Hybrid nanoparticles for detection and treatment of cancer

Silica-Coated Fe3O4 Nanoparticles as a Bifunctional Agent for Magnetic Resonance Imaging and ZnII Fluorescent Sensing

Bifunctional magnetic/fluorescent core-shell silica nanospheres (MNPs) encapsulated with the magnetic Fe₃O₄ core and a derivate of 8-amimoquinoline (N-(quinolin-8-yl)-2-(3-(triethoxysilyl) propylamino) acetamide) (QTEPA) into the shell were synthesized. These functional MNPs were prepared with a modified stöber method and the formed Fe₃O₄@SiO₂-QTEPA core-shell nanocomposites are biocompatible, water-dispersible, and stable. These prepared nanoparticles were characterized by X-ray power diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), thermoelectric plasma Quad II inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID), TG/DTA thermal analyzer (TGA) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Further application of the nanoparticles in detecting Zn²⁺ was confirmed by the fluorescence experiment: the nanosensor shows high selectivity and sensitivity to Zn²⁺ with a 22-fold fluorescence emission enhancement in the presence of 10 μM Zn²⁺. Moreover, the transverse relaxivity measurements show that the core-shell MNPs have T2 relaxivity (r2) of 155.05 mM^-1 S^-1 based on Fe concentration on the 3.0 T scanner, suggesting that the compound can be used as a negative contrast agent for MRI. Further in vivo experiments showed that these MNPs could be used as MRI contrast agent. Therefore, the new nanosensor provides the dual modality of magnetic resonance imaging and optical imaging.

Multifunctional Gold Nanorod for Therapeutic Applications and Pharmaceutical Delivery Considering Cellular Metabolic Responses, Oxidative Stress and Cellular Longevity

Multifunctional gold nanorods (GNR) have drawn growing interest in biomedical fields because of their excellent biocompatibility, ease of alteration, and special optical properties. The great advantage of using GNR in medicine is their application to Photothermal therapy (PPTT), which is possible thanks to their ability to turn luminous energy into heat to cause cellular hyperthermia. For this purpose, the relevant articles between 1988 and 2020 were searched in databases such as John Wiley, Free paper, Scopus, Science Direct, and Springer to obtain the latest findings on multifunctional gold nanorods for therapeutic applications and pharmaceutical delivery. In this article, we review recent progress in diagnostic and therapeutic applications of multifunctional GNR, highlighting new information about their toxicity to various cellular categories, oxidative stress, cellular longevity, and their metabolic effects, such as the effect on the energy cycles and genetic structures. The methods for the synthesis and functionalization of GNR were surveyed. This review includes new information about GNR toxicity to various cellular categories and their metabolic effects.

Exosome-based hybrid nanostructures for enhanced tumor targeting and hyperthermia therapy

Recently, natural exosomes have attracted attention as an ideal drug carrier to overcome the limitations of existing drug delivery systems which are toxicity induction and low cancer-targeting performance. In this study, we propose an exosome-based hybrid nanostructure (EHN) with improved targeting ability and therapeutic efficacy against colorectal cancer by using exosomes isolated from the tumor cell line as a drug carrier. The proposed EHN can have high biocompatibility by using exosomes, a biologically derived material, and show improved targeting performance by adding a tumor-targeting ligand (folic acid). In addition, the proposed EHN is capable of chemotherapy because doxorubicin, an anticancer drug, is encapsulated by the exosome with high efficiency, and it can induce hyperthermia therapy because of the magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) attached to the surface of exosomes. Through in vitro and in vivo experiments using a xenograft tumor mouse model, it was confirmed that the proposed EHN could exhibit increased apoptosis and excellent tumor growth inhibition ability. Therefore, the proposed EHN is expected to overcome the limitations of existing drug delivery systems and be utilized as an effective drug delivery system in cancer treatment.

Molecular Perspective of Nanoparticle Mediated Therapeutic Targeting in Breast Cancer: An Odyssey of Endoplasmic Reticulum Unfolded Protein Response (UPRER) and Beyond

Breast cancer (BC) is the second most frequent cause of death among women. Representing a complex and heterogeneous type of cancer, its occurrence is attributed by both genetic (gene mutations, e.g., BRCA1, BRCA2) and non-genetic (race, ethnicity, etc.) risk factors. The effectiveness of available treatment regimens (small molecules, cytotoxic agents, and inhibitors) decreased due to their poor penetration across biological barriers, limited targeting, and rapid body clearance along with their effect on normal resident cells of bone marrow, gastrointestinal tract, and hair follicles. This significantly reduced their clinical outcomes, which led to an unprecedented increase in the number of cases worldwide. Nanomedicine, a nano-formulation of therapeutics, emerged as a versatile delivering module for employment in achieving the effective and target specific delivery of pharmaceutical payloads. Adoption of nanotechnological approaches in delivering therapeutic molecules to target cells ensures not only reduced immune response and toxicity, but increases the stability of therapeutic entities in the systemic circulation that averts their degradation and as such increased extravasations and accumulation via enhanced permeation and the retention (EPR) effect in target tissues. Additionally, nanoparticle (NP)-induced ER stress, which enhances apoptosis and autophagy, has been utilized as a combative strategy in the treatment of cancerous cells. As nanoparticles-based avenues have been capitalized to achieve better efficacy of the new genera of therapeutics with enhanced specificity and safety, the present study is aimed at providing the fundamentals of BC, nanotechnological modules (organic, inorganic, and hybrid) employed in delivering different therapeutic molecules, and mechanistic insights of nano-ER stress induced apoptosis and autophagy with a perspective of exploring this avenue for use in the nano-toxicological studies. Furthermore, the current scenario of USA FDA approved nano-formulations and the future perspective of nanotechnological based interventions to overcome the existing challenges are also discussed.

Silver Nanoparticles as Modulators of Myogenesis-Related Gene Expression in Chicken Embryos

The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of colloidal nanoparticles of silver (Nano-Ag) on the expression of myogenesis-related genes in chicken embryos. The investigated genes included the members of the myogenic regulatory factors family (MRFs) and myocyte enhancer factor 2A (MEF2A) genes. A total of 200 fertilized broiler eggs (Indian River) were randomly distributed into four groups; non-injected control, injected control with placebo, treatment I in ovo injected with 20 ppm Nano-Ag, and treatment II in ovo injected with 40 ppm Nano-Ag. The eggs were then incubated for 21 days at the optimum temperature and humidity conditions. Breast muscle tissues were collected at the 5th, 8th, and 18th days of the incubation period. The mRNA expression of myogenic determination factor 1 (MYOD1), myogenic factor 5 (MYF5), myogenic factor 6 (MYF6), myogenin (MYOG), and MEF2A was measured at the three sampling points using real-time quantitative PCR, while MYOD1 protein expression was evaluated on day 18 using western blot. Breast muscle tissues were histologically examined on day 18 to detect the changes at the cellular level. Our results indicate that myogenesis was enhanced with the low concentration (20 ppm) of Nano-Ag due to the higher expression of MYOD1, MYF5, and MYF6 at the transcriptional level and MYOD1 at the translational level. Moreover, histological analysis revealed the presence of hyperplasia (31.4% more muscle fibers) in treatment I (injected with 20 ppm). Our findings indicate that in ovo injection of 20 ppm Nano-Ag enhances the development of muscles in chicken embryos compared with the 40-ppm dosage and provide crucial information for the use of silver nanoparticles in poultry production.

Correlative Light and Electron Microscopy for Nanoparticle-Cell Interaction and Protein Localization

Various silica-based fluorescent nanoparticles ((Si-FNP)) with magnetic or metal cores represent a standard class of nanoparticles offering new opportunities for high-resolution cellular imaging and biomedicine applications, such as drug delivery. Their high solubility, homogeneity, biocompatibility, and chemical inertness Si-FNPs make them attractive probes for correlative light and electron microscopy (CLEM) studies, offering novel insights into nanoparticle-cell interactions in detail. In the present chapter, we present a procedure for imaging silica-based fluorescent magnetic core-shell nanoparticles (Si-FMNP) at the single-particle scale in cells. Our method facilitates the acquisition of information on the extracellular and intercellular distribution of nanoparticles and their various interactions with various cellular organelles when cells are cultured and electroporated by NPs. In addition, such information could facilitate the evaluation of the efficacy of nanocarriers designed for drug delivery.

Onco-Receptors Targeting in Lung Cancer via Application of Surface-Modified and Hybrid Nanoparticles: A Cross-Disciplinary Review

Lung cancer is among the most prevalent and leading causes of death worldwide. The major reason for high mortality is the late diagnosis of the disease, and in most cases, lung cancer is diagnosed at fourth stage in which the cancer has metastasized to almost all vital organs. The other reason for higher mortality is the uptake of the chemotherapeutic agents by the healthy cells, which in turn increases the chances of cytotoxicity to the healthy body cells. The complex pathophysiology of lung cancer provides various pathways to target the cancerous cells. In this regard, upregulated onco-receptors on the cell surface of tumor including epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), integrins, transferrin receptor (TFR), folate receptor (FR), cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) receptor, etc. could be exploited for the inhibition of pathways and tumor-specific drug targeting. Further, cancer borne immunological targets like T-lymphocytes, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and dendritic cells could serve as a target site to modulate tumor activity through targeting various surface-expressed receptors or interfering with immune cell-specific pathways. Hence, novel approaches are required for both the diagnosis and treatment of lung cancers. In this context, several researchers have employed various targeted delivery approaches to overcome the problems allied with the conventional diagnosis of and therapy methods used against lung cancer. Nanoparticles are cell nonspecific in biological systems, and may cause unwanted deleterious effects in the body. Therefore, nanodrug delivery systems (NDDSs) need further advancement to overcome the problem of toxicity in the treatment of lung cancer. Moreover, the route of nanomedicines’ delivery to lungs plays a vital role in localizing the drug concentration to target the lung cancer. Surface-modified nanoparticles and hybrid nanoparticles have a wide range of applications in the field of theranostics. This cross-disciplinary review summarizes the current knowledge of the pathways implicated in the different classes of lung cancer with an emphasis on the clinical implications of the increasing number of actionable molecular targets. Furthermore, it focuses specifically on the significance and emerging role of surface functionalized and hybrid nanomaterials as drug delivery systems through citing recent examples targeted at lung cancer treatment.

Sub-10 nm Substrate Roughness Promotes the Cellular Uptake of Nanoparticles by Upregulating Endocytosis-Related Genes

Nanosubstrate engineering is an established approach for modulating cellular responses, but it remains infrequently exploited to facilitate the intracellular delivery of nanoparticles (NPs). We report nanoscale roughness of the extracellular environment as a critical parameter for regulating the cellular uptake of NPs. After seeding cells atop a substrate that contains randomly immobilized gold NPs (termed AuNP-S) with sub-10 nm surface roughness, we demonstrate that such cells internalize up to ∼100-fold more poly(ethylene glycol)-coated AuNPs (Au@PEG NPs) than those cells seeded on a conventional flat culture plate. Our result is generalizable to 4 different cell types and Au@PEG NPs modified with 13 different hydrocarbyl functional groups. Conditioning cells to AuNP-S not only leads to upregulation of clathrin- and integrin-related genes, but also supports elevated uptake of Au@PEG NPs via clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Our data suggest a simple and robust method for boosting the intracellular delivery of nanomedicines by nanosubstrate engineering.

Supramolecular cancer nanotheranostics

Among the many challenges in medicine, the treatment and cure of cancer remains an outstanding goal given the complexity and diversity of the disease. Nanotheranostics, the integration of therapy and diagnosis in nanoformulations, is the next generation of personalized medicine to meet the challenges in precise cancer diagnosis, rational management and effective therapy, aiming to significantly increase the survival rate and improve the life quality of cancer patients. Different from most conventional platforms with unsatisfactory theranostic capabilities, supramolecular cancer nanotheranostics have unparalleled advantages in early-stage diagnosis and personal therapy, showing promising potential in clinical translations and applications. In this review, we summarize the progress of supramolecular cancer nanotheranostics and provide guidance for designing new targeted supramolecular theranostic agents. Based on extensive state-of-the-art research, our review will provide the existing and new researchers a foundation from which to advance supramolecular cancer nanotheranostics and promote translationally clinical applications.

Magnetic Ni-Doped TiO2 Photocatalysts for Disinfection of Escherichia coli Bacteria

Ni-doped TiO₂ nanoparticles have been synthesized by a modified sol-gel method. The crystal phase composition, particle size, and magnetic and optical properties of the samples were comprehensively examined using x-ray diffraction analysis, transmission electron microscopy, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area analysis, Raman spectroscopy, magnetization measurements, and ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) absorption techniques. The results showed that the prepared Ni-doped TiO₂ samples sintered at 400°C crystallized completely in anatase phase with average particle size in the range from 8 nm to 10 nm and presented broad visible absorption. The bactericidal efficiency of TiO₂ was effectively enhanced by Ni doping, with an optimum Ni doping concentration of 6% (x = 0.06), at which 95% of Escherichia coli were killed after just 90 min of irradiation. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations revealed good agreement with the experimental data. Moreover, the Ni dopant induced magnetic properties in TiO₂, facilitating its retrieval using a magnetic field after use, which is an important feature for photocatalytic applications.

Engineering in Medicine To Address the Challenge of Cancer Drug Resistance: From Micro- and Nanotechnologies to Computational and Mathematical Modeling

Drug resistance has profoundly limited the success of cancer treatment, driving relapse, metastasis, and mortality. Nearly all anticancer drugs and even novel immunotherapies, which recalibrate the immune system for tumor recognition and destruction, have succumbed to resistance development. Engineers have emerged across mechanical, physical, chemical, mathematical, and biological disciplines to address the challenge of drug resistance using a combination of interdisciplinary tools and skill sets. This review explores the developing, complex, and under-recognized role of engineering in medicine to address the multitude of challenges in cancer drug resistance. Looking through the "lens" of intrinsic, extrinsic, and drug-induced resistance (also referred to as "tolerance"), we will discuss three specific areas where active innovation is driving novel treatment paradigms: (1) nanotechnology, which has revolutionized drug delivery in desmoplastic tissues, harnessing physiochemical characteristics to destroy tumors through photothermal therapy and rationally designed nanostructures to circumvent cancer immunotherapy failures, (2) bioengineered tumor models, which have benefitted from microfluidics and mechanical engineering, creating a paradigm shift in physiologically relevant environments to predict clinical refractoriness and enabling platforms for screening drug combinations to thwart resistance at the individual patient level, and (3) computational and mathematical modeling, which blends in silico simulations with molecular and evolutionary principles to map mutational patterns and model interactions between cells that promote resistance. On the basis that engineering in medicine has resulted in discoveries in resistance biology and successfully translated to clinical strategies that improve outcomes, we suggest the proliferation of multidisciplinary science that embraces engineering.

Switching the intracellular pathway and enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of small interfering RNA by auroliposome

Gene silencing using small-interfering RNA (siRNA) is a viable therapeutic approach; however, the lack of effective delivery systems limits its clinical translation. Herein, we doped conventional siRNA-liposomal formulations with gold nanoparticles to create "auroliposomes," which significantly enhanced gene silencing. We targeted MICU1, a novel glycolytic switch in ovarian cancer, and delivered MICU1-siRNA using three delivery systems-commercial transfection agents, conventional liposomes, and auroliposomes. Low-dose siRNA via transfection or conventional liposomes was ineffective for MICU1 silencing; however, in auroliposomes, the same dose gave >85% gene silencing. Efficacy was evident from both in vitro growth assays of ovarian cancer cells and in vivo tumor growth in human ovarian cell line-and patient-derived xenograft models. Incorporation of gold nanoparticles shifted intracellular uptake pathways such that liposomes avoided degradation within lysosomes. Auroliposomes were nontoxic to vital organs. Therefore, auroliposomes represent a novel siRNA delivery system with superior efficacy for multiple therapeutic applications.

Advanced applications of nanotechnology in veterinary medicine

The invention of new techniques to manipulate materials at their nanoscale had an evolutionary effect on various medical sciences. At the time, there are thousands of nanomaterials which can be divided according to their shape, origin, or their application. The nanotechnology provided new solutions for old problems. In medical sciences, they are used for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. They can also be applied in the preparation of nanovaccines and nanoadjuvants. Their use in the treatment of cancer and in gene therapy opened the door for a new era in medicine. Recently, various applications of nanotechnology started to find their way in the veterinary sector. They increasingly invade animal therapeutics, diagnostics, production of veterinary vaccines, farm disinfectants, for animal breeding and reproduction, and even the field of animal nutrition. Their replacement of commonly used antibiotics directly reflects on the public health. By so doing, they minimize the problem of drug resistance in both human and veterinary medicine, and the problem of drug residues in milk and meat. In addition, they have a great economic impact, by minimizing the amounts of discarded milk and the number of culled calves in dairy herds. Nanotechnology was also applied to develop pet care products and hygienic articles. The present review discusses the advantage of using nanomaterials compared to their counterparts, the various classes of nanoparticles, and illustrates the applications and the role of nanotechnology in the field of veterinary medicine.

Tunable Fe3O4 Nanorods for Enhanced Magnetic Hyperthermia Performance

Magnetic hyperthermia is one of the most promising techniques for treating gynecological cancer, where magnetite (Fe₃O₄) is the most common nanomaterial used as a magnetic hyperthermia agent. Here, we demonstrate that optimal Fe₃O₄ nanorods (NRs) can act as a magnetic hyperthermia agent with higher specific absorption rate (SAR), which is mostly attributed to their enhanced surface anisotropy. As a result, Fe₃O₄ NRs could effectively hinder the growth of gynecological cancer cells in nude mice models, again demonstrating its good magnetic heating properties. These results provide a powerful basis for the development of an ideal magnetic hyperthermia agent with enhanced SAR, thereby effectively treating gynecological cancer in clinical practice.

Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles: Advances in Biodistribution, Toxicity, and Preclinical Exploration

Antioxidant nanoparticles have recently gained tremendous attention for their enormous potential in biomedicine. However, discrepant reports of either medical benefits or toxicity, and lack of reproducibility of many studies, generate uncertainties delaying their effective implementation. Herein, the case of cerium oxide is considered, a well-known catalyst in the petrochemistry industry and one of the first antioxidant nanoparticles proposed for medicine. Like other nanoparticles, it is now described as a promising therapeutic alternative, now as threatening to health. Sources of these discrepancies and how this analysis helps to overcome contradictions found for other nanoparticles are summarized and discussed. For the context of this analysis, what has been reported in the liver is reviewed, where many diseases are related to oxidative stress. Since well-dispersed nanoparticles passively accumulate in liver, it represents a major testing field for the study of new nanomedicines and their clinical translation. Even more, many contradictory works have reported in liver either cerium-oxide-associated toxicity or protection against oxidative stress and inflammation. Based on this, finally, the intention is to propose solutions to design improved nanoparticles that will work more precisely in medicine and safely in society.

State-of-Art Bio-Assay Systems and Electrochemical Approaches for Nanotoxicity Assessment

Innovations in the field of nanotechnology, material science and engineering has rendered fruitful utilities in energy, environment and healthcare. Particularly, emergence of surface engineered nanomaterials offered novel varieties in the daily consumables and healthcare products including therapeutics and diagnostics. However, the nanotoxicity and bioactivity of the nanomaterials upon interaction with biological system has raised critical concerns to individual as well as to the environment. Several biological models including plant and animal sources have been identified to study the toxicity of novel nanomaterials, correlating the physio-chemical properties. Biological interaction of nanomaterials and its mediated physiological functions are studied using conventional cell/molecular biological assays to understand the expression levels of genetic information specific to intra/extra cellular enzymes, cell viability, proliferation and function. However, modern research still demands advanced bioassay methods to screen the acute and chronic effects of nanomaterials at the real-time. In this regard, bioelectrochemical techniques, with the recent advancements in the microelectronics, proved to be capable of providing non-invasive measurement of the nanotoxicity effects (in vivo and in vitro) both at single cellular and multicellular levels. This review attempted to provide a detailed information on the recent advancements made in development of bioassay models and systems for assessing the nanotoxicology. With a short background information on engineered nanomaterials and physiochemical properties specific to consumer application, present review highlights the multiple bioassay models evolved for toxicological studies. Emphasize on multiple mechanisms involved in the cell toxicity and electrochemical probing of the biological interactions, revealing the cytotoxicity were also provided. Limitations in the existing electrochemical techniques and opportunities for the future research focusing the advancement in single molecular and whole cell bioassay has been discussed.

The Pimpled Gold Nanosphere: A Superior Candidate for Plasmonic Photothermal Therapy

BACKGROUND

The development of highly efficient nanoparticles to convert light to heat for anti-cancer applications is quite a challenging field of research.

METHODS

In this study, we synthesized unique pimpled gold nanospheres (PGNSs) for plasmonic photothermal therapy (PPTT). The light-to-heat conversion capability of PGNSs and PPTT damage at the cellular level were investigated using a tissue phantom model. The ability of PGNSs to induce robust cellular damage was studied during cytotoxicity tests on colorectal adenocarcinoma (DLD-1) and fibroblast cell lines. Further, a numerical model of plasmonic (COMSOL Multiphysics) properties was used with the PPTT experimental assays.

RESULTS

A low cytotoxic effect of thiolated polyethylene glycol (SH-PEG400-SH-) was observed which improved the biocompatibility of PGNSs to maintain 89.4% cell viability during cytometry assays (in terms of fibroblast cells for 24 hrs at a concentration of 300 µg/mL). The heat generated from the nanoparticle-mediated phantom models resulted in ΔT=30°C, ΔT=23.1°C and ΔT=21°C for the PGNSs, AuNRs, and AuNPs, respectively (at a 300 µg/mL concentration and for 325 sec). For the in vitro assays of PPTT on cancer cells, the PGNS group induced a 68.78% lethality (apoptosis) on DLD-1 cells. Fluorescence microscopy results showed the destruction of cell membranes and nuclei for the PPTT group. Experiments further revealed a penetration depth of sufficient PPTT damage in a physical tumor model after hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining through pathological studies (at depths of 2, 3 and 4 cm). Severe structural damages were observed in the tissue model through an 808-nm laser exposed to the PGNSs.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, such results show much promise for the use of the present PGNSs and photothermal therapy for numerous anti-cancer applications.

Materials for Immunotherapy

Breakthroughs in materials engineering have accelerated the progress of immunotherapy in preclinical studies. The interplay of chemistry and materials has resulted in improved loading, targeting, and release of immunomodulatory agents. An overview of the materials that are used to enable or improve the success of immunotherapies in preclinical studies is presented, from immunosuppressive to proinflammatory strategies, with particular emphasis on technologies poised for clinical translation. The materials are organized based on their characteristic length scale, whereby the enabling feature of each technology is organized by the structure of that material. For example, the mechanisms by which i) nanoscale materials can improve targeting and infiltration of immunomodulatory payloads into tissues and cells, ii) microscale materials can facilitate cell-mediated transport and serve as artificial antigen-presenting cells, and iii) macroscale materials can form the basis of artificial microenvironments to promote cell infiltration and reprogramming are discussed. As a step toward establishing a set of design rules for future immunotherapies, materials that intrinsically activate or suppress the immune system are reviewed. Finally, a brief outlook on the trajectory of these systems and how they may be improved to address unsolved challenges in cancer, infectious diseases, and autoimmunity is presented.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Visualization and Control of Cellular Membrane Potential: Strategies, Progress, and Remaining Issues

The interfacing of nanoparticle (NP) materials with cells, tissues, and organisms for a range of applications including imaging, sensing, and drug delivery continues at a rampant pace. An emerging theme in this area is the use of NPs and nanostructured surfaces for the imaging and/or control of cellular membrane potential (MP). Given the important role that MP plays in cellular biology, both in normal physiology and in disease, new materials and methods are continually being developed to probe the activity of electrically excitable cells such as neurons and muscle cells. In this Review, we highlight the current state of the art for both the visualization and control of MP using traditional materials and techniques, discuss the advantageous features of NPs for performing these functions, and present recent examples from the literature of how NP materials have been implemented for the visualization and control of the activity of electrically excitable cells. We conclude with a forward-looking perspective of how we expect to see this field progress in the near term and further into the future.

Recent advances of nanomedicines for liver cancer therapy

This review highlights recent advancements in nanomedicines for liver cancer therapy.

pH-responsive polymeric nanoparticles with tunable sizes for targeted drug delivery

Novel nanoparticles for efficient drug delivery were designed and constructed using polymeric 2,3-dialdehyde cellulose (DAC). The drug DOX was encapsulated into nanoparticles and underwent thoroughly controlled release in acidic tumor microenvironments.

Application of some nanoparticles in the field of veterinary medicine

Nanotechnology is a fast-growing technology that plays an important great impact on various fields of therapeutic applications. It is capable for solving several problems related to animal health and production. There are different nano-systems such as liposomes, metallic nanoparticles, polymeric micelles, polymeric nanospheres, functionalized fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, dendrimers, polymer-coated nanocrystals and nanoshells. In this review, we mentioned different methods for the preparation and characterization of nanoparticles. This review is concerned mainly on nanoparticle systems for antibiotic delivery which suffer from poor bioavailability and many side effects. Nanoparticles are characterized by many features include their minimal size, colossal surface zone to mass extent. The development of antimicrobials in nanoparticle systems is considered an excellent alternative delivery system for antimicrobials for the treatment of microbial diseases by increasing therapeutic effect and overcoming the side effects. In this paper, we reviewed some antimicrobial nanoparticle preparations and we focused on florfenicol and neomycin nanoparticle preparations as well as chitosan and silver nanoparticles preparations to prepare, characterize and compare their different pharmacological effects.

Theranostic Nanomedicine for Malignant Gliomas

Brain tumors mainly originate from glial cells and are classified as gliomas. Malignant gliomas represent an incurable disease; indeed, after surgery and chemotherapy, recurrence appears within a few months, and mortality has remained high in the last decades. This is mainly due to the heterogeneity of malignant gliomas, indicating that a single therapy is not effective for all patients. In this regard, the advent of theranostic nanomedicine, a combination of imaging and therapeutic agents, represents a strategic tool for the management of malignant brain tumors, allowing for the detection of therapies that are specific to the single patient and avoiding overdosing the non-responders. Here, recent theranostic nanomedicine approaches for glioma therapy are described.

Matryoshka-Type Liposomes Offer the Improved Delivery of Temoporfin to Tumor Spheroids

The balance between the amount of drug delivered to tumor tissue and the homogeneity of its distribution is a challenge in the efficient delivery of photosensitizers (PSs) in photodynamic therapy (PDT) of cancer. To date, many efforts have been made using various nanomaterials to efficiently deliver temoporfin (mTHPC), one of the most potent photosensitizers. The present study aimed to develop double-loaded matryoshka-type hybrid nanoparticles encapsulating mTHPC/cyclodextrin inclusion complexes in mTHPC-loaded liposomes. This system was expected to improve the transport of mTHPC to target tissues and to strengthen its accumulation in the tumor tissue. Double-loaded hybrid nanoparticles (DL-DCL) were prepared, characterized, and tested in 2D and 3D in vitro models and in xenografted mice in vivo. Our studies indicated that DL-DCL provided deep penetration of mTHPC into the multicellular tumor spheroids via cyclodextrin nanoshuttles once the liposomes had been destabilized by serum proteins. Unexpectedly, we observed similar PDT efficiency in xenografted HT29 tumors for liposomal mTHPC formulation (Foslip^®) and DL-DCL.

Controlled release of doxorubicin from polyethylene glycol functionalized melanin nanoparticles for breast cancer therapy: Part I. Production and drug release performance of the melanin nanoparticles

In this study, polyethylene glycol (PEG) conjugated melanin nanoparticles (MNPs) were prepared (PEG-MNPs). A model chemotherapy drug, doxorubicin (DOX), was loaded into the PEG-MNPs with varied concentrations (0.125, 0.250, 0.500 mg/mL). TEM images showed that, DOX-PEG-MNPs are spherical-shaped and 15 ± 2.2 nm in diameter. FTIR spectroscopy analysis demonstrated that MNPs were successfully modified with PEG. The UV-Vis spectroscopy results showed that the drug loading capacity of MNPs was 0.7 mg/ml of DOX in 2 mg/ml of PEG-MNPs. The time course data showed that, the release behavior of DOX from MNPs was primarily diffusion controlled. In vitro cytotoxicity assays demonstrated that MNP and PEG-MNP did not show any toxic effect on mouse fibroblast cells while DOX-PEG-MNP was able to inhibit the proliferation of human breast cancer cells. The results confirm that the application area of MNPs in controlled and prolonged drug release could be extended to the different types of cancer therapeutics.

Atherosclerosis Treatment with Stimuli-Responsive Nanoagents: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives

Atherosclerosis is the root of approximately one-third of global mortalities. Nanotechnology exhibits splendid prospects to combat atherosclerosis at the molecular level by engineering smart nanoagents with versatile functionalizations. Significant advances in nanoengineering enable nanoagents to autonomously navigate in the bloodstream, escape from biological barriers, and assemble with their nanocohort at the targeted lesion. The assembly of nanoagents with endogenous and exogenous stimuli breaks down their shells, facilitates intracellular delivery, releases their cargo to kill the corrupt cells, and gives imaging reports. All these improvements pave the way toward personalized medicine for atherosclerosis. This review systematically summarizes the recent advances in stimuli-responsive nanoagents for atherosclerosis management and its progress in clinical trials.

CuCo2S4 nanocrystals as a nanoplatform for photothermal therapy of arterial inflammation

Ultrasmall CuCo2S4 nanocrystals (NCs) have been demonstrated as an effective agent in the photothermal therapy (PTT) of tumors, but have not been investigated for treatment of arterial inflammation, which is critical in the initiation and development of atherosclerosis (AS), a leading cause of vascular diseases worldwide. In this study, CuCo2S4 NCs were synthesized and used as an efficient PTT nanoplatform for arterial inflammation. In vitro experiments illustrated an effective ablation of inflammatory macrophages by CuCo2S4 incubation combined with the irradiation with an 808 nm near-infrared (NIR) laser. In vivo experiments in an apolipoprotein E knockout (Apo E-/-) mouse model showed that the local injection with CuCo2S4 followed by irradiation with an 808 nm NIR laser notably ablated infiltrating inflammatory macrophages and effectively reduced arterial inflammation and arterial stenosis. This work provides a new strategy for treatment of AS by exploring bimetal sulfides as effective PTT agents.

Matrix metallopeptidase 2 targeted delivery of gold nanostars decorated with IR-780 iodide for dual-modal imaging and enhanced photothermal/photodynamic therapy

Nanotheranostics has gained increasing interest, as it offers a great potential to realize personalized diagnostics and therapy. In this work, we report a facile approach of the fabrication of gold nanostars (GNS) attached with matrix metalloproteinases (MMP2) polypeptides (Ac-GPLGIAGQ) and IR-780 iodide through bovine serum albumin (BSA) for targeted dual-modal photoacoustic (PA)/near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging and enhanced photothermal therapy (PTT)/photodynamic therapy (PDT) for lung cancer. MMP2 polypeptides served as the targeting ligand, IR-780 iodide functioned as the NIR fluorescence imaging agent as well as PTT/PDT agent, and GNS acted as the carrier of IR-780 molecules and performed PA imaging and PTT. DLS and CCK-8 assay demonstrated that the nanoprobes (GNS@BSA/I-MMP2) exhibited excellent stability and biocompatibility under physiological conditions. Subsequent in vitro studies verified that GNS@BSA/I-MMP2 nanoparticles (NPs) were effectively internalized by A549 cancer cells and exhibited remarkable antitumor efficacy. Furthermore, GNS@BSA/I-MMP2 NPs could specifically target the tumor and significantly suppress the tumor growth, and their antitumor effects were mainly through the synergistic effects of PDT and PTT based on IR-780 and GNS. These findings imply the potential of GNS@BSA/I-MMP2 NPs as a targeting PA/NIR probe in tumor diagnosis and combined therapy with a single light source. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: We reported a convenient and facile approach to load IR-780 iodides in gold nanostars (GNS). This material could simultaneously perform near-infrared imaging/photoacoustic imaging and thermotherapy/photodynamic therapy. MMP2 coating on the surface of GNS@BSA/IR-780 promoted the prepared nanoparticles (GNS@BSA/I-MMP2) to target the tumor region. The heat generated by the synergistic effect of the GNS and IR-780 molecules resulted in the high temperature of the GNS@BSA/I-MMP2 NPs, which efficiently suppressed the growth of tumor, and the tumor volume decreased by 93% compared with that in the PBS groups with laser irradiation.

Nanomaterials-Based siRNA Delivery: Routes of Administration, Hurdles and Role of Nanocarriers

Ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) is a potential alternative therapeutic approach to knock down the overexpression of genes in several disorders especially cancers with underlying genetic dysfunctions. For silencing of specific genes involved in cell cycle, small/short interfering ribonucleic acids (siRNAs) are being used clinically. The siRNA-based RNAi is more efficient, specific and safe antisense technology than other RNAi approaches. The route of siRNA administration for siRNA therapy depends on the targeted site. However, certain hurdles like poor stability of siRNA, saturation, off-target effect, immunogenicity, anatomical barriers and non-targeted delivery restrict the successful siRNA therapy. Thus, advancement of an effective, secure, and long-term delivery system is prerequisite to the medical utilization of siRNA. Polycationic nanocarriers mediated targeted delivery system is an ideal system to remove these hurdles and to increase the blood retention time and rate of intracellular permeability. In this chapter, we will mainly discuss the different biocompatible, biodegradable, non-toxic (organic, inorganic and hybrid) nanocarriers that encapsulate and shield the siRNA from the different harsh environment and provides the increased systemic siRNA delivery.

Learning from Solar Energy Conversion: Biointerfaces for Artificial Photosynthesis and Biological Modulation

Three seemingly distinct directions of nanomaterials research, photovoltaics, biofuel production, and biological modulation, have been sequentially developed over the past several decades. In this Mini Review, we discuss how the insights gleaned from nanomaterials-based solar energy conversion can be adapted to biointerface designs. Because of their size- and shape-dependent optical properties and excellent synthetic control, nanomaterials have shown unique technological advantages as the light absorbers or energy transducers. Biocompatible nanomaterials have also been incorporated into biological systems including biomolecules, bacteria, and eukaryotic cells for a large collection of fundamental studies and applications. For the photocatalytic biofuel production, either isolated bacterial enzymes or the entire bacteria have been hybridized with the nanomaterials, where functions from both parts are synergistically integrated. Likewise, interfacing nanomaterials with eukaryotic systems, whether in individual cells or tissues, has enabled optical modulation of cellular behavior and the construction of active cellular materials. Here we survey different approaches in which nanomaterials are used to elicit electrical or mechanical changes in single cells or cellular assemblies via photoelectrochemical or photothermal processes. We end this Mini Review with the discussion of future nongenetic modulation at the intracellular level.

Effect of physicochemical and surface properties on in vivo fate of drug nanocarriers

Over the years, a plethora of materials - natural and synthetic - have been engineered at a nanoscopic level and explored for drug delivery. Nanocarriers based on such materials could improve the payload's pharmacokinetics and achieve the desired pharmacological response at the target tissue. Despite the development of rationally designed drug nanocarriers, only a handful of such formulations have been successfully translated into the clinic. The physicochemical properties (size, shape, surface chemistry, porosity, elasticity, and many others) of these nanocarriers influence its biological identity, which in presence of biological barriers in vivo, could significantly modulate the therapeutic index of its cargo and alter the desired outcome. Further, complexities associated with developing effective drug nanocarriers have led to conflicting views of its safety, permeation of biological barriers and cellular uptake. Here, in this review, we emphasize the effect of physicochemical properties of nanocarriers on their interactions with the biological milieu. The review will discuss in depth, how modulating the physicochemical properties would influence a drug nanocarrier's behavior in vivo and the mechanisms underlying these effects. The goal of this review is to summarize the design considerations based on these properties and to provide a conceptual template for achieving improved therapeutic efficacy with enhanced patient compliance.

On the advancement of polymeric bicontinuous nanospheres toward biomedical applications

Self-assembled soft nanocarriers that are capable of simultaneous encapsulation of both lipophilic and water soluble payloads have significantly enhanced controlled delivery applications in biomedicine. These nanoarchitectures, such as liposomes, polymersomes and cubosomes, are primarily composed of either amphiphilic polymers or lipids, with the polymeric variants generally possessing greater stability and control over biodistribution and bioresponsive release. Polymersomes have long demonstrated such advantages over their lipid analogs, liposomes, but only recently have bicontinuous nanospheres emerged as a polymeric cubic phase alternative to lipid cubosomes. In this review, we summarize the current state of the field for bicontinuous nanosphere formulation and characterization and suggest future directions for this nascent delivery platform as it is adopted for biomedical applications.

Multi-Modal Nano Particle Labeling of Neurons

The development of imaging methodologies for single cell measurements over extended timescales of up to weeks, in the intact animal, will depend on signal strength, stability, validity and specificity of labeling. Whereas light-microscopy can achieve these with genetically-encoded probes or dyes, this modality does not allow mesoscale imaging of entire intact tissues. Non-invasive imaging techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), outperform light microscopy in field of view and depth of imaging, but do not offer cellular resolution and specificity, suffer from low signal-to-noise ratio and, in some instances, low temporal resolution. In addition, the origins of the signals measured by MRI are either indirect to the process of interest or hard to validate. It is therefore highly warranted to find means to enhance MRI signals to allow increases in resolution and cellular-specificity. To this end, cell-selective bi-functional magneto-fluorescent contrast agents can provide an elegant solution. Fluorescence provides means for identification of labeled cells and particles location after MRI acquisition, and it can be used to facilitate the design of cell-selective labeling of defined targets. Here we briefly review recent available designs of magneto-fluorescent markers and elaborate on key differences between them with respect to durability and relevant cellular highlighting approaches. We further focus on the potential of intracellular labeling and basic functional sensing MRI, with assays that enable imaging cells at microscopic and mesoscopic scales. Finally, we illustrate the qualities and limitations of the available imaging markers and discuss prospects for in vivo neural imaging and large-scale brain mapping.

Importance of Theranostics in Rare Brain-Eating Amoebae Infections

Pathogenic free-living amoebae including Acanthamoeba spp., Balamuthia mandrillaris, and Naegleria fowleri cause infections of the central nervous system (CNS), which almost always prove fatal. The mortality rate is high with the CNS infections caused by these microbes despite modern developments in healthcare and antimicrobial chemotherapy. The low awareness, delayed diagnosis, and lack of effective drugs are major hurdles to overcome these challenges. Nanomaterials have emerged as vital tools for concurrent diagnosis and therapy, which are commonly referred to as theranostics. Nanomaterials offer highly sensitive diagnostic systems and viable therapeutic effects as a single modality. There has been good progress to develop nanomaterials based efficient theranostic systems against numerous kinds of tumors, but this field is yet immature in the context of infectious diseases, particularly parasitic infections. Herein, we describe the potential value of theranostic applications of nanomaterials against brain infections due to pathogenic amoebae.

Small protein sequences can induce cellular uptake of complex nanohybrids

In this letter, we report on the ability of functional fusion proteins presenting a lytic gamma peptide, to promote interactions with HeLa cells and delivery of large hybrid nanostructures.

Microfluidic Nanoassembly of Bioengineered Chitosan-Modified FcRn-Targeted Porous Silicon Nanoparticles @ Hypromellose Acetate Succinate for Oral Delivery of Antidiabetic Peptides

Microfluidics technology is emerging as a promising strategy in improving the oral delivery of proteins and peptides. Herein, a multistage drug delivery system is proposed as a step forward in the development of noninvasive therapies. Undecylenic acid-modified thermally hydrocarbonized porous silicon (UnPSi) nanoparticles (NPs) were functionalized with the Fc fragment of immunoglobulin G for targeting purposes. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) was loaded into the NPs as a model antidiabetic drug. Fc-UnPSi NPs were coated with mucoadhesive chitosan and ultimately entrapped into a polymeric matrix with pH-responsive properties by microfluidic nanoprecipitation. The final formulation showed a controlled and narrow size distribution. The pH-responsive matrix remained intact in acidic conditions, dissolving only in intestinal pH, resulting in a sustained release of the payload. The NPs presented high cytocompatibility and increased levels of interaction with intestinal cells when functionalized with the Fc fragment, which was supported by the validation of the Fc-fragment integrity after conjugation to the NPs. Finally, the Fc-conjugated NPs showed augmented GLP-1 permeability in an intestinal in vitro model. These results highlight the potential of microfluidics as an advanced technique for the preparation of multistage platforms for oral administration. Moreover, this study provides new insights on the potential of the Fc receptor transcytotic capacity for the development of targeted therapies.

Integration of Polymerization and Biomineralization as a Strategy to Facilely Synthesize Nanotheranostic Agents

Integration of biological macromolecules with inorganic materials via biomineralization has demonstrated great potential for development of nanotheranostic agents. To produce multifunctionality, integration of multiple components in the biomineralized theranostic agents is required; however, how to efficiently and reproducibly implement this is challenging. In this report, a universal biomineralization strategy is developed by incorporation of oxidization polymerization into albumin-templated biomineralization for facile synthesis of nanotheranostic agents. A series of biomineralized polymers and manganese dioxide hybrid nanoparticles (PMHNs) can be synthesized via the polymerization of various monomers, including dopamine (DA), epigallocatechin (EGC), pyrrole (PY), and diaminopyridine (DP), along with the reduction of KMnO₄ and formation of manganese dioxide nanoparticles in albumin templates. These biomineralized PMHNs demonstrate ultrahigh MRI (longitudinal relaxivity up to 38 mM^-1 s^-1) and ultrasonic (US) imaging contrasting capabilities and have excellent photothermal therapy efficacy with complete ablation of orthotopic tumors. Moreover, these biomineralized hybrid nanoparticles can be effectively excreted through the kidneys, avoiding potential systemic toxicity. Thus, integration of polymerization into biomineralization presents a strategy for the fabrication of hybrid nanomaterials, allowing the production of multifunctional and biocompatible nanotheranostic agents via a facile one-pot method.

A dual redox-responsive supramolecular amphiphile fabricated by selenium-containing pillar[6]arene-based molecular recognition

A dual redox-responsive pillar[6]arene-based supramolecular amphiphile was fabricated in water. The self-assembly behavior of this supramolecular amphiphile in response to dual redox stimuli was investigated.

Elemental zinc to zinc nanoparticles: is ZnO NPs crucial for life? Synthesis, toxicological, and environmental concerns

The semi-conducting material zinc is one of the essential trace elements for humans, is a co-factor of more than 300 enzymes, and plays an important role in maintaining vital cellular functions. Deficiency of zinc may lead to cancer initiation; however, a high concentration also has toxic effects that might be life threatening. The toxicity can be addressed by the disequilibrium of zinc-mediated proteins and oxidative stress that produce nascent oxygen, hydroxyl radicals, and other reactive oxygen species. Zinc-based nanoparticles (NPs) are among the most important and multifunctional compounds. Zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs exhibit attractive antimicrobial and photocatalytic properties due to the smaller particle size and increased particle surface reactivity. Further, these are more biocompatible compared to other metallic NPs, easily synthesizable, and have high selectivity, enhanced cytotoxicity, and are a promising anticancer agent. However, some of the pertinent concerns regarding nano-zinc still needs to be clarified. Current research also demonstrates their usage in wastewater treatment, textile, medicine, etc. This review covers the importance of zinc for living systems and its NPs, with more emphasis on ZnO NPs. A comprehensive overview of ZnO NPs, their synthesis, characterization techniques, crystal structure, properties, and brief industrial applications are presented.