Recent advances in understanding the roles of matrix metalloproteinases in tumour invasion and metastasis

Dual-functional antitumor conjugates improving the anti-metastasis effect of combretastatin A4 by targeting tubulin polymerization and matrix metalloproteinases

This study prepared different novel conjugates containing tubulin and MMP inhibitors and assessed their anticancer effects. Typically, the conjugate 15g, which contained combretastatin A4 (CA4) and 2-(4-((diethoxyphosphono)(o-tolyl)methylamino)phenyl)acetic acid (19g) connected by an ester bond, showed the maximum effect against proliferation. Particularly, the conjugate yielded a reduced IC₅₀ value of 0.05 μM in controlling the proliferation of HepG2 cells compared to CA4 alone (0.09 μM). Systematic research indicated that 15g suppressed tubulin polymerization, induced cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase, led to reactive oxidative stress (ROS) generation of HepG2 cells, and resulted in apoptosis by the mitochondrial-dependent apoptotic pathway. Moreover, 15g showed a potent effect on resistant metastasis by decreasing the levels of the proteins MMP2 and MMP9 in the HepG2 cells. Therefore, this conjugate is a potentially effective approach to improve the anti-metastatic effect of CA4 with high safety.

Lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 1 promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition of hepatocellular carcinoma via the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most malignant digestive tumors, and its insidious onset and rapid progression are the main reasons for the difficulty in effective treatment. Lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 1 (LPCAT1) is a key enzyme that regulates phospholipid metabolism of the cell membrane. However, the mechanism by which LPCAT1 regulates HCC metastasis remains unknown. This study aimed to explore its biological function and potential mechanisms concerning migration and invasion in HCC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

LPCAT1 expression in HCC tissues and its association with clinical outcomes were investigated by western blotting and bioinformatic methods, respectively. The role of LPCAT1 in migration and invasion was assessed via Transwell assays. The expression pattern of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers was quantified by western blotting. The biological behaviors of LPCAT1 in vivo were evaluated using xenograft tumor models and caudal vein metastatic models. Signaling pathways related to LPCAT1 were predicted using gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) and further confirmed by western blotting.

RESULTS

LPCAT1 expression was significantly upregulated in HCC tissues and indicated a poor prognosis of HCC patients. Several EMT-related markers were found to be regulated by LPCAT1. HCC cells overexpressing LPCAT1 exhibited remarkably high migration and invasion capacities, upregulated expression of mesenchymal markers and reduced E-cadherin expression. In vivo, LPCAT1 promoted HCC pulmonary metastasis. Furthermore, the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway was confirmed to be activated by LPCAT1.

CONCLUSIONS

LPCAT1 could serve as a promising biomarker of HCC and as a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of metastatic HCC.

Oncogenic Role of Connective Tissue Growth Factor Is Associated with Canonical TGF-β Cascade in Colorectal Cancer

TGF-β signaling pathways promote tumour development and control several downstream genes such as CTGF and MMPs. This study aimed to investigate the association between CTGF and MMP-1 mRNA expressions with clinicopathological status and survival rate in colorectal cancer patients. We investigated expression levels of CTGF and MMP-1 genes in paraffin-embedded tumours and adjacent normal tissue blocks (ADJ) by Real Time-PCR. Then, the expression of Smad2 and Smad4 proteins in the TGF-β canonical pathway was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. Finally, the correlation between CTGF, MMP-1, and the canonical TGF-β-signalling pathway with the clinicopathological features was investigated. Expression levels of MMP-1and CTGF were higher in tumours compared with adjacent normal tissues. Overexpression levels of MMP-1 and CTGF were associated with lymph node metastasis, distant metastasis, tumour histopathological grading, advanced stage, and poor survival (p < 0.05). Additionally, a significant association between the upregulation of MMP-1 and tumour location was noted. Upregulation of Smad2 and Smad4 proteins were also significantly correlated with lymph node metastasis, distant metastasis, advanced stage, and poor survival (p < 0.0001). This study showed that canonical TGF-β signalling regulates both CTGF and MMP-1 expression and CRC progression. Moreover, TGF-β signalling and its downstream genes could be used as novel biomarkers and novel approaches for targeted therapy in CRC.

Matrix metalloproteinase 11 (MMP11) in macrophages promotes the migration of HER2-positive breast cancer cells and monocyte recruitment through CCL2-CCR2 signaling

Matrix metalloproteinase 11 (MMP11), a member of the MMP family involved in the degradation of the extracellular matrix, has been implicated in cancer progression. Despite the stromal expression of MMP11 in breast cancer, the prognostic significance and role of MMP11 in immune or stromal cells of breast cancer remain unclear. Based on the immunohistochemical analysis of breast cancer tissues from 497 patients, we demonstrated that MMP11 expression in mononuclear inflammatory cells (predominantly macrophages) is an independent negative prognostic factor in breast cancer, whereas MMP11 expression in tumor cells and fibroblasts is not associated with patient survival. Enforced MMP11 expression in breast cancer cells did not promote cell proliferation and migration. However, MMP11-overexpressing macrophages enhanced the migration of HER2-positive (HER2+) breast cancer cells, recruitment of monocytes, and tube formation of endothelial cells. Furthermore, we found that the chemokine CCL2 secreted from MMP11-overexpressing macrophages activated the MAPK pathway via its receptor CCR2 in breast cancer cells, thereby promoting the migration of HER2+ breast cancer cells through MMP9 upregulation. We also found that MMP11 expression in macrophages was stimulated by MMP11-overepressing HER2+ breast cancer cells. Collectively, our findings provide evidence that MMP11 in macrophages may play a pro-tumoral role in HER2+ breast cancer through interaction with cancer cells, monocytes, and endothelial cells.

The airway microbiota of non-small cell lung cancer patients and its relationship to tumor stage and EGFR gene mutation

BACKGROUND

Accumulating studies have suggested the airway microbiota in lung cancer patients is significantly different from that of healthy controls. However, little is known about the relationship between airway microbiota and important clinical parameters of lung cancer. In this study, we aimed to explore the association between sputum microbiota and lung cancer stage, lymph node metastasis, intrathoracic metastasis, and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) gene mutation.

METHODS

The microbiota of sputum samples from 85 newly-diagnosed NSCLC patients were sequenced via 16S rRNA sequencing of the V3-V4 region. Sequencing reads were filtered using QIIME2 and clustered against UPARSE.

RESULTS

Alpha- and β-diversity was significantly different between patients in stages I to II (early stage, ES) and patients in stages III to IV (advanced stage, AS). Linear discriminant analysis Effect Size (LEfSe) identified that genera Granulicatella and Actinobacillus were significantly enriched in ES, and the genus Actinomyces was significantly enriched in AS. PICRUSt2 identified that the NAD salvage pathway was significantly enriched in AS, which was positively associated with Granulicatella. Patients with intrathoracic metastasis were associated with increased genus Peptostreptococcus and incomplete reductive TCA cycle, which was associated with increased Peptostreptococcus. Genera Parvimonas, Pseudomona and L-valine biosynthesis were positively associated with lymph node metastasis. L-valine biosynthesis was related with increased Pseudomona. Finally, the genus Parvimonas was significantly enriched in adenocarcinoma patients with EGFR mutation.

CONCLUSION

The taxonomy structure differed between different lung cancer stages. The tumor stage, intrathoracic metastasis, lymph node metastasis, and EGFR mutation were associated with alteration of specific airway genera and metabolic function of sputum microbiota.

Exploiting ECM remodelling to promote immune-mediated tumour destruction

Cancer immunotherapy represents a significant breakthrough in cancer treatment mainly due to the ability to harness the activities of cancer-specific T cells. Despite this, most cancers remain resistant to T cell attack. Many reasons have been proposed to explain this, ranging from a lack of antigenicity through to the immunosuppressive effects of the tumour microenvironment. In this review, we examine the relationship between the immune system and a key component of the tumour microenvironment, namely the extracellular matrix (ECM). Specifically, we explore the reciprocal effects of immune cells and the tumour ECM and how the processes underpinning this relationship act to either promote or restrain tumour progression.

Therapeutic potential of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi in lung cancer therapy

BACKGROUND

Globally, lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer associated mortalities. The current conventional chemotherapy remains the preferred treatment option for lung cancer, as surgical resection plays little role in the treatment of over 75% of lung cancer patients. Therefore, there is a need to develop novel potential therapeutic drugs or adjuvants with a high efficiency and safety against lung cancer. Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, a common Chinese medicinal herb that has been in use for more than 2000 years, has recently been shown to possess significant activities against lung cancer. However, current research progress on pharmacological effects and relevant molecular mechanisms of S. baicalensis in lung cancer therapy have not been systematically summarized.

PURPOSE

This review aimed at elucidating on the anti-lung cancer mechanisms and antitumor efficacies of S. baicalensis as well as its active ingredients, and providing a valuable reference for further investigation in this field.

METHODS

We used "Scutellaria baicalensis" or the name of the compound in S. baicalensis, in combination with "lung cancer" as key words to systematically search for relevant literature from the Web of Science and PubMed databases. Publications that investigated molecular mechanisms were the only ones selected for analysis. The PRISMA guidelines were followed.

RESULTS

Fifty-four publications met the inclusion criteria for this study. Five anti-lung cancer mechanisms of S. baicalensis and its constituent components are discussed. These mechanisms include apoptosis induction, cell-cycle arrest, suppression of proliferation, blockade of invasion and metastasis, and overcoming drug-resistance. These compounds exhibited high antitumor efficacies and safety against lung cancer xenografts.

CONCLUSION

Studies should aim at elucidating on the anti-cancer mechanisms of S. baicalensis to achieve the ultimate goal of lung cancer therapy.

Zinc enzymes in medicinal chemistry

In humans, more than three hundred diverse enzymes that require zinc as an essential cofactor have been identified. These zinc enzymes have demonstrated different and important physiological functions and some of them have been considered as valuable therapeutic targets for drug discovery. Indeed, many drugs targeting a few zinc enzymes have been marketed to treat a variety of diseases. This review discusses drug discovery and drug development based on a dozen of zinc enzymes, including their biological functions and pathogenic roles, their best in class inhibitors (and clinical trial data when available), coordination and binding modes of representative inhibitors, and their implications for further drug design. The opportunities and challenges in developing zinc enzyme inhibitors for the treatment of human disorders are highlighted, too.

Anti-cancer Research on Arnebiae Radix-derived Naphthoquinone in Recent Five Years

BACKGROUND

In recent years, many naphthoquinone compounds with anticancer activity have been identified in Arnebiae Radix, and some of them have the potential to be developed into anticancer drugs.

OBJECTIVE

This article aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the anticancer effects of naphthoquinone compounds through a detailed review of literature and Chinese patents, and discuss their potential to be developed as anticancer drugs for clinical application.

METHODS

Research papers were collected through the databases of PubMed, Cnki and SciDirect using keyword searches "naphthoquinone compounds" and "anticancer". The keywords of "shikonin" and "shikonin derivatives" were also used in PubMed, Cnki and SciDirect databases to collect research articles. The Chinese patents were collected using the Cnki patent database.

RESULTS

Naphthoquinone compounds have been found to possess anti-cancer activity, and their modes of action are associated with inducing apoptosis, inhibiting cancer cell proliferation, promoting autophagy in cancer cells, anti-cancer angiogenesis and inhibition of cell adhesion, invasion and metastasis, inhibiting glycolysis and inhibiting DNA topoisomerase activity.

CONCLUSION

Most of the naphthoquinone compounds show effective anti-cancer activity in vitro. The structure modification of naphthoquinone aims to develop anti-cancer drugs with high efficacy and low toxicity.

Fluoroquinolones Suppress TGF-β and PMA-Induced MMP-9 Production in Cancer Cells: Implications in Repurposing Quinolone Antibiotics for Cancer Treatment

BACKGROUND

Fluoroquinolones (FQs) are potent antimicrobials with multiple effects on host cells and tissues. Although FQs can attenuate cancer invasion and metastasis, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) has functional roles in tumor angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis, and is associated with cancer progression and poor prognosis, suggesting that inhibitors of MMP-9 activity and transcription are prime candidates for cancer therapy. Despite numerous preclinical data supporting the use of MMP-9 inhibitors as anticancer drugs, the few available examples are not therapeutically useful due to low specificity and off-target effects. We examined the effects of FQs on MMP-9 production in cancer cells following transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) stimulation.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES

Using confluent cultures of HepG2 and A549 cells, the effects of FQs (ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, clinafloxacin, gatifloxacin, and enrofloxacin) on TGF-β and PMA-induced MMP-9 mRNA expression and production were studied in RNA extracts and culture supernatants, respectively. FQs specifically abrogated TGF-β and PMA-induced MMP-9 levels and activity in a concentration and time-dependent manner, without affecting other MMPs or proteins involved in epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Additionally, FQs inhibited TGF-β and PMA-induced cell migration via p38 and cyclic AMP signaling pathways.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Overall, we demonstrated that FQs inhibit cancer cell migration and invasion by downregulating MMP-9 expression and revealed the cellular mechanisms underlying their potential value in cancer treatment.

The effects of periodontitis associated microbiota on the development of oral squamous cell carcinoma

Epidemiological data have shown that periodontal bacterial infection, periodontitis, and oral squamous cell carcinoma have close relationship on the disease progress and risk. However, the specific role of periodontal microbes and their mechanism in the development of oral squamous cell carcinoma is not yet clear. In our previous work, metagenomic Illumina Mi-seq analysis was used to identify tstructure and abundance of periodontital microbiome. Accoding to the results, we used Porphyromonas.spp. and Fusobacterium.spp. as the periodontitis positive microbiota; Neisseria.spp and Corynebacterium.spp as periodontitis negative microbiota (their average relative abundance were >5%). These representative strains of the above genus were used to infect OSCC cells to explore their effect on tumor cell biology behavior, and detect the expression level of the gene in related to inflammation, migration, invasion and cell cycle. We find that periodontitis positive correlated microbiota had a promoting effect on the development of oral squamous cell carcinoma in vitro by regulating mRNA and protein expression of IL-6, IL-8, MMP-9 and Cyclin-D1. Periodontitis negative correlated microbiota had suppression effect on the development of oral squamous cell carcinoma in vitro analysis.

Role of Mitochondria in Radiation Responses: Epigenetic, Metabolic, and Signaling Impacts

Until recently, radiation effects have been considered to be mainly due to nuclear DNA damage and their management by repair mechanisms. However, molecular biology studies reveal that the outcomes of exposures to ionizing radiation (IR) highly depend on activation and regulation through other molecular components of organelles that determine cell survival and proliferation capacities. As typical epigenetic-regulated organelles and central power stations of cells, mitochondria play an important pivotal role in those responses. They direct cellular metabolism, energy supply and homeostasis as well as radiation-induced signaling, cell death, and immunological responses. This review is focused on how energy, dose and quality of IR affect mitochondria-dependent epigenetic and functional control at the cellular and tissue level. Low-dose radiation effects on mitochondria appear to be associated with epigenetic and non-targeted effects involved in genomic instability and adaptive responses, whereas high-dose radiation effects (>1 Gy) concern therapeutic effects of radiation and long-term outcomes involving mitochondria-mediated innate and adaptive immune responses. Both effects depend on radiation quality. For example, the increased efficacy of high linear energy transfer particle radiotherapy, e.g., C-ion radiotherapy, relies on the reduction of anastasis, enhanced mitochondria-mediated apoptosis and immunogenic (antitumor) responses.

Multi-target drug with potential applications: violacein in the spotlight

The aim of the current review is to address updated research on a natural pigment called violacein, with emphasis on its production, biological activity and applications. New information about violacein's action mechanisms as antitumor agent and about its synergistic action in drug delivery systems has brought new alternatives for anticancer therapy. Thus, violacein is introduced as reliable drug capable of overcoming at least three cancer hallmarks, namely: proliferative signaling, cell death resistance and metastasis. In addition, antimicrobial effects on several microorganisms affecting humans and other animals turn violacein into an attractive drug to combat resistant pathogens. Emphasis is given to effects of violacein combined with different agents, such as antibiotics, anticancer agents and nanoparticles. Although violacein is well-known for many decades, it remains an attractive compound. Thus, research groups have been making continuous effort to help improving its production in recent years, which can surely enable its pharmaceutical and chemical application as multi-task compound, even in the cosmetics and food industries.

The inhibitory effect of Agrimonia Pilosa methanolic extract on matrix metalloproteinases in HT1080 cells

The risk of cancer increases with aging due to the accumulation of cellular deterioration that can spread to other organs through the blood and lymphatic vessels. Therefore, the inhibition of metastasis is a major concern for the treatment of cancer. Several synthetic drugs have been developed for the treatment of various cancers. However, these drugs are effective; nonspecific action and side effects on the normal human cells limit their wide acceptance, thus demanding some potential alternative. Hence, the present study emphasizes investigating the effect of a methanolic extract of Agrimonia Pilosa (APLME) on matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in human fibroblast sarcoma cells. The action of APLME on MMP-2 and MMP-9 was investigated using gelatin zymography. APLME suppressed the activities of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in PMA (phorbol myristate acetate)-treated HT1080 cells. In addition, western blot analysis and immunofluorescence were performed to investigate the effect of APLME on the expression of the proteins that are the major proteins involved in cell invasion and metastasis. APLME treatment inhibited the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in addition to the activations of JNK, ERK, and AKT-1. Furthermore, APLME was observed to suppress cell invasion related to metastasis using cell invasion assay. Therefore, the above findings indicate that APLME inhibits the expression activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9 via inactivation of ERK and JNK in addition to AKT-1, leading to inhibiting cell invasion. Therefore, these results indicate that APLME may be used as a candidate substance for inhibiting cell invasion. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Cancer increases the cell invasion to other organs through the blood and lymphatic vessels. Cancer cells deplete the nutrients and create new blood vessels that infiltrate and metastasize to other tissues. Therefore, this present study examined the effect of Agrimonia Pilosa on cell invasion. It was found that Agrimonia Pilosa methanolic extract inhibited the invasion of cancer cells through the inactivation of ERK and JNK. In addition, APLME reduced the activation and protein expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in addition to AKT-1. Thus, APLME can be utilized as a potential alternative therapeutic agent for inhibiting metastasis.

Reexamining the role of tissue inflammation in radiation carcinogenesis: a hypothesis to explain an earlier onset of cancer

PURPOSE

Ionizing radiation is a well-known carcinogen, and epidemiologic efforts have been made to evaluate cancer risks following a radiation exposure. The basic approach has been to estimate increased levels of cancer mortality resulting from exposures to radiation, which is consistent with the somatic mutation theory of cancer. However, the possibility that an irradiation might cause an earlier onset of cancer has also been raised since the earliest days of animal studies. Recently, the mutation induction model has been challenged because it is unable to explain the observed dose-related parallel shift of entire mouse survival curves toward younger ages following an irradiation. This is because if it is assumed that only a fraction of the irradiated individuals are affected, the irradiated population would consist of two subpopulations with different mean lifespans, which makes the overall distribution of individual lifespans broader, and hence the slope of the survival curves shallower. To explain this parallel shift, it is necessary to assume that all individuals of a population are affected. As a result of these observations, possible mechanisms which could account for the parallel shift of mouse survival curves were sought by examining the radiation induction of various types of tissue damage which could facilitate an earlier onset of spontaneously arising cancers.

CONCLUSION

A proposed mechanism postulates that a radiation exposure leads to tissue inflammation which subsequently stimulates spontaneously arising cancers and allows them to appear earlier than usual. This notion is not unprecedented, and because the background incidence of cancer increases exponentially with an increase in age, a slight shift of the onset age toward younger ages may make it appear as if the risk is increased. In this scenario, a radiation exposure induces DNA damage, cell death, chromosome aberrations etc., which leads to the multi-pathway responses including activation of stromal fibroblasts, macrophages and various inflammatory factors. Such an inflamed microenvironment favors the growth of spontaneously arising tumor cells although currently, the sequential order or relative importance of the individual factors remains to be known.

TRPV Protein Family-From Mechanosensing to Cancer Invasion

Biophysical cues from the cellular microenvironment are detected by mechanosensitive machineries that translate physical signals into biochemical signaling cascades. At the crossroads of extracellular space and cell interior are located several ion channel families, including TRP family proteins, that are triggered by mechanical stimuli and drive intracellular signaling pathways through spatio-temporally controlled Ca2+-influx. Mechanosensitive Ca2+-channels, therefore, act as critical components in the rapid transmission of physical signals into biologically compatible information to impact crucial processes during development, morphogenesis and regeneration. Given the mechanosensitive nature of many of the TRP family channels, they must also respond to the biophysical changes along the development of several pathophysiological conditions and have also been linked to cancer progression. In this review, we will focus on the TRPV, vanilloid family of TRP proteins, and their connection to cancer progression through their mechanosensitive nature.

Antimetastatic Potential of Quercetin Analogues with Improved Pharmacokinetic Profile: Pharmacoinformatic Preliminary Study

BACKGROUND

Urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) system is a crucial pathway for tumor invasion and metastasis. Recently, multiple anticancer effects of quercetin have been described, including inhibitory activity against uPA. However, the clinical use of this flavonoid has been limited due to its low oral bioavailability.

OBJECTIVE

The objectives of the study were to assess the antimetastatic potential of quercetin analogues by analyzing their binding affinity for uPA and to select the compounds with improved pharmacological profiles.

METHODS

Binding affinities of structural analogues of quercetin to uPA receptor were determined by molecular docking analysis using Molegro Virtual Docker software, and molecular descriptors relevant for estimating pharmacological profile were calculated from ligand structures using computational models.

RESULTS

Among 44 quercetin analogues, only one quercetin analogue (3,6,2',4',5'-pentahydroxyflavone) was found to possess both higher aqueous solubility and membrane permeability, and a stronger affinity for uPA than quercetin, which makes it the potential lead compound for anticancer drug development. Like quercetin, this compound has five hydroxyl groups but is arranged differently, which contributes to the higher aqueous solubility and higher amphiphilic moment compared to quercetin. Since membrane permeability is not recognized as the limiting factor for quercetin absorption, analogues with higher aqueous solubility and retained or stronger uPA inhibitory activity should also be further experimentally validated for potential therapeutic use.

CONCLUSION

Identified quercetin analogues with better physicochemical and pharmacological properties have a high potential to succeed in later stages of research in biological systems as potential anticancer agents with antimetastatic activity.

Small leucine zipper protein promotes the metastasis of castration-resistant prostate cancer through transcriptional regulation of matrix metalloproteinase-13

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) function as central modulators of tissue remodeling. Abnormal expression and altered activity of MMPs result in excessive extracellular matrix degradation and increased tumor metastasis in various cancers. Small leucine zipper protein (sLZIP), belonging to the leucine zipper transcription factor family, functions as a transcriptional regulator of genes involved in various cellular processes. However, its role in MMP expression and castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) metastasis remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the role of sLZIP in MMP-13 expression and its involvement in CRPC metastasis. sLZIP increased MMP-13 transcription by directly binding to its promoter in CRPC cells. We found that the expression levels of GR, which represses MMP transcription, were elevated in CRPC cells. However, sLZIP suppressed the inhibitory effect of GR and enhanced the secretion of MMP-13 in CRPC cells. sLZIP promoted cell migration and invasion; however, a specific MMP-13 inhibitor blocked sLZIP-induced cell motility. Depletion of sLZIP using the CRISPR/Cas9 system downregulated MMP-13 mRNA expression in PC3 cells. Mice injected with sLZIP-depleted PC3 cells showed significantly reduced metastatic tumor volume in the lung compared to mice injected with control PC3 cells. Our findings suggest that sLZIP plays an important role in MMP-13 induction and CRPC metastasis. Therefore, sLZIP inhibition could be a novel therapeutic strategy for metastatic GR-enriched CRPC.

Complex challenges of estimating the age and vitality of muscle wounds: a study with matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors on animal and human tissue samples

The estimation of wound age and wound vitality is a recurring task in forensic routine work and has been subject of forensic research for a long time. By now, an unrestrictedly reliable marker or set of markers has not been found. In a study on myocardial infarctions, matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) 2 and 9 as well as tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases 1 (TIMP-1) were detected immunohistochemically in mechanically wounded myocardium (ECG electrodes, vessel ligations). Against this background, the potency of MMP-9, MMP-2, and TIMP-1 as markers for the estimation of wound age and wound vitality was tested in a broad approach with human tissue samples drawn during autopsies and with an animal model, the isolated perfused Langendorff heart. The study comprised samples of injured human skeletal muscle, injured human myocardium, rats’ hearts with vital wounds, and rats’ hearts with postmortem-inflicted wounds that were all stained immunohistochemically. The results showed great scattering, leading to the conclusion that MMP-2, MMP-9, and TIMP-1 are not suitable for wound age estimation. Merely the results for TIMP-1 suggested that this marker might be able to differentiate between vital and postmortem-inflicted wounds. With a view to the promising results of the preceding study, the results underline the necessity to test possible markers of wound age/wound vitality on a large and diverse sample set.

Cell death as a result of calcium signaling modulation: A cancer-centric prospective

Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) and the complex regulatory system governed by Ca²⁺ signaling have been described to be of crucial importance in numerous aspects related to cell life and death decisions, especially in recent years. The growing attention given to this second messenger is justified by the pleiotropic nature of Ca²⁺-binding proteins and transporters and their consequent involvement in cell fate decisions. A growing number of works highlight that deregulation of Ca²⁺ signaling and homoeostasis is often deleterious and drives pathological conditions; in particular, a disruption of the main Ca²⁺-mediated death mechanisms may lead to uncontrolled cell growth that results in cancer. In this work, we review the latest useful evidence to better understand the complex network of pathways by which Ca²⁺ regulates cell life and death decisions.

Research Progress of circRNAs in Head and Neck Cancers

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a novel type of non-coding RNAs. Because of their characteristics of a closed loop structure, disease- and tissue-specificity, and high conservation and stability, circRNAs have the potential to be biomarkers for disease diagnosis. Head and neck cancers are one of the most common malignant tumors with high incidence rates globally. Affected patients are often diagnosed at the advanced stage with poor prognosis, owing to the concealment of anatomic sites. The characteristics, functions, and specific mechanisms of circRNAs in head and neck cancers are increasingly being discovered, and they have important clinical significance for the early diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis evaluation of patients with cancer. In this study, the generation, characteristics, and functions of circRNAs, along with their regulatory mechanisms in head and neck cancers have been summarized. We report that circRNAs interact with molecules such as transcription and growth factors to influence specific pathways involved in tumorigenesis. We conclude that circRNAs have an important role to play in the proliferation, invasion, metastasis, energy and substance metabolism, and treatment resistance in cancers.

Increased Expression of LIPC Is Associated with Aggressive Phenotype of Borrmann Type 4 Gastric Cancer

PURPOSE

To investigate lipase C hepatic type (LIPC) expression in Borrmann type 4 gastric cancer and its correlation with clinical outcome. The biological roles of LIPC in Borrmann type 4 gastric cancer progression were also investigated.

METHODS

We determined LIPC expression in 324 primary gastric cancer tissues and 178 matched adjacent non-tumor tissues by immunohistochemistry. We explored the role of LIPC in Borrmann type 4 gastric cancer cell (OCUM-1) migration, invasion, proliferation, cell cycle, and expression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related genes by knocking down LIPC expression.

RESULTS

LIPC expression was upregulated in Borrmann type 4 gastric cancer tissues compared with other types of gastric cancer and adjacent non-tumor tissues. High LIPC expression correlated with lymph node metastasis, advanced TNM stage, and poor overall survival in Borrmann type 4 gastric cancer patients. Multivariate analysis demonstrated that high LIPC expression was an independent prognostic factor in patients with Borrmann type 4 gastric cancer. By reducing LIPC expression, OCUM-1 cell invasion and migration were suppressed and Snail and MMP2 expression was downregulated, while E-cadherin expression was upregulated.

CONCLUSIONS

High LIPC expression correlates with poor clinical outcome and plays an important role in regulating cell migration and invasion in Borrmann type 4 gastric cancer.

Knockdown of Annexin-A1 Inhibits Growth, Migration and Invasion of Glioma Cells by Suppressing the PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway

ANXA1, which can bind phospholipid in a calcium dependent manner, is reported to play a pivotal role in tumor progression. However, the role and mechanism of ANXA1 involved in the occurrence and development of malignant glioma are still not well studied. Therefore, we explored the effects of ANXA1 on normal astrocytes and glioma cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration and invasion and the underlying mechanisms. We found that ANXA1 was markedly up-regulated in glioma cell lines and glioma tissues. Down-regulation of ANXA1 inhibited normal astrocytes and glioma cell proliferation and induced the cell apoptosis, which suggested that the consequences of loss of Annexin 1 are not specific to the tumor cells. Furthermore, the siRNA-ANXA1 treatment significantly reduced tumor growth rate and tumor weight. Moreover, decreasing ANXA1 expression caused G2/M phase arrest by repressing expression levels of cdc25C, cdc2 and cyclin B1. Interestingly, ANXA1 did not affect the expressions of β-catenin, GSK-3β and NF-κB, the key signaling molecules associated with cancer progression. However, siRNA-ANXA1 was found to negatively regulate phosphorylation of AKT and the expression and activity of MMP2/-9. Finally, the decrease of cell proliferation and invasiveness induced by ANXA1 down-regulation was partially reversed by combined treatment with AKT agonist insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). Meanwhile, the inhibition of glioma cell proliferation and invasiveness induced by ANXA1 down-regulation was further enhanced by combined treatment with AKT inhibitor LY294002. In summary, these findings demonstrate that ANXA1 regulates proliferation, migration and invasion of glioma cells via PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.

Geraniin inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis through inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway in human colorectal cancer in vitro and in vivo

Geraniin, a polyphenolic component isolated from Phyllanthus amarus, has been reported to possess diverse biological activities, including antitumor, antiinflammatory, antihyperglycemic, antihypertensive, and antioxidant. However, the role and underlying mechanisms of geraniin in colorectal cancer still remain unclear. In the present study, we found that geraniin notably inhibited cell proliferation and clonogenic formation of colorectal cancer cell SW480 and HT-29 in a dose-dependent manner by Cell Counting Kit 8, EdU, and colony formation assays, respectively. Additionally, geraniin remarkably induced apoptosis of SW480 and HT-29 cells in a dose-dependent way by Hoechst 33342 staining, flow cytometric analysis, and TdT-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling assays and increased the expressions of Bax, caspase-3, and caspase-9, while decreased the level of Bcl-2. Besides, wound healing, transwell migration, and invasion assays demonstrated that geraniin obviously inhibited the migration and invasion of SW480 and HT-29 cells. Moreover, it also inhibited the levels of phospho (p)-phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and p-Akt. Furthermore, in-vivo animal study revealed that geraniin had the significant inhibitory effects on tumor growth and promoted cancer cell apoptosis remarkably, which further confirmed the antitumor effect of geraniin. Taken together, the present study exhibited the positive role of geraniin in inhibiting proliferation and inducing apoptosis through suppression of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway in colorectal cancer cells in vitro and in vivo, which might provide new insights in searching for new drug candidates of anticolorectal cancer.

Proteases and Their Modulators in Cancer Therapy: Challenges and Opportunities

Proteostasis is the process of regulating intracellular proteins to maintain the balance of the cell proteome, which is crucial for cancer cell survival. Several proteases located in the cytoplasm, mitochondria, lysosome, and extracellular environment have been identified as potential antitumor targets because of their involvement in proteostasis. Although the discovery of small-molecule inhibitors targeting proteases faces particular challenges, rapid advances in chemical biology and structural biology, and the new technology of drug discovery have facilitated the development of promising protease modulators. In this review, the protein structure and function of important tumor-related proteases and their inhibitors are presented. We also provide a prospective on advances and the outlook of new drug strategies that target these proteases.

Inhibition of the invasion and metastasis of mammary carcinoma cells by NBD peptide targeting S100A4 via the suppression of the Sp1/MMP‑14 axis

A synthetic peptide that blocks the interaction between the metastasis‑enhancing calcium‑binding protein, S100A4, and its effector protein, methionine aminopeptidase 2 (MetAP2) (the NBD peptide), was previously demonstrated to inhibit the angiogenesis of endothelial cells, leading to the regression of human prostate cancer in a xenograft model. However, the effects of the NBD peptide on the malignant properties of cancer cells that express S100A4 remain to be elucidated. The present study demonstrates that the NBD peptide inhibits the invasiveness and metastasis of highly metastatic human mammary carcinoma cells. The introduction of the peptide into MDA‑MB‑231 variant cells resulted in the suppression of matrix degradation in a gelatin invadopodia assay and invasiveness in a Matrigel invasion assay. In line with these results, the peptide significantly downregulated the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)‑14 (MT1‑MMP). Mechanistic analysis of the downregulation of MMP‑14 revealed the suppression of the expression of the transcription factor, specificity protein 1 (Sp1), but not that of nuclear factor (NF)‑κB, early growth response 1 (EGR1) or ELK3, all of which were reported to be involved in transcriptional regulation of the MMP‑14 gene. At the same time, evidence suggested that the NBD peptide also suppressed Sp1 and MMP‑14 expression levels in MDA‑MB‑468 cells. Importantly, the intravenous administration of the NBD peptide encapsulated in liposomes inhibited pulmonary metastasis from mammary gland tumors in mice with xenograft tumors. These results indicate that the NBD peptide can suppress malignant tumor growth through the suppression of the Sp1/MMP‑14 axis. Taken together, these results reveal that the NBD peptide acts on not only endothelial cells, but also on tumor cells in an integrated manner, suggesting that the peptide may prove to be a promising cancer therapeutic peptide drug.

Macrophages and Extracellular Matrix in Breast Cancer: Partners in Crime or Protective Allies?

Solid cancers such as breast tumors comprise a collection of tumor, stromal and immune cells, embedded within a network of tumor-specific extracellular matrix. This matrix is associated with tumor aggression, treatment failure, chemo- and radio-resistance, poor survival and metastasis. Recent data report an immunomodulatory role for the matrix in cancer, via the creation of niches that control the migration, localization, phenotype and function of tumor-infiltrating immune cells, ultimately contributing to escape of immune surveillance. Macrophages are crucial components of the immune infiltrate in tumors; they are associated with a poor prognosis in breast cancer and contribute to shaping the anti-tumor immune response. We and others have described how matrix molecules commonly upregulated within the tumor stroma, such as tenascin-C, fibronectin and collagen, exert a complex influence over macrophage behavior, for example restricting or enhancing their infiltration into the tumor, and driving their polarization towards or away from a pro-tumoral phenotype, and how in turn macrophages can modify matrix production in the tumor to favor tumor growth and metastasis. Targeting specific domains of matrix molecules to reinstate an efficient anti-tumor immune response, and effectively control tumor growth and spread, is emerging as a promising field offering a new angle for cancer therapy. Here, we review current knowledge on the interactions between tumor-associated macrophages and matrix molecules that occur within the tumor microenvironment of breast cancer, and discuss how these pathways can be targeted for new immunotherapies for hard to treat, desmoplastic tumors.

Morphological Heterogeneity in Pancreatic Cancer Reflects Structural and Functional Divergence

Simple Summary

Pancreatic cancer has a poor prognosis, which is largely due to resistance to treatment. Tumor heterogeneity is a known cause for treatment failure and has been studied at the molecular level. Morphological heterogeneity is common but has not been investigated, despite the fact that pathology examination is an integral part of clinical diagnostics. This study assessed whether morphological heterogeneity reflects structural and functional diversity in key cancer biological processes. Using archival tissues from resected pancreatic cancer, we selected four common and distinct morphological phenotypes and demonstrated that these differed significantly for a panel of 26 structural and functional features of the cancer-cell and stromal compartments. The strong link between these features and morphological phenotypes allowed prediction of the latter based on the results for the panel of features. The findings of this study indicate that morphological heterogeneity reflects biological diversity and that its assessment may potentially provide clinically relevant information.

Abstract

Inter- and intratumor heterogeneity is an important cause of treatment failure. In human pancreatic cancer (PC), heterogeneity has been investigated almost exclusively at the genomic and transcriptional level. Morphological heterogeneity, though prominent and potentially easily assessable in clinical practice, remains unexplored. This proof-of-concept study aims at demonstrating that morphological heterogeneity reflects structural and functional divergence. From the wide morphological spectrum of conventional PC, four common and distinctive patterns were investigated in 233 foci from 39 surgical specimens. Twenty-six features involved in key biological processes in PC were analyzed (immuno-)histochemically and morphometrically: cancer cell proliferation (Ki67) and migration (collagen fiber alignment, MMP14), cancer stem cells (CD44, CD133, ALDH1), amount, composition and spatial arrangement of extracellular matrix (epithelial proximity, total collagen, collagen I and III, fibronectin, hyaluronan), cancer-associated fibroblasts (density, αSMA), and cancer-stroma interactions (integrins α2, α5, α1; caveolin-1). All features differed significantly between at least two of the patterns. Stromal and cancer-cell-related features co-varied with morphology and allowed prediction of the morphological pattern. In conclusion, morphological heterogeneity in the cancer-cell and stromal compartments of PC correlates with structural and functional diversity. As such, histopathology has the potential to inform on the operationality of key biological processes in individual tumors.

Qingjie Fuzheng Granule suppresses lymphangiogenesis in colorectal cancer via the VEGF-C/VEGFR-3 dependent PI3K/AKT pathway

SCOPE

To investigate the effect of Qingjie Fuzheng Granule (QFG) on lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic metastasis in colorectal cancer.

METHODS

The effects of QFG on the expression and secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) in HCT-116 cells were investigated both in vitro and in vivo. HCT-116 cells were treated with different concentrations (0.2, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/mL) of QFG. The VEGF-C expression level was determined using RT-qPCR and western blotting, and the VEGF-C concentration in supernatant was measured by ELISA. Tumor xenograft models of HCT-116 cells were generated using BALB/c nude mice, and the mice were randomly divided into a control group (gavaged with normal saline) and QFG group (gavaged with 2 g/kg QFG). The effect of QFG on tumor growth was evaluated by comparing the volume and weight of tumors between two groups. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) and RT-qPCR were performed to detect the expression levels of VEGF-C, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 (VEGFR-3), and LYVE-1 (lymphatic vessel endothelial hyaluronan receptor 1). ELISA was performed to measure the concentration of serum VEGF-C. TMT proteomics technology and Reactome pathway analysis were used to explore the mechanism of QFG inhibiting lymphangiogenesis in tumor. The VEGF-C (5 ng/mL)-stimulated human lymphatic endothelial cell (HLEC) model was conducted to evaluate the effect of QFG on lymphangiogenesis in vitro. The model cells were treated with different concentrations (0.2, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/mL) of QFG. Cell viability was then determined using an MTT assay. The cell migration, invasion, and tube-formation ability were analyzed using transwell migration, matrigel invasion and tube formation assays, respectively. The underlying mechanism was uncovered, the levels of VEGFR-3, matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2), matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9), p-PI3K/PI3K, p-AKT/AKT and p-mTOR/ mTOR were detected using western blotting.

RESULTS

QFG significantly reduced VEGF-C expression and secretion in HCT-116 cells. QFG evidently suppressed in vivo tumor growth and the expression of VEGF-C, VEGFR-3, and LYVE-1. The serum VEGF-C level was also reduced by QFG. Moreover, TMT proteomics technology and Reactome pathway analysis identified 95 differentially expressed protein and multiple enriched pathway about matrix metalloproteinase and extracellular matrix, which is direct associate with lymphangiogenesis. In vitro experiment, QFG inhibited the viability, migration, invasion and tube formation of HLECs. Additionally, QFG reduced the VEGFR-3, MMP-2, MMP-9 expression levels, and the p-PI3K/PI3K, p-AKT/AKT, p-mTOR/ mTOR ratios.

CONCLUSION

QFG can exert its effect on both tumor cells and HLECs, exhibiting ani- lymphangiogenesis in colorectal cancer via the VEGF-C/VEGFR-3 dependent PI3K/AKT pathway pathway.

Shikonin Inhibits Cholangiocarcinoma Cell Line QBC939 by Regulating Apoptosis, Proliferation, and Invasion

This study was designed to clarify whether Shikonin causes proliferation, apoptosis, and invasion in cholangiocarcinoma cells and to investigate the mechanism of action. QBC939 cells were cultured with different doses of Shikonin, and then 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl) -2,5-diphenyltetrazolium assay was used to detect cell viability. Apoptosis of cells was detected using flow cytometry with Annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) assay after being stained with Hoechst 33242. The role of Shikonin on the invasive and metastasis ability was detected using Transwell invasion assay. Real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting were used to detect the expression of caspase-3, caspase-8, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9. Shikonin inhibited proliferation and invasive ability of QBC939 cells in a dose-dependent manner; at the same time, apoptosis of cells was also observed in a concentration-dependent fashion. Moreover, Annexin V/PI assay and Transwell invasion assay results indicated that Shikonin induced apoptosis and invasion inhibitory probably due to upregulation of caspase-3 and caspase-8 expression and downregulation of MMP-9 and EGFR expression in a concentration-dependent fashion. Shikonin could enhance apoptosis and inhibit proliferation and invasion of QBC939 cells; such biological behaviors mainly occurred via upregulating the expression of caspase-3 and caspase-8 and downregulating the expression of MMP-9 and EGFR.

(2-Aminobenzothiazole)-Methyl-1,1-Bisphosphonic Acids: Targeting Matrix Metalloproteinase 13 Inhibition to the Bone

Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of secreted and membrane-bound enzymes, of which 24 isoforms are known in humans. These enzymes degrade the proteins of the extracellular matrix and play a role of utmost importance in the physiological remodeling of all tissues. However, certain MMPs, such as MMP-2, -9, and -13, can be overexpressed in pathological states, including cancer and metastasis. Consequently, the development of MMP inhibitors (MMPIs) has been explored for a long time as a strategy to prevent and hinder metastatic growth, but the important side effects linked to promiscuous inhibition of MMPs prevented the clinical use of MMPIs. Therefore, several strategies were proposed to improve the therapeutic profile of this pharmaceutical class, including improved selectivity toward specific MMP isoforms and targeting of specific organs and tissues. Combining both approaches, we conducted the synthesis and preliminary biological evaluation of a series of (2-aminobenzothiazole)-methyl-1,1-bisphosphonic acids active as selective inhibitors of MMP-13 via in vitro and in silico studies, which could prove useful for the treatment of bone metastases thanks to the bone-targeting capabilities granted by the bisphosphonic acid group.

The interaction between lipocalin 2 and dipyridine ketone hydrazone dithiocarbamte may influence respective function in proliferation and metastasis-related gene expressions in HepG2 cell

LCN2 (Lipocalins) was first identified as iron transporter through associating with its siderophores and also involved in many cancer metastases, but its function is still paradoxical. We questioned that whether LCN2 might also associate exogenous iron chelator as does in inherent way and the association may influence their respective function. To address this issue, we investigated the effect of LCN2 on action of DpdtC (2,2'-dipyridine ketone hydrazone dithiocarbamte), an iron chelator in proliferation and metastasis-related gene expression. The results showed that exogenous LCN2 and DpdtC could inhibit growth of HepG2 cells, while the combination treatment enhanced their inhibitory effect both in proliferation and colony formation. This encouraged us to investigate the effect of the interaction on metastasis-related gene expression. The results revealed that both LCN2 and DpdtC impaired the wound healing of HepG2, but the inhibitory effect of DpdtC was significantly enhanced upon association with LCN2. Undergoing epithelium-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a crucial step for cancer metastasis, LCN2 and DpdtC had opposite effects on EMT markers, the binding of DpdtC to LCN2 significantly weakened the regulation of it (or its iron chelate) on EMT markers. To insight into the interaction between LCN2 and DpdtC-iron, fluorescence titration and molecular docking were performed to obtain the association constant (~ 10⁴ M^-1) and thermodynamic parameters (ΔG = - 26.10 kJ/mol). Importantly this study provided evidence that siderophores-loading state of LCN2 may influence its function, which be helpful for understanding the contradictory role of LCN2 in the metastasis of cancer.

Reducing PD-L1 expression with a self-assembled nanodrug: an alternative to PD-L1 antibody for enhanced chemo-immunotherapy

The binding between the immune checkpoints, programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) and programmed cell death 1 (PD-1), compromises T-cell-mediated immune surveillance. Immune checkpoint therapy using immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) to block PD-L1 on cancer cell membrane or PD-1 on activated T cell membrane can restore antitumor function of T cell. However, the intracellular expression of PD-L1 and its active redistribution to cancer cell membrane may impair the therapeutic benefits of ICIs. To address this issue, herein we develop a nanodrug (MS NPs) capable of reducing PD-L1 expression and enhancing antitumor effects. Methods: The nanodrug was self-assembled from immunoadjuvant metformin (Met, an old drug) and anticancer agent 7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin (SN38) via hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions. A series of experiments, including the characterization of MS NPs, the validation of MS NPs-mediated down-regulation of PD-L1 expression and in vitro therapeutic effect, the MS NPs-mediated in vivo chemo-immunotherapy and tumor metastasis inhibition were carried out. Results: Different from ICIs that conformationally block PD-L1 on cancer cell membrane, MS NPs directly reduced the PD-L1 level via metformin to achieve immunotherapy. Therefore, MS NPs showed enhanced chemo-immunotherapy effect than its counterparts. MS NPs were also effective in inhibiting tumor metastasis by remodeling the extracellular matrix and restoring immune surveillance. Additionally, no obvious toxicity was observed in major organs from MS NPs-treated mice and a high survival rate of mice was obtained after MS NPs treatment. Conclusion: We have designed nanodrug MS NPs by self-assembly of the immunoadjuvant Met and the anticancer agent SN38 for combined immunotherapy and chemotherapy. MS NPs might break the deadlock of antibody-based ICIs in immunotherapy, and repurposing old drug might provide a new perspective on the development of novel ICIs.

New Actors Driving the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Cancer: The Role of Leptin

Leptin is a hormone secreted mainly by adipocytes; physiologically, it participates in the control of appetite and energy expenditure. However, it has also been linked to tumor progression in different epithelial cancers. In this review, we describe the effect of leptin on epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers in different study models, including in vitro, in vivo, and patient studies and in various types of cancer, including breast, prostate, lung, and ovarian cancer. The different studies report that leptin promotes the expression of mesenchymal markers and a decrease in epithelial markers, in addition to promoting EMT-related processes such as cell migration and invasion and poor prognosis in patients with cancer. Finally, we report that leptin has the greatest biological relevance in EMT and tumor progression in breast, lung, prostate, esophageal, and ovarian cancer. This relationship could be due to the key role played by the enriched tumor microenvironment in adipose tissue. Together, these findings demonstrate that leptin is a key biomolecule that drives EMT and metastasis in cancer.

The Function of Oncogene B-Cell Lymphoma 6 in the Regulation of the Migration and Invasion of Trophoblastic Cells

Human placentation is a highly invasive process. Deficiency in the invasiveness of trophoblasts is associated with a spectrum of gestational diseases, such as preeclampsia (PE). The oncogene B-cell lymphoma 6 (BCL6) is involved in the migration and invasion of various malignant cells. Intriguingly, its expression is deregulated in preeclamptic placentas. We have reported that BCL6 is required for the proliferation, survival, fusion, and syncytialization of trophoblasts. In the present work, we show that the inhibition of BCL6, either by its gene silencing or by using specific small molecule inhibitors, impairs the migration and invasion of trophoblastic cells, by reducing cell adhesion and compromising the dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton. Moreover, the suppression of BCL6 weakens the signals of the phosphorylated focal adhesion kinase, Akt/protein kinase B, and extracellular regulated kinase 1/2, accompanied by more stationary, but less migratory, cells. Interestingly, transcriptomic analyses reveal that a small interfering RNA-induced reduction of BCL6 decreases the levels of numerous genes, such as p21 activated kinase 1, myosin light chain kinase, and gamma actin related to cell adhesion, actin dynamics, and cell migration. These data suggest BCL6 as a crucial player in the migration and invasion of trophoblasts in the early stages of placental development through the regulation of various genes associated with the migratory machinery.

Antirrhinum majus L. flower extract inhibits cell growth and metastatic properties in human colon and lung cancer cell lines

Snapdragon ( Antirrhinum majus L.) flowers are one of the most frequently used edible flowers in different preparations of foods and drinks. In this study, we examined inhibitory effects of snapdragon flower extract (SFE) against distinctive properties of cancer cells, stimulated growth, and activated metastasis, using H1299 lung cancer and HCT116 colon cancer cell lines. SFE treatment at 100-1,000 μg/ml for 24-72 hr resulted in a time- and dose-dependent growth inhibition in H1299 and HCT116 cells. Cell cycle analysis and Annexin V staining assay further revealed that SFE caused cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and induction of apoptosis, indicating the growth inhibition by SFE is attributed to its G2/M cell cycle-arresting and apoptosis-inducing activities. SFE dose-dependently enhanced generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reduced mitochondrial membrane potential in H1299 cells but had no effect on intracellular ROS levels in HCT116 cells, suggesting that the type of apoptosis induced by SFE in H1299 cells is different to that in HCT116 cells. Furthermore, SFE alleviated invasion, levels of matrix metalloproteinases, migration, and adhesion in H1299 and HCT116 cells. These results indicate that SFE not only inhibits cell growth by cell cycle arrest at G2/M and apoptosis induction but also alleviates metastatic properties such as invasion, migration, and adhesion in lung and colon cancer cells.

Multifunctional peptides for tumor therapy

Controlled nano-systems for drug delivery are designed to deliver therapeutical drugs to desirable sites on demand. Due to the diverse physiological functions of peptides, it is reasonable to introduce peptides into anti-tumor nano-system. The integration of peptides into nanomaterials has complementary advantages, which not only avoids the rapid degradation of peptides in vivo, but also improves the intelligence and functionality of the nano-system. We summarized the functional peptides with targeting and stimulus-responsive properties, and the present review outlined the most relevant and recent developed peptide-based multifunctional nanomaterials for tumor therapy.

Current concepts in tumour-derived organoids

Cancer comprises a collection of highly proliferative and heterogeneous cells growing within an adaptive and evolving tumour microenvironment. Cancer survival rates have significantly improved following decades of cancer research. However, many experimental and preclinical studies do not translate to the bedside, reflecting the challenges of modelling the complexities and multicellular basis of human disease. Organoids are novel, complex, three-dimensional ex vivo tissue cultures that are derived from embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells or tissue-resident progenitor cells, and represent a near-physiological model for studying cancer. Organoids develop by self-organisation, and can accurately represent the diverse genetic, cellular and pathophysiological hallmarks of cancer. In addition, co-culture methods and the ability to genetically manipulate these organoids have widened their utility in cancer research. Organoids thus offer a new and exciting platform for studying cancer and directing personalised therapies. This review aims to highlight how organoids are shaping the future of cancer research.

MBIP (MAP3K12 binding inhibitory protein) drives NSCLC metastasis by JNK-dependent activation of MMPs

Metastasis is the cause for 90% of cancer-related mortalities. Identification of genetic drivers promoting dissemination of tumor cells may provide opportunities for novel therapeutic strategies. We previously reported an in vivo gain-of-function screen that identified ~30 genes with a functional role in metastasis promotion and characterized detailed mechanistic functions of two hits. In this study, we characterized the contribution of one of the identified genes, MBIP (MAP3K12 binding inhibitory protein), towards driving tumor invasion and metastasis. We demonstrate that expression of MBIP significantly enhances the cellular proliferation, migration and invasion of NSCLC cells in vitro and metastasis in vivo. We functionally characterized that MBIP mediates activation of the JNK pathway and induces expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which are necessary for the invasive and metastatic phenotype. Our findings establish a novel mechanistic role of MBIP as a driver of NSCLC progression and metastasis.

Baicalein inhibits FURIN-MT1-MMP-mediated invasion of ectopic endometrial stromal cells in endometriosis possibly by reducing the secretion of TGFB1

PROBLEM

Endometriosis (EMs) is characterized by the presence of endometrial stroma and glands outside the uterus. Our previous study showed that baicalein inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis in EMs. However, the effects of baicalein on the invasiveness of ectopic endometrial stromal cells (EcESCs) remain unclear. The aim of this study was to assess the potential anti-invasive effect of baicalein and determine the underlying mechanism.

METHODS

The invasive and migratory properties of EcESCs were assessed in vitro using Transwell and wound healing assays. The expression of functional markers of EcESCs, including matrix metalloproteases (MMPs), FURIN, and TGFB1, was analyzed using WB and ELISA. Additionally, a mouse model of EMs was treated with baicalein (10 mg/kg/d and 35 mg/kg/d) for 4 weeks. The weight and number of ectopic lesions were determined, and the expression of markers was assessed using immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Baicalein inhibited the invasion of EcESCs and the expression of certain invasion-related proteins, including MMP9, MMP2, and MT1-MMP. Exposure to baicalein reduced the extracellular levels of TGFB1 in EcESCs and the reduced expression of TGFB1, resulting in decreased expression of FURIN in EcESCs, which serves a pivotal role in the transformation of pro-MT1-MMP to activated MT1-MMP. In the mouse model of EMs, intraperitoneal injection of baicalein inhibited the growth of ectopic lesions and reduced MT1-MMP, FURIN, and TGFB1 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Baicalein reduced the invasion of EMs, potentially by restricting the FURIN-MT1-MMP-mediated cell invasion of EcESCs maybe through reduction of the autocrine of TGFB1.

The fatty-acid amide hydrolase inhibitor URB597 inhibits MICA/B shedding

MICA/B proteins are expressed on the surface of various types of stressed cells, including cancer cells. Cytotoxic lymphocytes expressing natural killer group 2D (NKG2D) receptor recognize MICA/B and eliminate the cells. However, cancer cells evade such immune recognition by inducing proteolytic shedding of MICA/B proteins. Therefore, preventing the shedding of MICA/B proteins could enhance antitumor immunity. Here, by screening a protease inhibitor library, we found that the fatty-acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor, URB597, suppresses the shedding of MICA/B. URB597 significantly reduced the soluble MICA level in culture medium and increased the MICA level on the surface of cancer cells. The effect was indirect, being mediated by increased expression of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 3 (TIMP3). Knockdown of TIMP3 expression reversed the effect of URB597, confirming that TIMP3 is required for the MICA shedding inhibition by URB597. In contrast, FAAH overexpression reduced TIMP3 expression and the cell-surface MICA level and increased the soluble MICA level. These results suggest that inhibition of FAAH could prevent human cancer cell evasion of immune-mediated clearance.

Minocycline in Treating Glioblastoma Multiforme: Far beyond a Conventional Antibiotic

One of the most lethal forms of CNS pathologies is glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) that represents high invasiveness, uncontrolled proliferation, and angiogenic features. Its invasiveness is responsible for the high recurrence even after maximal surgical interventions. Minocycline is a semisynthetic analog of tetracyclines with potential anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects, distinct from its antimicrobial activity. In this review, we highlight the importance and the cytotoxic mechanisms of minocycline on GBM pathophysiology. Considering the role of certain enzymes in autophagy, apoptosis, tumor cell invasion, and metastatic ability, the possible use of tetracyclines for cancer therapy should be investigated, especially GBM. The present study is, therefore, going to cover the main topics in minocycline pharmacology to date, encouraging its consideration as a new treatment approach for cancer and GBM.

Ca2+ Fluxes and Cancer

Ca²⁺ ions are key second messengers in both excitable and non-excitable cells. Owing to the rather pleiotropic nature of Ca²⁺ transporters and other Ca²⁺-binding proteins, however, Ca²⁺ signaling has attracted limited attention as a potential target of anticancer therapy. Here, we discuss cancer-associated alterations of Ca²⁺ fluxes at specific organelles as we identify novel candidates for the development of drugs that selectively target Ca²⁺ signaling in malignant cells.

LMNA functions as an oncogene in hepatocellular carcinoma by regulating the proliferation and migration ability

The role of the LMNA gene in the development and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and the associated molecular mechanism is not yet clear. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between LMNA and HCC. LMNA gene expression in normal tissues and corresponding tumours was evaluated and the Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was performed. Next, the LMNA gene was knocked out in the 293T and HepG2 cell lines using the CRISPR/Cas9 technique. Subsequently, the proliferation, migration and colony formation rate of the two LMNA knockout cell lines were analysed. Finally, the molecular mechanism affecting the tumorigenesis due to the loss of the LMNA gene was evaluated. The results showed that the LMNA gene was abnormally expressed in many tumours, and the survival rate of the HCC patients with a high expression of the LMNA gene was significantly reduced compared with the rate in patients with a low LMNA expression. The knockout of the LMNA gene in the HCC cell line HepG2 resulted in a decreased tumorigenicity, up-regulation of the P16 expression and down-regulation of the CDK1 expression. These findings suggested that LMNA might function as an oncogene in HCC and provided a potential new target for the diagnosis and treatment of HCC.

Tricolor imaging of MMPs to investigate the promoting roles of inflammation on invasion and migration of tumor cells

The expression levels of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are closely related to the degree of inflammation which facilitates tumor cells' invasion and migration. A tricolor fluorescence nanoprobe based on high-fidelity gold-selenium (Au-Se) nanoplatform was designed and constructed for simultaneously imaging matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), matrix metalloproteinase-7 (MMP-7) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) to thoroughly investigate the tumor cells' invasion and migration behaviors under inflammation environment. The nanoprobe was assembled by attaching Au NPs with three different peptide substrates respectively labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), 5-carboxytetramethylrhodamine (5-TAMRA) and cyanine 5 (Cy5) via the Au-Se bond. The nanoprobe can specifically respond to MMP-2/7/9, thereby triggering the fluorophores' fluorescence that quenched previously by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) to realize the MMP-2/7/9's visualization in biological systems. Moreover, as the inflammation stimulated by different concentrations lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the expression of MMP-2/7/9 in SMMC-7721 cells was observed to be significantly enhanced by confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) imaging, and inflammation was further proved to intensify SMMC-7721 cells' invasion and migration by transwell invasion and migration experiments. Therefore, the nanoprobe can be used to monitor biomarkers to provide a visual system for the degree of invasion and migration of tumor cells in an inflammatory environment, and also offer a new strategy for the study of the correlation between various active biomacromolecules and specific intracellular pathways in cells.