function of IL-15.
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Affiliation(s)
- W P Weidanz
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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669
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Foureau DM, McKillop IH, Jones CP, Amin A, White RL, Salo JC. Skin tumor responsiveness to interleukin-2 treatment and CD8 Foxp3+ T cell expansion in an immunocompetent mouse model. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2011; 60:1347-56. [PMID: 21638127 PMCID: PMC11029730 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-011-1035-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2010] [Accepted: 05/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Recombinant human interleukin-2 (rhIL-2) therapy is approved for treating patients with advanced melanoma yet significant responses are observed in only 10-15% of patients. Interleukin-2 induces Foxp3 expression in activated human CD8 T cells in vitro and expands circulating CD8 Foxp3+ T cells in melanoma patients. Employing IL-2 responsive (B16-F1, B16-BL6, JB/MS, MCA-205) and nonresponsive (JB/RH, B16-F10) subcutaneous tumor mouse models, we evaluated CD8 Foxp3+ T cell distribution and changes in response to rhIL-2 (50,000 U, i.p. or s.q., twice daily for 5 days). In tumor-free mice and subcutaneous tumor-bearing mouse models, CD8 Foxp3+ T cells were a rare but naturally occurring cell subset. Primarily located in skin-draining lymph nodes, CD8 Foxp3+ T cells expressed both activated T cell (CD28(+), CD44(+)) and Treg (CTLA4(+), PD1(lo/var), NKG2A(+/var)) markers. Following treatment with rhIL-2, a dramatic increase in CD8 Foxp3+ T cell prevalence was observed in the circulation and tumor-draining lymph nodes (TD.LNs) of animals bearing IL-2 nonresponsive tumors, while no significant changes were observed in the circulation and TD.LNs of animals bearing IL-2 responsive tumors. These findings suggest expansion of CD8 Foxp3+ T cell population in response to rhIL-2 treatment may serve as an early marker for tumor responsiveness to immunotherapy in an immune competent model. Additionally, these data may provide insight to predict response in patients with melanoma undergoing rhIL-2 treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M. Foureau
- Department of General Surgery, Carolinas Medical Center, 1000 Blythe Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28203 USA
- Blumenthal Cancer Center, Carolinas Medical Center, 1000 Blythe Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28203 USA
| | - Iain H. McKillop
- Department of General Surgery, Carolinas Medical Center, 1000 Blythe Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28203 USA
| | - Chase P. Jones
- Department of General Surgery, Carolinas Medical Center, 1000 Blythe Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28203 USA
| | - Asim Amin
- Blumenthal Cancer Center, Carolinas Medical Center, 1000 Blythe Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28203 USA
- Department of Medicine, Carolinas Medical Center, 1000 Blythe Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28203 USA
| | - Richard L. White
- Department of General Surgery, Carolinas Medical Center, 1000 Blythe Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28203 USA
- Blumenthal Cancer Center, Carolinas Medical Center, 1000 Blythe Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28203 USA
| | - Jonathan C. Salo
- Department of General Surgery, Carolinas Medical Center, 1000 Blythe Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28203 USA
- Blumenthal Cancer Center, Carolinas Medical Center, 1000 Blythe Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28203 USA
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670
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Liao W, Lin JX, Leonard WJ. IL-2 family cytokines: new insights into the complex roles of IL-2 as a broad regulator of T helper cell differentiation. Curr Opin Immunol 2011; 23:598-604. [PMID: 21889323 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2011.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 488] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2011] [Accepted: 08/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is a pleiotropic cytokine that drives T-cell growth, augments NK cytolytic activity, induces the differentiation of regulatory T cells, and mediates activation-induced cell death. Along with IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15, and IL-21, IL-2 shares the common cytokine receptor γ chain, γ(c), which is mutated in humans with X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency. Herein, we primarily focus on the recently discovered complex roles of IL-2 in broadly modulating T cells for T helper cell differentiation. IL-2 does not specify the type of Th differentiation that occurs; instead, IL-2 modulates expression of receptors for other cytokines and transcription factors, thereby either promoting or inhibiting cytokine cascades that correlate with each Th differentiation state. In this fashion, IL-2 can prime and potentially maintain Th1 and Th2 differentiation as well as expand such populations of cells, whereas it inhibits Th17 differentiation but also can expand Th17 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liao
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1674, USA
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671
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Steenblock ER, Fadel T, Labowsky M, Pober JS, Fahmy TM. An artificial antigen-presenting cell with paracrine delivery of IL-2 impacts the magnitude and direction of the T cell response. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:34883-92. [PMID: 21849500 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.276329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Artificial antigen-presenting cells (aAPCs) are an emerging technology to induce therapeutic cellular immunity without the need for autologous antigen-presenting cells (APCs). To fully replace natural APCs, an optimized aAPC must present antigen (signal 1), provide costimulation (signal 2), and release cytokine (signal 3). Here we demonstrate that the spatial and temporal characteristics of paracrine release of IL-2 from biodegradable polymer aAPCs (now termed paAPCs) can significantly alter the balance in the activation and proliferation of CD8+ and CD4+ T cells. Paracrine delivery of IL-2 upon T cell contact with paAPCs induces significant IL-2 accumulation in the synaptic contact region. This accumulation increases CD25 (the inducible IL-2 Rα chain) on responding T cells and increases proliferation of CD8+ T cells in vitro to levels 10 times that observed with equivalent amounts of bulk IL-2. These CD8+ T cell responses critically depend upon close contact of T cells and the paAPCs and require sustained release of low levels of IL-2. The same conditions promote activation-induced cell death in CD4+ T cells. These findings provide insight into the response of T cell subsets to paracrine IL-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin R Steenblock
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
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672
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Ex vivo purification and characterization of human invariant Natural Killer T cells. J Immunol Methods 2011; 373:1-7. [PMID: 21854781 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2011.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2011] [Revised: 05/19/2011] [Accepted: 08/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Natural Killer T (NKT) cells have gained widespread attention among immunologists because of their distinct ability to regulate anti-tumor responses and to influence the outcome of infections or autoimmunity. Type I (also called invariant) NKT cells (iNKT) are best characterized mainly because of the availability of lipid antigen-loaded CD1d-tetramer detection reagents. Human iNKT cells present important phenotypic differences relative to their murine counterpart, restricting the extrapolation of findings from experimental murine models to human health and disease states. Particularly, the ontogeny and early life phenotype of iNKT cells largely differ between human and mice, indicating divergent functional properties between species. The high therapeutic potential offered by manipulation of iNKT cells in disease warrants a better understanding of human iNKT cell biology. Here, we discuss characteristics of human iNKT cells and present an efficient and rapid method for their ex vivo purification and characterization.
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673
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FERM domain mutations induce gain of function in JAK3 in adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. Blood 2011; 118:3911-21. [PMID: 21821710 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2010-12-319467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL) is an incurable disease where most patients succumb within the first year of diagnosis. Both standard chemotherapy regimens and mAbs directed against ATLL tumor markers do not alter this aggressive clinical course. Therapeutic development would be facilitated by the discovery of genes and pathways that drive or initiate ATLL, but so far amenable drug targets have not been forthcoming. Because the IL-2 signaling pathway plays a prominent role in ATLL pathogenesis, mutational analysis of pathway components should yield interesting results. In this study, we focused on JAK3, the nonreceptor tyrosine kinase that signals from the IL-2R, where activating mutations have been found in diverse neoplasms. We screened 36 ATLL patients and 24 ethnically matched controls and found 4 patients with mutations in JAK3. These somatic, missense mutations occurred in the N-terminal FERM (founding members: band 4.1, ezrin, radixin, and moesin) domain and induced gain of function in JAK3. Importantly, we show that these mutant JAK3s are inhibited with a specific kinase inhibitor already in human clinical testing. Our findings underscore the importance of this pathway in ATLL development and offer a therapeutic handle for this incurable cancer.
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674
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Thompson AL, Staats HF. Cytokines: the future of intranasal vaccine adjuvants. Clin Dev Immunol 2011; 2011:289597. [PMID: 21826181 PMCID: PMC3150188 DOI: 10.1155/2011/289597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2011] [Accepted: 05/22/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Due to its potential as an effective, needle-free route of immunization for use with subunit vaccines, nasal immunization continues to be evaluated as a route of immunization in both research and clinical studies. However, as with other vaccination routes, subunit vaccines often require the addition of adjuvants to induce potent immune responses. Unfortunately, many commonly used experimental vaccine adjuvants, such as cholera toxin and E. coli heat-labile toxin, are too toxic for use in humans. Because new adjuvants are needed, cytokines have been evaluated for their ability to provide effective adjuvant activity when delivered by the nasal route in both animal models and in limited human studies. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss the potential of cytokines as nasal vaccine adjuvants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afton L. Thompson
- Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, P.O. Box 3712, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Herman F. Staats
- Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, P.O. Box 3712, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Immunology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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675
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Abstract
The study of complex genetics in autoimmune diseases has progressed at a tremendous pace over the last 4 years, as a direct result of the enormous gains made by genome wide association studies (GWAS). Novel genetic findings are continuously being reported alongside the rapid development of genetic technologies, sophisticated statistical analysis, and larger sample collections. It is now becoming clear that multiple genes contribute to disease risk in many complex genetic disorders including rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and that there are common genetic risk factors that underlie a spectrum of autoimmune diseases. This review details the current genetic landscape of RA, and describes what GWAS has taught us in terms of missing heritability, subsets of disease, existence of genetic heterogeneity, and shared autoimmune risk loci. Finally, this review addresses the initial challenges faced in translating the wealth of genetic findings into determining the biological mechanisms that contribute to the relationship between genotype and phenotype. Unraveling the mechanism of how genes directly influence the cause of RA will lead to a better understanding of the disease and will ultimately have a direct clinical impact, informing the development of new therapies that can be utilized in the treatment of RA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate McAllister
- Arthritis Research United Kingdom Epidemiology Unit, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University of Manchester, UK
| | - Stephen Eyre
- Arthritis Research United Kingdom Epidemiology Unit, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University of Manchester, UK
| | - Gisela Orozco
- Arthritis Research United Kingdom Epidemiology Unit, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University of Manchester, UK
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676
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Yang J, Wang L, Huang M, Wang L, Gai Y, Qiu L, Zhang H, Song L. An interleukin-2 enhancer binding factor 2 homolog involved in immune response from Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 30:1303-1309. [PMID: 21439385 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2011.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2011] [Revised: 03/12/2011] [Accepted: 03/15/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
As a transcription factor, Interleukin-2 enhancer binding factor 2 (ILF2) regulates IL-2 gene at level of transcription, splicing and translation in vertebrates and plays significant roles in immune system. In this study, an ILF2 homolog was identified from Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis (designated as EsILF) by expressed sequence tag (EST) analysis. The full-length cDNA of EsILF was of 2159bp, containing a 5' untranslated region (UTR) of 90bp, a 3' UTR of 866bp with a poly (A) tail, and an open reading frame (ORF) of 1203bp encoding a polypeptide of 400 amino acids with the predicted molecular weight of 44.3kDa, which shared 59.6-64.5% identities with vertebrate ILF2. There were a conserved N-terminal RGG-rich single-stranded RNA-binding domain and a DZF zinc-finger nucleic acid binding domain in the primary structure, strongly suggesting that EsILF was a homolog of vertebrate ILF2. The mRNA of EsILF was constitutively expressed in all tested tissues of untreated crabs, including hepatopancreas, gill, gonad, muscle, heart and hemocytes, with highest expression in muscle and relative lower levels in hemocytes and gonad. The mRNA expression of EsILF in hemocytes was regulated differently after the crabs were stimulated by bacteria Listonella anguillarum and fungi Pichia pastoris GS115. The expression level was significantly (P<0.05) down-regulated to 0.35- and 0.29-fold compared with blank group at 6h and 12h after the stimulation of L. anguillarum, while P. pastoris significantly (P<0.05) up-regulated the expression level to 3.2-fold compared with the blank group at 6h post treatment. The results indicated that EsILF was involved in the immune response of crab toward both L. anguillarum and P. pastoris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialong Yang
- Key laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
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677
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Chen Y, Haines CJ, Gutcher I, Hochweller K, Blumenschein WM, McClanahan T, Hämmerling G, Li MO, Cua DJ, McGeachy MJ. Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells promote T helper 17 cell development in vivo through regulation of interleukin-2. Immunity 2011; 34:409-21. [PMID: 21435588 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2011.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2010] [Revised: 12/22/2010] [Accepted: 02/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
T helper 17 (Th17) cell development is driven by cytokines including transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-1, and IL-23. Regulatory T (Treg) cells can provide the TGF-β in vitro, but their role in vivo remains unclear, particularly because Treg cells inhibit inflammation in many models of Th17 cell-associated autoimmunity. We used mice expressing Diphtheria toxin receptor under control of the Foxp3 promoter to deplete Foxp3(+) Treg cells in adult mice during in vivo Th17 cell priming. Treg cell depletion resulted in a reduced frequency of antigen-specific IL-17 producers in draining lymph nodes and blood, correlating with reduced inflammatory skin responses. In contrast, Treg cells did not promote IL-17 secretion after initial activation stages. Treg cell production of TGF-β was not required for Th17 cell promotion, and neither was suppression of Th1 cell-associated cytokines. Rather, regulation of IL-2 availability and resultant signaling through CD25 by Treg cells was found to play an important role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Chen
- Merck Research Laboratories, 901 California Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
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678
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Wojno EDT, Hosken N, Stumhofer JS, O'Hara AC, Mauldin E, Fang Q, Turka LA, Levin SD, Hunter CA. A role for IL-27 in limiting T regulatory cell populations. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 187:266-73. [PMID: 21622862 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1004182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
IL-27 is a cytokine that regulates Th function during autoimmune and pathogen-induced immune responses. Although previous studies have shown that regulatory T cells (Tregs) express the IL-27R, and that IL-27 inhibits forkhead box P3 upregulation in vitro, little is known about how IL-27 influences Tregs in vivo. The studies presented in this article show that mice that overexpress IL-27 had decreased Treg frequencies and developed spontaneous inflammation. Although IL-27 did not cause mature Tregs to downregulate forkhead box P3, transgenic overexpression in vivo limited the size of a differentiating Treg population in a bone marrow chimera model, which correlated with reduced production of IL-2, a vital cytokine for Treg maintenance. These data identify an indirect role for IL-27 in shaping the Treg pool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elia D Tait Wojno
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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679
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Wilson CGM, Arkin MR. Small-molecule inhibitors of IL-2/IL-2R: lessons learned and applied. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2011; 348:25-59. [PMID: 20703966 DOI: 10.1007/82_2010_93] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
The IL-2:IL-2R protein-protein interaction is of central importance to both healthy and diseased immune responses, and is one of the earliest examples of successful small-molecule inhibitor discovery against this target class. Drug-like inhibitors of IL-2 have been identified through a combination of fragment discovery, structure-based design, and medicinal chemistry; this discovery approach illustrates the importance of using a diverse range of complementary screening methods and analytical tools to achieve a comprehensive understanding of molecular recognition. The IL-2 story also provides insight into the dynamic nature of protein-protein interaction surfaces, their potential druggability, and the physical and chemical properties of effective small-molecule ligands. These lessons, from IL-2 and similar discovery programs, underscore an increasing awareness of the principles governing the development of drugs for protein-protein interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- C G M Wilson
- Small Molecule Discovery Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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680
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Akdis M, Burgler S, Crameri R, Eiwegger T, Fujita H, Gomez E, Klunker S, Meyer N, O'Mahony L, Palomares O, Rhyner C, Ouaked N, Quaked N, Schaffartzik A, Van De Veen W, Zeller S, Zimmermann M, Akdis CA. Interleukins, from 1 to 37, and interferon-γ: receptors, functions, and roles in diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 127:701-21.e1-70. [PMID: 21377040 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2010.11.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 518] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2010] [Revised: 11/11/2010] [Accepted: 11/12/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Advancing our understanding of mechanisms of immune regulation in allergy, asthma, autoimmune diseases, tumor development, organ transplantation, and chronic infections could lead to effective and targeted therapies. Subsets of immune and inflammatory cells interact via ILs and IFNs; reciprocal regulation and counter balance among T(h) and regulatory T cells, as well as subsets of B cells, offer opportunities for immune interventions. Here, we review current knowledge about ILs 1 to 37 and IFN-γ. Our understanding of the effects of ILs has greatly increased since the discoveries of monocyte IL (called IL-1) and lymphocyte IL (called IL-2); more than 40 cytokines are now designated as ILs. Studies of transgenic or knockout mice with altered expression of these cytokines or their receptors and analyses of mutations and polymorphisms in human genes that encode these products have provided important information about IL and IFN functions. We discuss their signaling pathways, cellular sources, targets, roles in immune regulation and cellular networks, roles in allergy and asthma, and roles in defense against infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mübeccel Akdis
- Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research, University of Zurich, Davos, Switzerland.
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681
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Teichmann LL, Ols ML, Kashgarian M, Reizis B, Kaplan DH, Shlomchik MJ. Dendritic cells in lupus are not required for activation of T and B cells but promote their expansion, resulting in tissue damage. Immunity 2011; 33:967-78. [PMID: 21167752 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2010.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2010] [Revised: 09/09/2010] [Accepted: 10/07/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) initiate and control the adaptive immune response against infections. However, their contributions to the anti-self adaptive immune response in autoimmune disorders like systemic lupus erythematosus are uncertain. By constitutively deleting DCs in MRL.Fas(lpr) mice, we show that they have complex roles in murine lupus. The net effect of DC deletion was to ameliorate disease. DCs were crucial for the expansion and differentiation of T cells but, surprisingly, not required for their initial activation. Correspondingly, kidney interstitial infiltrates developed in the absence of DCs, but failed to progress. DC deletion concomitantly decreased inflammatory and regulatory T cell numbers. Unexpectedly, plasmablast numbers and autoantibody concentrations depended on DCs, in contrast to total serum immunoglobulin concentrations, suggesting an effect of DCs on extrafollicular humoral responses. These findings reveal that DCs operate in unanticipated ways in murine lupus and validate them as a potential therapeutic target in autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lino L Teichmann
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
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682
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Abstract
Signaling through the interleukin-2 receptor (IL-2R) contributes to T-cell tolerance by controlling three important aspects of regulatory T-cell (Treg) biology. IL-2 is essential for thymic Treg development and regulates Treg homeostasis and suppressive function. Analogous to activated conventional T lymphocytes, IL-2R signaling also plays an important part in Treg cell growth, survival, and effector differentiation. However, Treg cells somewhat distinctively assimilate IL-2R signaling. In particular, Treg cells require essentially only IL-2-dependent receptor proximal signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (Stat5) activation, as they contain inhibitory pathways to minimize IL-2R-dependent activation of the phosphatidyinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway. Moreover, many IL-2R-dependent activities, including full induction of Foxp3 expression, in Treg cells require minimal and transient Stat5 activation. Thus, Treg cells are equipped to sense and then develop and function within biological niches containing minimal IL-2. These distinguishing features of IL-2R signaling provide a mechanistic underpinning for using IL-2 as an agent to selectively target Treg cells in immunotherapy to induce tolerance in autoimmune diseases and in allogeneic transplant recipients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoyan Cheng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA
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683
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A role for interleukin-2 trans-presentation in dendritic cell-mediated T cell activation in humans, as revealed by daclizumab therapy. Nat Med 2011; 17:604-9. [PMID: 21532597 PMCID: PMC3089658 DOI: 10.1038/nm.2365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2011] [Accepted: 03/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Although previous studies have described CD25 expression and production of interleukin-2 (IL-2) by mature dendritic cells (mDCs), it remains unclear how these molecules participate in the activation of T cells. In search of the mechanisms by which daclizumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody against CD25, inhibits brain inflammation in multiple sclerosis, we observed that although the drug has limited effects on polyclonal T cell activation, it potently inhibits activation of antigen-specific T cells by mDCs. We show that mDCs (and antigen-experienced T cells) secrete IL-2 toward the mDC-T cell interface in an antigen-specific manner, and mDCs 'lend' their CD25 to primed T cells in trans to facilitate early high-affinity IL-2 signaling, which is crucial for subsequent T cell expansion and development of antigen-specific effectors. Our data reveal a previously unknown mechanism for the IL-2 receptor system in DC-mediated activation of T cells.
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684
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Abstract
Melanoma is the most aggressive form of skin cancer whose worldwide incidence is rising faster than any other cancer. Few treatment options are available to patients with metastatic disease, and standard chemotherapeutic agents are generally ineffective. Cytokines such as IFN-α or IL-2 can promote immune recognition of melanoma, occasionally inducing dramatic and durable clinical responses. Here, we discuss several immunomodulatory agents, the safety of which are being evaluated in clinical trials. Challenges include an incomplete understanding of signaling pathways, appropriate clinical dose and route, and systemic immunosuppression in advanced melanoma patients. We consider how targeted cytokine therapy will integrate into the clinical arena, as well as the low likelihood of success of single cytokine therapies. Evidence supports a synergy between cytokine immunotherapy and other therapeutic approaches in melanoma, and strengthening this area of research will improve our understanding of how to use cytokine therapy better.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney Nicholas
- The Ohio State University, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Medical Oncology, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Gregory B Lesinski
- The Ohio State University, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Medical Oncology, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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685
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Goudy KS, Johnson MC, Garland A, Li C, Samulski RJ, Wang B, Tisch R. Reduced IL-2 expression in NOD mice leads to a temporal increase in CD62Llo FoxP3+ CD4+ T cells with limited suppressor activity. Eur J Immunol 2011; 41:1480-1490. [PMID: 21469091 PMCID: PMC3805504 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201040890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2010] [Revised: 01/14/2011] [Accepted: 02/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
IL-2 plays a critical role in the induction and maintenance of FoxP3-expressing regulatory T cells (FoxP3(+) Tregs). Reduced expression of IL-2 is linked to T-cell-mediated autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes (T1D), in which an imbalance between FoxP3(+) Tregs and pathogenic T effectors exists. We investigated the contribution of IL-2 to dysregulation of FoxP3(+) Tregs by comparing wildtype NOD mice with animals congenic for a C57BL/6-derived disease-resistant Il2 allele and in which T-cell secretion of IL-2 is increased (NOD.B6Idd3). Although NOD mice exhibited a progressive decline in the frequency of CD62L(hi) FoxP3(+) Tregs due to an increase in CD62L(lo) FoxP3(+) Tregs, CD62L(hi) FoxP3(+) Tregs were maintained in the pancreatic lymph nodes and islets of NOD.B6Idd3 mice. Notably, the frequency of proliferating CD62L(hi) FoxP3(+) Tregs was elevated in the islets of NOD.B6Idd3 versus NOD mice. Increasing levels of IL-2 in vivo also resulted in larger numbers of CD62L(hi) FoxP3(+) Tregs in NOD mice. These results demonstrate that IL-2 influences the suppressor activity of the FoxP3(+) Tregs pool by regulating the balance between CD62L(lo) and CD62L(hi) FoxP3(+) Tregs. In NOD mice, reduced IL-2 expression leads to an increase in nonsuppressive CD62L(lo) FoxP3(+) Tregs, which in turn correlates with a pool of CD62L(hi) FoxP3(+) Tregs with limited proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin S Goudy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Mark C Johnson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Alaina Garland
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Chengwen Li
- Gene Therapy Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Richard J Samulski
- Gene Therapy Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Bo Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Roland Tisch
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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686
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Modulation of cytokine receptors by IL-2 broadly regulates differentiation into helper T cell lineages. Nat Immunol 2011; 12:551-9. [PMID: 21516110 PMCID: PMC3304099 DOI: 10.1038/ni.2030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 345] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2011] [Accepted: 03/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
T helper (TH) cells control host-defense to pathogens. The receptors for IL-12, IL-4, and IL-6 are required for TH1, TH2, and TH17 differentiation, respectively. IL-2 signaling via the transcription factor STAT5 controls TH2 differentiation by regulating the TH2 cytokine gene cluster and Il4ra expression. Here we show that IL-2 regulates TH1 differentiation, inducing STAT5-dependent IL-12Rβ2 and T-bet expression, with impaired human TH1 differentiation when IL-2 was blocked. TH1 differentiation was also impaired in mouse Il2−/− T cells but restored by IL-12Rβ2 expression. Consistent with IL-2’s inhibition of TH17 differentiation, IL-2 decreased Il6ra and Il6st expression, and Il6st augmented TH17 differentiation even when IL-2 was present. Thus, IL-2 influences TH cell differentiation by modulating cytokine receptor expression to help specify and maintain differentiated states.
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687
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Campbell DJ, Koch MA. Phenotypical and functional specialization of FOXP3+ regulatory T cells. Nat Rev Immunol 2011; 11:119-30. [PMID: 21267013 DOI: 10.1038/nri2916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 589] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Forkhead box P3 (FOXP3)(+) regulatory T (T(Reg)) cells prevent autoimmune disease, maintain immune homeostasis and modulate immune responses during infection. To accomplish these tasks, T(Reg) cell activity is precisely controlled, and this requires T(Reg) cells to alter their migratory, functional and homeostatic properties in response to specific cues in the immune environment. We review progress in understanding the diversity of T(Reg) cells, T(Reg) cell function in different anatomical and inflammatory settings, and the influence of the immune environment on T(Reg) cell activity. We also consider how these factors affect immune-mediated disease in the contexts of infection, autoimmunity, cancer and transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Campbell
- Immunology Program, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, Washington 98103, USA.
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688
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Ramer-Tait AE, Petersen CA, Jones DE. IL-2 limits IL-12 enhanced lymphocyte proliferation during Leishmania amazonensis infection. Cell Immunol 2011; 270:32-9. [PMID: 21481338 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2011.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2010] [Revised: 02/04/2011] [Accepted: 03/21/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
C3H mice infected with Leishmania amazonensis develop persistent, localized lesions with high parasite loads. During infection, memory/effector CD44(hi)CD4(+) T cells proliferate and produce IL-2, but do not polarize to a known effector phenotype. Previous studies have demonstrated IL-12 is insufficient to skew these antigen-responsive T cells to a functional Th1 response. To determine the mechanism of this IL-12 unresponsiveness, we used an in vitro assay of repeated antigen activation. Memory/effector CD44(hi)CD4(+) T cells did not increase proliferation in response to either IL-2 or IL-12, although these cytokines upregulated CD25 expression. Neutralization of IL-2 enhanced CD4(+) T cell proliferation in response to IL-12. This cross-regulation of IL-12 responsiveness by IL-2 was confirmed in vivo by treatment with anti-IL-2 antibodies and IL-12 during antigen challenge of previously infected mice. These results suggest that during chronic infection with L. amazonensis, IL-2 plays a dominant, immunosuppressive role independent of identifiable conventional T(reg) cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda E Ramer-Tait
- Immunobiology Program and Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011-1250, USA.
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689
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Kroetz DN, Deepe GS. An aberrant thymus in CCR5-/- mice is coupled with an enhanced adaptive immune response in fungal infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 186:5949-55. [PMID: 21478401 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1003876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CCR5 is a potent mediator of regulatory T cell (Treg) chemotaxis. In murine histoplasmosis, mice lacking CCR5 or endogenous CCL4 have a reduced number of Tregs in the lungs, which results in accelerated resolution of infection. In this study, we demonstrate that CCR5 controls the outcome of Histoplasma capsulatum infection by dictating thymic and lymph node egress of Tregs. Mice lacking CCR5 or treated with a mAb to CCL4 had more Tregs in the thymus prior to and during infection. Thymic accumulation was associated with diminished transcription of the sphingosine 1-phosphate 1 receptor and Krüppel-like factor 2, both of which regulate thymic and lymph node emigration of T cells. The significance of CCR5 in Treg egress was demonstrated by generating mixed bone marrow chimeras. Chimeric mice had an increased proportion of CCR5(-/-) Tregs in the thymus and lymph nodes and a decreased proportion of Tregs in the lungs prior to and during H. capsulatum infection. Hence, CCR5 signaling regulates pathogen persistence in murine histoplasmosis by regulating Tregs exiting from the thymus and lymph nodes and, consequently, their subsequent homing in the periphery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle N Kroetz
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Biochemistry, and Microbiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
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690
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Ghare S, Patil M, Hote P, Suttles J, McClain C, Barve S, Joshi-Barve S. Ethanol inhibits lipid raft-mediated TCR signaling and IL-2 expression: potential mechanism of alcohol-induced immune suppression. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2011; 35:1435-44. [PMID: 21463338 DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01479.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alcohol abuse has long-term deleterious effects on the immune system, and results in a depletion and loss of function of CD4(+) T lymphocytes, which regulate both innate and adaptive immunity. T-lymphocyte activation via T-cell receptor (TCR) involves the lipid raft colocalization and aggregation of proteins into the immunological signalosome, which triggers a signaling cascade resulting in the production of interleukin-2 (IL-2). IL-2 regulates the proliferation and clonal expansion of activated T cells and is essential for an effective immune response. The present work examines the mechanisms underlying ethanol-induced dysfunction of CD4(+) T lymphocytes based on the hypothesis that ethanol downregulates lipid raft-mediated TCR signal transduction and resultant IL-2 production. METHODS Primary or cultured human T lymphocytes were exposed to ethanol for 24 hours prior to stimulation with anti-CD3/anti-CD28 antibodies or phytohemagglutinin. Effects of ethanol exposure on TCR-signaling (including activation of Lck, ZAP70, LAT, and PLCγ1) and IL-2 gene expression were examined. RESULTS Exposure of both primary and cultured human CD4(+) T lymphocytes to physiologically relevant concentrations of ethanol leads to down-regulation of IL-2 mRNA and protein via inhibition of DNA-binding activity of NFAT, the essential transcription factor for IL-2. Ethanol decreases tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of upstream signaling proteins PLCγ1, LAT, ZAP70, and Lck. These effects are prevented by inhibition of metabolism of ethanol. Sucrose density gradient fractionation and confocal microscopy revealed that ethanol inhibited essential upstream lipid raft-mediated TCR-dependent signaling events, namely colocalization of Lck, ZAP70, LAT, and PLCγ1 with plasma membrane lipid rafts. CONCLUSIONS Overall, our data demonstrate that ethanol inhibits lipid raft-mediated TCR-signaling in CD4(+) T lymphocytes, resulting in suppression of IL-2 production. These findings may represent a novel mechanism underlying alcohol abuse-associated immune suppression and may be particularly relevant in diseases such as HIV/AIDS and hepatitis C virus infection where alcohol abuse is a known comorbidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smita Ghare
- Department of Medicine, University of Louisville Alcohol Research Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
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691
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Duitman EH, Orinska Z, Bulfone-Paus S. Mechanisms of cytokine secretion: a portfolio of distinct pathways allows flexibility in cytokine activity. Eur J Cell Biol 2011; 90:476-83. [PMID: 21439673 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2011.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2010] [Revised: 01/24/2011] [Accepted: 01/31/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Since cytokines are potent immunoregulators that can determine the fate of an immune response, their expression is tightly regulated at the transcriptional level. Recent research, however, has also revealed complex post-translational mechanisms through which cytokine secretion, and thereby cytokine activity, is regulated. Here, we review the progress in our understanding of the portfolio of pathways that regulate cytokine intracellular storage, transport, and release. Like other secreted proteins, cytokines utilize canonical and non-canonical secretory pathways for extracellular release. Illustrated by IL-1β, IL-2, TNF-α, IL-12 and IL-15 secretion as selected examples, we discuss common and alternative cytokine secretion pathways and relate them to the consequences these distinct pathways have for cytokine function, mode of action and stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erwin Hans Duitman
- Department of Immunology and Cell Biology, Research Center Borstel, D-23845 Borstel, Germany
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692
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Puskas J, Skrombolas D, Sedlacek A, Lord E, Sullivan M, Frelinger J. Development of an attenuated interleukin-2 fusion protein that can be activated by tumour-expressed proteases. Immunology 2011; 133:206-20. [PMID: 21426339 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03428.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to alter the cytokine microenvironment has the potential to shape immune responses in many physiological settings, including the immunotherapy of tumours. We set out to develop a general approach in which cytokines could be functionally attenuated until activated. We report the development and initial characterization of fusion proteins in which human or mouse interleukin-2 (IL-2), a potent growth factor for immune cells, is joined to a specific IL-2 inhibitory binding component separated by a protease site. The rationale is that upon cleavage by a protease the cytokine is free to dissociate from the inhibitory component and becomes biologically more available. We describe the successful development of two attenuation strategies using specific binding: the first uses the mouse IL-2 receptor alpha chain as the inhibitory binding component whereas the second employs a human antibody fragment (scFv) reactive with human IL-2. We demonstrated that the fusion proteins containing a prostate-specific antigen or a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) protease cleavage site are markedly attenuated in the intact fusion protein but had enhanced bioactivity of IL-2 in vitro when cleaved. Further, we showed that a fusion protein composed of the IL-2/IL-2 receptor alpha chain with an MMP cleavage site reduced tumour growth in vivo in a peritoneal mouse tumour model. This general strategy should be applicable to other proteases and immune modulators allowing site-specific activation of immunomodulators while reducing unwanted side-effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Puskas
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
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693
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Berretta F, St-Pierre J, Piccirillo CA, Stevenson MM. IL-2 Contributes to Maintaining a Balance between CD4+Foxp3+ Regulatory T Cells and Effector CD4+ T Cells Required for Immune Control of Blood-Stage Malaria Infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 186:4862-71. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1003777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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694
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Fainboim L, Arruvito L. Mechanisms involved in the expansion of Tregs during pregnancy: role of IL-2/STAT5 signalling. J Reprod Immunol 2011; 88:93-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2010.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2010] [Revised: 12/15/2010] [Accepted: 12/19/2010] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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695
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Qin H, Lee IF, Panagiotopoulos C, Wang X, Chu AD, Utz PJ, Priatel JJ, Tan R. Natural killer cells from children with type 1 diabetes have defects in NKG2D-dependent function and signaling. Diabetes 2011; 60:857-66. [PMID: 21270236 PMCID: PMC3046846 DOI: 10.2337/db09-1706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Natural killer (NK) cells from NOD mice have numeric and functional abnormalities, and restoration of NK cell function prevents autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice. However, little is known about the number and function of NK cells in humans affected by type 1 diabetes. Therefore, we evaluated the phenotype and function of NK cells in a large cohort of type 1 diabetic children. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Peripheral blood mononuclear blood cells were obtained from subjects whose duration of disease was between 6 months and 2 years. NK cells were characterized by flow cytometry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot assays, and cytotoxicity assays. Signaling through the activating NK cell receptor, NKG2D, was assessed by immunoblotting and reverse-phase phosphoprotein lysate microarray. RESULTS NK cells from type 1 diabetic subjects were present at reduced cell numbers compared with age-matched, nondiabetic control subjects and had diminished responses to the cytokines interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-15. Analysis before and after IL-2 stimulation revealed that unlike NK cells from nondiabetic control subjects, NK cells from type 1 diabetic subjects failed to downregulate the NKG2D ligands, major histocompatibility complex class I-related chains A and B, upon activation. Moreover, type 1 diabetic NK cells also exhibited decreased NKG2D-dependent cytotoxicity and interferon-γ secretion. Finally, type 1 diabetic NK cells showed clear defects in NKG2D-mediated activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase-AKT pathway. CONCLUSIONS These results are the first to demonstrate that type 1 diabetic subjects have aberrant signaling through the NKG2D receptor and suggest that NK cell dysfunction contributes to the autoimmune pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huilian Qin
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia Child and Family Research Institute, Immunity in Health and Disease, British Columbia’s Children’s Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - I-Fang Lee
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia Child and Family Research Institute, Immunity in Health and Disease, British Columbia’s Children’s Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Constadina Panagiotopoulos
- Department of Pediatrics, Endocrine and Diabetes Unit, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Xiaoxia Wang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia Child and Family Research Institute, Immunity in Health and Disease, British Columbia’s Children’s Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Alvina D. Chu
- Department of Medicine, Division of Immunology and Rheumatology, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Paul J. Utz
- Department of Medicine, Division of Immunology and Rheumatology, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - John J. Priatel
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia Child and Family Research Institute, Immunity in Health and Disease, British Columbia’s Children’s Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Rusung Tan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia Child and Family Research Institute, Immunity in Health and Disease, British Columbia’s Children’s Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Corresponding author: Rusung Tan,
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696
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Yang XP, Ghoreschi K, Steward-Tharp SM, Rodriguez-Canales J, Zhu J, Grainger JR, Hirahara K, Sun HW, Wei L, Vahedi G, Kanno Y, O’Shea JJ, Laurence A. Opposing regulation of the locus encoding IL-17 through direct, reciprocal actions of STAT3 and STAT5. Nat Immunol 2011; 12:247-54. [PMID: 21278738 PMCID: PMC3182404 DOI: 10.1038/ni.1995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 481] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2010] [Accepted: 01/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin 2 (IL-2), a cytokine linked to human autoimmune disease, limits IL-17 production. Here we found that deletion of the gene encoding the transcription factor STAT3 in T cells abrogated IL-17 production and attenuated autoimmunity associated with IL-2 deficiency. Whereas STAT3 induced IL-17 and the transcription factor RORγt and inhibited the transcription factor Foxp3, IL-2 inhibited IL-17 independently of Foxp3 and RORγt. STAT3 and STAT5 bound to multiple common sites across the locus encoding IL-17. The induction of STAT5 binding by IL-2 was associated with less binding of STAT3 at these sites and the inhibition of associated active epigenetic marks. 'Titration' of the relative activation of STAT3 and STAT5 modulated the specification of cells to the IL-17-producing helper T cell (T(H)17 cell) subset. Thus, the balance rather than the absolute magnitude of these signals determined the propensity of cells to make a key inflammatory cytokine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang-Ping Yang
- Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, National Institute of Arthritis, Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Kamran Ghoreschi
- Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, National Institute of Arthritis, Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Scott M. Steward-Tharp
- Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, National Institute of Arthritis, Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jaime Rodriguez-Canales
- Laser Capture Microdissection Core Laboratory of Pathology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jinfang Zhu
- Laboratory of Immunology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - John R. Grainger
- Mucosal immunology section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Kiyoshi Hirahara
- Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, National Institute of Arthritis, Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Hong-Wei Sun
- Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, National Institute of Arthritis, Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Lai Wei
- Clinical Immunology Section, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Golnaz Vahedi
- Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, National Institute of Arthritis, Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Yuka Kanno
- Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, National Institute of Arthritis, Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - John J. O’Shea
- Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, National Institute of Arthritis, Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Arian Laurence
- Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, National Institute of Arthritis, Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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697
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Long SA, Cerosaletti K, Wan JY, Ho JC, Tatum M, Wei S, Shilling HG, Buckner JH. An autoimmune-associated variant in PTPN2 reveals an impairment of IL-2R signaling in CD4(+) T cells. Genes Immun 2011; 12:116-25. [PMID: 21179116 PMCID: PMC3058680 DOI: 10.1038/gene.2010.54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2010] [Revised: 05/18/2010] [Accepted: 07/05/2010] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The IL-2/IL-2R signaling pathway has an important role in autoimmunity. Several genes identified in genome-wide association (GWA) studies encode proteins in the IL-2/IL-2R signaling cascade that are associated with autoimmune diseases. One of these, PTPN2, encodes a protein tyrosine phosphatase that is highly expressed in T cells and regulates cytokine signaling. An intronic risk allele in PTPN2, rs1893217(C), correlated with decreased IL-2R signaling in CD4(+) T cells as measured by phosphorylation of STAT5 (phosphorylated STAT5 (pSTAT5)). We modeled an additive single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotype, in which each copy of the risk allele conferred a decrease in IL-2R signaling (P=4.4 × 10(-8)). Decreased pSTAT5 impacted IL-2Rβ chain signaling resulting in reduced FOXP3 expression in activated cells. This phenotype was not due to overt differences in expression of the IL-2R, molecules in the IL-2R signaling cascade or defects in STAT5. However, the rs1893217(C) risk variant did correlate with decreased PTPN2 expression in CD4(+)CD45RO T cells (P=0.0002). Thus, the PTPN2rs1893217(C) risk allele associated with reduced pSTAT5 in response to IL-2 and reduced PTPN2 expression. Together, these data suggest that decreased expression of PTPN2 may indirectly modulate IL-2 responsiveness. These findings, identified through genotype/phenotype relationships, may lead to identification of novel mechanisms underlying dysregulation of cytokine signaling in autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Long
- Department of Translational Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute at Virginia Mason, Seattle, WA 98101, USA.
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698
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Xi Z, Lin-Lin M, Jing X, Ye T. CD4+CD25 highCD127 low/−Regulatory T Cell and Interleukin 2 in Transitional Cell Carcinoma. Lab Med 2011. [DOI: 10.1309/lm44a9mbcausvrad] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
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699
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Goudy KS, Johnson MC, Garland A, Li C, Samulski RJ, Wang B, Tisch R. Inducible adeno-associated virus-mediated IL-2 gene therapy prevents autoimmune diabetes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 186:3779-86. [PMID: 21317396 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1001422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
IL-2 and TGF-β1 play key roles in the immunobiology of Foxp3-expressing CD25(+)CD4(+) T cells (Foxp3(+)Treg). Administration of these cytokines offers an appealing approach to manipulate the Foxp3(+)Treg pool and treat T cell-mediated autoimmunity such as type 1 diabetes. However, efficacy of cytokine treatment is dependent on the mode of application, and the potent pleiotropic effects of cytokines like IL-2 may lead to severe side effects. In the current study, we used a gene therapy-based approach to assess the efficacy of recombinant adeno-associated virus vectors expressing inducible IL-2 or TGF-β1 transgenes to suppress ongoing β cell autoimmunity in NOD mice. Intramuscular vaccination of recombinant adeno-associated virus to 10-wk-old NOD female mice and a subsequent 3 wk induction of IL-2 was sufficient to prevent diabetes and block the progression of insulitis. Protection correlated with an increased frequency of Foxp3(+)Treg in the periphery as well as in the draining pancreatic lymph nodes and islets. IL-2 induced a shift in the ratio favoring Foxp3(+)Treg versus IFN-γ-expressing T cells infiltrating the islets. Induction of IL-2 had no systemic effect on the frequency or activational status of T cells and NK cells. Induction of TGF-β1 had no effect on the Foxp3(+)Treg pool or the progression of β cell autoimmunity despite induced systemic levels of activated TGF-β1 that were comparable to IL-2. These results demonstrate that inducible IL-2 gene therapy is an effective and safe approach to manipulate Foxp3(+)Treg and suppress T cell-mediated autoimmunity and that under the conditions employed, IL-2 is more potent than TGF-β1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin S Goudy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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700
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Sun J, Dodd H, Moser EK, Sharma R, Braciale TJ. CD4+ T cell help and innate-derived IL-27 induce Blimp-1-dependent IL-10 production by antiviral CTLs. Nat Immunol 2011; 12:327-34. [PMID: 21297642 PMCID: PMC3079402 DOI: 10.1038/ni.1996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2010] [Accepted: 01/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Interleukin (IL)-10 is an important regulatory cytokine that can modulate excessive immune mediated injury. Several distinct cell types have been demonstrated to produce IL-10, including most recently CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) responding to respiratory virus infection. Here we report that CD4+ T cell help in the form of IL-2 is required for IL-10 production by CTLs, but not for the induction of CTL effector cytokines. We show that IL-2 derived from CD4+ helper T cells cooperates with innate immune cell-derived IL-27 to amplify IL-10 production by CTLs through a Blimp-1-dependent mechanism. These findings reveal a previously unrecognized pathway that coordinates signals derived from innate and helper T cells to control the production of a regulatory cytokine by CTLs during acute viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Sun
- The Beirne B. Carter Center for Immunology Research, The University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
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