Enhanced dopamine detection sensitivity by PEDOT/graphene oxide coating on in vivo carbon fiber electrodes

Real-Time Fast Scan Cyclic Voltammetry Detection and Quantification of Exogenously Administered Melatonin in Mice Brain

Melatonin (MT) has been recently considered an excellent candidate for the treatment of sleep disorders, neural injuries, and neurological diseases. To better investigate the actions of MT in various brain functions, real-time detection of MT concentrations in specific brain regions is much desired. Previously, we have demonstrated detection of exogenously administered MT in anesthetized mouse brain using square wave voltammetry (SWV). Here, for the first time, we show successful detection of exogenous MT in the brain using fast scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) on electrochemically pre-activated carbon fiber microelectrodes (CFEs). In vitro evaluation showed the highest sensitivity (28.1 nA/μM) and lowest detection limit (20.2 ± 4.8 nM) ever reported for MT detection at carbon surface. Additionally, an extensive CFE stability and fouling assessment demonstrated that a prolonged CFE pre-conditioning stabilizes the background, in vitro and in vivo, and provides consistent CFE sensitivity over time even in the presence of a high MT concentration. Finally, the stable in vivo background, with minimized CFE fouling, allows us to achieve a drift-free FSCV detection of exogenous administered MT in mouse brain over a period of 3 min, which is significantly longer than the duration limit (usually < 90 s) for traditional in vivo FSCV acquisition. The MT concentration and dynamics measured by FSCV are in good agreement with SWV, while microdialysis further validated the concentration range. These results demonstrated reliable MT detection using FSCV that has the potential to monitor MT in the brain over long periods of time.

A 433-MHz surface acoustic wave sensor with Ni-TiO2-poly(L-lysine) composite film for dopamine determination

A ternary hybrid material composed of Ni nanoparticles (NPs), TiO₂ NPs, and poly(L-lysine) (Ply) was used as a sensing material. It was electrodeposited in situ onto a commercial 433-MHz surface acoustic wave (SAW) resonator to construct a Ni-TiO₂-Ply/SAW sensor. The Ni-TiO₂-Ply sensing layer fully covered the resonant cavity of the SAW resonator. As the sensing layer completely covers the interdigital transducer and piezoelectric substrate, the sensing area is significantly increased, and the resonator is protected from damage or contamination. To detect the level of dopamine (DA) in serum, the fabrication of the Ni-TiO₂-Ply sensing layer, distributions of various components in the sensing layer, and responses of the SAW biosensor to DA were investigated in detail. In addition, an electric field-assisted liquid-phase oxidation technique was developed for loading analytes onto the SAW sensors. After optimizing the pH value and L-lysine content of the sensing layer electrolyte and the pH value of the DA solution, the SAW biosensor responded to DA with a linear concentration range of 1 to 1000 nM, sensitivity of 5.77 MHz nM^-1 cm^-2, and limit of detection of 0.067 nM. Moreover, the sensor exhibited good selectivity, reproducibility, and stability at ambient temperature.Graphical abstract.

Advances in nanomedicines for diagnosis of central nervous system disorders

In spite of a great improvement in medical health services and an increase in lifespan, we have witnessed a skyrocket increase in the incidence of central nervous system (CNS) disorders including brain tumors, neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease), ischemic stroke, and epilepsy, which have seriously undermined the quality of life and substantially increased economic and societal burdens. Development of diagnostic methods for CNS disorders is still in the early stage, and the clinical outcomes suggest these methods are not ready for the challenges associated with diagnosis of CNS disorders, such as early detection, specific binding, sharp contrast, and continuous monitoring of therapeutic interventions. Another challenge is to overcome various barrier structures during delivery of diagnostic agents, especially the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Fortunately, utilization of nanomaterials has been pursued as a potential and promising strategy to address these challenges. This review will discuss anatomical and functional structures of BBB and transport mechanisms of nanomaterials across the BBB, and special emphases will be placed on the state-of-the-art advances in the development of nanomedicines from a variety of nanomaterials for diagnosis of CNS disorders. Meanwhile, current challenges and future perspectives in this field are also highlighted.

High density carbon fiber arrays for chronic electrophysiology, fast scan cyclic voltammetry, and correlative anatomy

OBJECTIVE

Multimodal measurements at the neuronal level allow for detailed insight into local circuit function. However, most behavioral studies focus on one or two modalities and are generally limited by the available technology.

APPROACH

Here, we show a combined approach of electrophysiology recordings, chemical sensing, and histological localization of the electrode tips within tissue. The key enabling technology is the underlying use of carbon fiber electrodes, which are small, electrically conductive, and sensitive to dopamine. The carbon fibers were functionalized by coating with Parylene C, a thin insulator with a high dielectric constant, coupled with selective re-exposure of the carbon surface using laser ablation.

MAIN RESULTS

We demonstrate the use of this technology by implanting 16 channel arrays in the rat nucleus accumbens. Chronic electrophysiology and dopamine signals were detected 1 month post implant. Additionally, electrodes were left in the tissue, sliced in place during histology, and showed minimal tissue damage.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our results validate our new technology and methods, which will enable a more comprehensive circuit level understanding of the brain.

Microelectrode-Based Electrochemical Sensing Technology for in Vivo Detection of Dopamine: Recent Developments and Future Prospects

Dopamine (DA) is an essential type of neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. DA neurons usually exist as nuclei which are mainly found in the ventral tegmental area (VTN) and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, schizophrenia and other diseases are all related to the abnormal metabolism of DA. Compared with traditional DA detection methods such as spectrophotometry and electrophoresis, electrochemical sensing technology has high detection efficiency, high sensitivity, fast and convenient real-time detection, which is recognized as the most effective method for measuring neurotransmitters in vivo. The working electrode of an electrochemical sensor can be generally divided into the conventional electrode and the microelectrode according to its size. The microelectrode shows excellent properties such as high sensitivity, high temporal resolution, and high spatial resolution while detecting DA, which makes it possible to detect neurotransmitters in vivo. In order to further investigate the role of DA in regulating action, emotion, and cognition, and to further clarify the relationship between DA abnormalities or lack and neurological diseases such as Parkinson, more and more researchers apply microelectrode-based electrochemistry sensing technology to detect DA in vivo. This article reviews recent applications of microelectrodes and the latest researches in DA detection in vivo, focusing on the following three types of microelectrodes: (1) non-nanomaterial-modified carbon fiber microelectrodes (CFE); (2) nanomaterial-modified microelectrodes; (3) microelectrode arrays (MEA).

A wireless, implantable optoelectrochemical probe for optogenetic stimulation and dopamine detection

Physical and chemical technologies have been continuously progressing advances in neuroscience research. The development of research tools for closed-loop control and monitoring neural activities in behaving animals is highly desirable. In this paper, we introduce a wirelessly operated, miniaturized microprobe system for optical interrogation and neurochemical sensing in the deep brain. Via epitaxial liftoff and transfer printing, microscale light-emitting diodes (micro-LEDs) as light sources and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS)-coated diamond films as electrochemical sensors are vertically assembled to form implantable optoelectrochemical probes for real-time optogenetic stimulation and dopamine detection capabilities. A customized, lightweight circuit module is employed for untethered, remote signal control, and data acquisition. After the probe is injected into the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of freely behaving mice, in vivo experiments clearly demonstrate the utilities of the multifunctional optoelectrochemical microprobe system for optogenetic interference of place preferences and detection of dopamine release. The presented options for material and device integrations provide a practical route to simultaneous optical control and electrochemical sensing of complex nervous systems.

2D materials in electrochemical sensors for in vitro or in vivo use

Individual cells and cell populations are at the present time investigated with a myriad of analytical tools. While most of them are commercially available, some of these analytical tools are just emerging from research laboratories and are in the developmental phase. Electrochemical sensors which allow the monitoring of low molecular weight compounds released (and / or uptaken) by cells are among these emerging tools. Such sensors are increasingly built using 2D materials (e.g. graphene-based materials, transition metal dichalcogenides, etc.) with the aim of conferring better analytical performances to these devices. The present work critically reviews studies published during the last 10 years describing electrochemical sensors made with 2D materials and exploited to monitor small compounds (e.g. H₂O₂, ·NO, glucose, etc.) in living biological systems. It also discusses the very few 2D material-based electrochemical sensors which are wearable or usable in vivo. Finally, the present work includes a specific section about 2D material biocompatibility, a fundamental requirement for 2D material-based sensor applications in vitro and in vivo. As such, the review provides a critical view on the state of the art of electrochemical sensors made with 2D materials and used at cellular level and it evaluates the possibility that such sensors will be used on / in the human body on a wider scale.

Timed Electrodeposition of PEDOT:Nafion onto Carbon Fiber-Microelectrodes Enhances Dopamine Detection in Zebrafish Retina

Carbon fiber-microelectrodes (CFMEs) are one of the standards for the detection of neurotransmitters such as dopamine (DA). In this study, we demonstrate that CFMEs electrodeposited with poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) in the presence of Nafion exhibit enhanced sensitivity for DA detection. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed the smooth outer surface morphologies of polymer coatings, which filled in the ridges and grooves of the bare unmodified carbon electrode and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) confirmed PEDOT:Nafion incorporation. PEDOT:Nafion coated CMFEs exhibited a statistically enhanced two-fold increase in DA sensitivity compared to unmodified microelectrodes, with stability and integrity of the coated microelectrodes maintained for at least 4 h. A scan rate test revealed a linear relationship with peak DA oxidative current (5 μM), indicating adsorption control of DA to the surface of the PEDOT:Nafion electrode. As proof of principle, PEDOT:Nafion coated electrodes were used to detect potassium chloride (KCl)-induced DA release in zebrafish (Danio rerio) retinal tissue ex vivo, thus illustrating their applicability as biosensors.

Carbon nanofiber-PEDOT composite films as novel microelectrode for neural interfaces and biosensing

A clear need exists for novel nanostructured materials that are capable to meet the performance criteria of a number of neuronal therapies including neural recording, stimulation and sensing of bioactive molecules at the electrode-tissue interface. By combining Poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), with Carbon Nanofibers (CNFs), we demonstrate a versatile approach for the synthesis of a novel composite material PEDOT:CNF with remarkable electrochemical properties, combining low impedance, high surface area, high charge injection capability and reliable neurotransmitters monitoring using amperometric techniques. The oxidized CNFs were utilized as dopants of PEDOT to prepare the composite coatings through electrochemical deposition on neural microelectrodes arrays (MEA). The PEDOT:CNF modified microelectrodes demonstrated the low specific impedance of 1.28 MΩ μm² at 1 kHz and results in unrivalled charge injection limit of 10.03 mC/cm² when compared to other reported organic electrode nanomaterials. Furthermore, amperometric detection performances were determined for the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, exhibiting linear concentration range from 0.1 to 9 μM and from 0.06 to 9 μM respectively, high sensitivities (44.54 pA/nM.μm² and 71.08 pA/nM.μm², respectively) and low detection limits (0.045 μM and 0.056 μM, respectively). Cell viability was investigated on PEDOT:CNF coated microelectrodes to show that the composite material does not advocate any cytotoxicity. Taken together, these results suggest the great potential of PEDOT:CNF composite for developing next-generation multifunctional microelectrodes for applications in neural therapies.

Optimization of graphene oxide-modified carbon-fiber microelectrode for dopamine detection

Graphene oxide (GO) is a carbon-based material that is easily obtained from graphite or graphite oxide. GO has been used broadly for electrochemistry applications and our hypothesis is that GO coating a carbon-fiber microelectrode (CFME) will increase the sensitivity for dopamine by providing more adsorption sites due to the enhancement of oxygen functional groups. Here, we compared drop casting, dip coating, and electrodeposition methods to directly coat commercial GO on CFME surfaces. Dip coating did not result in much GO coating and drop casting resulted in large agglomerations that produced noisy signals and slow rise times. Electrodeposition method with cyclic voltammetry increase the current for dopamine and this method was the most reproducible and had the least noise compared to the other two coating methods. The optimized method used a triangular waveform scanned from -1.2 V to 1.5 V at 100 mV/s for 5 cycles in 0.2 mg/mL GO in water. With fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV), the optimized GO/CFME enhanced the dopamine oxidation peak two-fold. The sensitivity of the modified electrode is 41±2 nA/μM with a linear range from 25 nM to 1 μM, and a limit of detection of 11 nM. The optimized electrodes were used to detect electrically-stimulated dopamine in brain slices to demonstrate their performance in tissue. Thus, GO can be used to enhance the sensitivity of electrodes for dopamine and improve biological measurements.

Fundamentals of fast-scan cyclic voltammetry for dopamine detection

Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) is used with carbon-fiber microelectrodes for the real-time detection of neurotransmitters on the subsecond time scale. With FSCV, the potential is ramped up from a holding potential to a switching potential and back, usually at a 400 V s-1 scan rate and a frequency of 10 Hz. The plot of current vs. applied potential, the cyclic voltammogram (CV), has a very different shape for FSCV than for traditional cyclic voltammetry collected at scan rates which are 1000-fold slower. Here, we explore the theory of FSCV, with a focus on dopamine detection. First, we examine the shape of the CVs. Background currents, which are 100-fold higher than faradaic currents, are subtracted out. Peak separation is primarily due to slow electron transfer kinetics, while the symmetrical peak shape is due to exhaustive electrolysis of all the adsorbed neurotransmitters. Second, we explain the origins of the dopamine waveform, and the factors that limit the holding potential (oxygen reduction), switching potential (water oxidation), scan rate (electrode instability), and repetition rate (adsorption). Third, we discuss data analysis, from data visualization with color plots, to the automated algorithms like principal components regression that distinguish dopamine from pH changes. Finally, newer applications are discussed, including optimization of waveforms for analyte selectivity, carbon nanomaterial electrodes that trap dopamine, and basal level measurements that facilitate neurotransmitter measurements on a longer time scale. FSCV theory is complex, but understanding it enables better development of new techniques to monitor neurotransmitters in vivo.

Recent advances in fast-scan cyclic voltammetry

Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) at carbon-fiber microelectrodes (CFMEs) is a versatile electrochemical technique to probe neurochemical dynamics in vivo. Progress in FSCV methodology continues to address analytical challenges arising from biological needs to measure low concentrations of neurotransmitters at specific sites. This review summarizes recent advances in FSCV method development in three areas: (1) waveform optimization, (2) electrode development, and (3) data analysis. First, FSCV waveform parameters such as holding potential, switching potential, and scan rate have been optimized to monitor new neurochemicals. The new waveform shapes introduce better selectivity toward specific molecules such as serotonin, histamine, hydrogen peroxide, octopamine, adenosine, guanosine, and neuropeptides. Second, CFMEs have been modified with nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes or replaced with conducting polymers to enhance sensitivity, selectivity, and antifouling properties. Different geometries can be obtained by 3D-printing, manufacturing arrays, or fabricating carbon nanopipettes. Third, data analysis is important to sort through the thousands of CVs obtained. Recent developments in data analysis include preprocessing by digital filtering, principal components analysis for distinguishing analytes, and developing automated algorithms to detect peaks. Future challenges include multisite measurements, machine learning, and integration with other techniques. Advances in FSCV will accelerate research in neurochemistry to answer new biological questions about dynamics of signaling in the brain.

Recent Advances in Electrochemical and Optical Sensing of Dopamine

Nowadays, several neurological disorders and neurocrine tumours are associated with dopamine (DA) concentrations in various biological fluids. Highly accurate and ultrasensitive detection of DA levels in different biological samples in real-time can change and improve the quality of a patient's life in addition to reducing the treatment cost. Therefore, the design and development of diagnostic tool for in vivo and in vitro monitoring of DA is of considerable clinical and pharmacological importance. In recent decades, a large number of techniques have been established for DA detection, including chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry, spectroscopic approaches, and electrochemical (EC) methods. These methods are effective, but most of them still have some drawbacks such as consuming time, effort, and money. Added to that, sometimes they need complex procedures to obtain good sensitivity and suffer from low selectivity due to interference from other biological species such as uric acid (UA) and ascorbic acid (AA). Advanced materials can offer remarkable opportunities to overcome drawbacks in conventional DA sensors. This review aims to explain challenges related to DA detection using different techniques, and to summarize and highlight recent advancements in materials used and approaches applied for several sensor surface modification for the monitoring of DA. Also, it focuses on the analytical features of the EC and optical-based sensing techniques available.

Electrochemical biosensors: perspective on functional nanomaterials for on-site analysis

BACKGROUND

The electrochemical biosensor is one of the typical sensing devices based on transducing the biochemical events to electrical signals. In this type of sensor, an electrode is a key component that is employed as a solid support for immobilization of biomolecules and electron movement. Thanks to numerous nanomaterials that possess the large surface area, synergic effects are enabled by improving loading capacity and the mass transport of reactants for achieving high performance in terms of analytical sensitivity.

MAIN BODY

We categorized the current electrochemical biosensors into two groups, carbon-based (carbon nanotubes and graphene) and non-carbon-based nanomaterials (metallic and silica nanoparticles, nanowire, and indium tin oxide, organic materials). The carbon allotropes can be employed as an electrode and supporting scaffolds due to their large active surface area as well as an effective electron transfer rate. We also discussed the non-carbon nanomaterials that are used as alternative supporting components of the electrode for improving the electrochemical properties of biosensors.

CONCLUSION

Although several functional nanomaterials have provided the innovative solid substrate for high performances, developing on-site version of biosensor that meets enough sensitivity along with high reproducibility still remains a challenge. In particular, the matrix interference from real samples which seriously affects the biomolecular interaction still remains the most critical issues that need to be solved for practical aspect in the electrochemical biosensor.

Low-cost, thin-film, mass-manufacturable carbon electrodes for detection of the neurotransmitter dopamine

A flexible, thin-film carbon electrode is reported for detection of the key neurotransmitter dopamine using standard electroanalytical techniques of cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry and square wave voltammetry. The thin-film electrode has been explored as a possible low-cost solution to detect low concentrations of dopamine and its performance has been compared with a commercially available screen printed carbon electrode. It was found that the thin-film electrode is more sensitive than the screen printed electrode, and can faithfully detect dopamine between 50 pM and 1 mM concentrations. The electrode provides a limit of detection of ~50 pM, displays good selectivity between dopamine and ascorbic acid, and is able to show a level of differentiation between the two compounds in terms of peak currents as well as oxidative potentials at physiologically relevant concentrations. This is in contrast to the screen printed electrode which is unable to discriminate between dopamine and ascorbic acid at the same concentrations. The key advantages of the presented electrode system are its low-cost, flexible substrate, and the ability to achieve very low levels of dopamine detection without requiring any electrode surface modification steps, a key factor in reducing fabrication costs and overall device complexity.

Graphene-Based Fibers: Recent Advances in Preparation and Application

Graphene-based fibers (GBFs) are macroscopic 1D assemblies formed by using microscopic 2D graphene sheets as building blocks. Their unique structure exhibits the same merits as graphene such as low weight, high specific surface area, excellent mechanical/electrical properties, and ease of functionalization. Furthermore, the fibrous nature of GBFs is intrinsically compatible with existing textile technologies, making them suitable for applications in flexible and wearable electronics. Recently, novel synthetic methods have endowed GBFs with new structures and functions, further improving their mechanical and electrical properties. These improvements have rapidly bridged the gaps between laboratory demonstrations and real-life applications in fiber-shaped batteries, supercapacitors, and electrochemical sensors. Recent advances in the fabrication, optimization, and application of GBFs are systematically reviewed and a perspective on their future development is given.

Real-time in vivo detection techniques for neurotransmitters: a review

Functional synapses in the central nervous system depend on a chemical signal exchange process that involves neurotransmitter delivery between neurons and receptor cells in the neuro system.

A review on recent advancements in electrochemical biosensing using carbonaceous nanomaterials

This review, with 201 references, describes the recent advancement in the application of carbonaceous nanomaterials as highly conductive platforms in electrochemical biosensing. The electrochemical biosensing is described in introduction by classifying biosensors into catalytic-based and affinity-based biosensors and statistically demonstrates the most recent published works in each category. The introduction is followed by sections on electrochemical biosensors configurations and common carbonaceous nanomaterials applied in electrochemical biosensing, including graphene and its derivatives, carbon nanotubes, mesoporous carbon, carbon nanofibers and carbon nanospheres. In the following sections, carbonaceous catalytic-based and affinity-based biosensors are discussed in detail. In the category of catalytic-based biosensors, a comparison between enzymatic biosensors and non-enzymatic electrochemical sensors is carried out. Regarding the affinity-based biosensors, scholarly articles related to biological elements such as antibodies, deoxyribonucleic acids (DNAs) and aptamers are discussed in separate sections. The last section discusses recent advancements in carbonaceous screen-printed electrodes as a growing field in electrochemical biosensing. Tables are presented that give an overview on the diversity of analytes, type of materials and the sensors performance. Ultimately, general considerations, challenges and future perspectives in this field of science are discussed. Recent findings suggest that interests towards 2D nanostructured electrodes based on graphene and its derivatives are still growing in the field of electrochemical biosensing. That is because of their exceptional electrical conductivity, active surface area and more convenient production methods compared to carbon nanotubes. Graphical abstract Schematic representation of carbonaceous nanomaterials used in electrochemical biosensing. The content is classified into non-enzymatic sensors and affinity/ catalytic biosensors. Recent publications are tabulated and compared, considering materials, target, limit of detection and linear range of detection.

Facile Development of a Fiber-Based Electrode for Highly Selective and Sensitive Detection of Dopamine

A facile one-step method was used to create a selective and sensitive electrode for dopamine (DA) detection based upon a stainless steel (SS) filament substrate and reduced graphene oxide (rGO). The electrode successfully and selectively detects DA in the presence of uric acid and ascorbic acid without the need for a Nafion coating. The proposed electrode is easy to fabricate, low-cost, flexible, and strong. The rGO-SS electrode could also be incorporated into a three-dimensional braided structure enabling DA detection in a two-electrode fiber system. The sensor is an excellent candidate for production of an affordable, robust, and flexible wearable and portable sensor and expands the application of textiles in point of care diagnostic devices.

Nanodiamond Coating Improves the Sensitivity and Antifouling Properties of Carbon Fiber Microelectrodes

Nanodiamonds (NDs) are carbon nanomaterials with a core diamond crystalline structure and crystal defects, such as graphitic carbon and heteroatoms, on their surface. For electrochemistry, NDs are promising to increase active sites and decrease fouling, but NDs have not been studied for neurotransmitter electrochemistry. Here, we optimized ND coatings on microelectrodes and found that ND increases the sensitivity for neurotransmitters with fast-scan cyclic voltammetry detection and decreases electrochemical and biofouling. Different sizes and functionalizations of NDs were tested, and ND suspensions were drop-casted onto carbon-fiber microelectrodes (CFMEs). The 5 nm ND-H and 5 nm ND-COOH formed thick coatings, while the 15 and 60 nm ND-COOH formed more sparse coatings. With electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, 5 nm ND-H and 5 nm ND-COOH had high charge-transfer resistance, while 15 and 60 nm ND-COOH had low charge-transfer resistance. ND-COOH (15 nm) was optimal, with the best electrocatalytic properties and current for dopamine. Sensitivity was enhanced 2.1 ± 0.2 times and the limit of detection for dopamine improved to 3 ± 1 nM. ND coating increased current for other cations such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and epinephrine, but not for the anion ascorbic acid. Moreover, NDs decreased electrochemical fouling from serotonin and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, and they also decreased biofouling in brain slice tissue by 50%. The current at biofouled ND-coated electrodes is similar to the signal of pristine, unfouled CFMEs. The carboxylated ND-modified CFMEs are beneficial for neurotransmitter detection because of easy fabrication, improved limit of detection, and antifouling properties.

Direct in Vivo Electrochemical Detection of Resting Dopamine Using Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/Carbon Nanotube Functionalized Microelectrodes

Dopamine (DA) is a monoamine neurotransmitter responsible for the maintenance of a variety of vital life functions. In vivo DA signaling occurs over multiple time scales, from subsecond phasic release due to dopamine neuron firing to tonic release responsible for long-term DA concentration changes over minutes to hours. Due to the complex, multifaceted nature of DA signaling, analytical sensing technology must be capable of recording DA from multiple locations and over multiple time scales. Decades of research has focused on improving in vivo detection capabilities for subsecond phasic DA, but the accurate detection of absolute resting DA levels in real time has proven challenging. We have developed a poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)-based nanocomposite coating that exhibits excellent DA sensing capabilities for resting DA. PEDOT/functionalized carbon nanotube (PEDOT/CNT)-coated carbon fiber microelectrodes (CFEs) are capable of directly measuring resting DA using square wave voltammetry (SWV) with high sensitivity and selectivity. Incorporation of a PEDOT/CNT coating significantly increases the sensitivity for the detection of resting DA by a factor of 422. SWV measurements performed at PEDOT/CNT-functionalized CFEs implanted in the rat dorsal striatum reveal the absolute basal DA concentration to be 82 ± 6 nM. Systemic administration of the dopamine transporter inhibitor nomifensine increases resting DA to a maximum 207 ± 16 nM at 28 ± 2 min following injection. PEDOT/CNT was also functionalized onto individual gold electrode sites along silicon microelectrode arrays (MEAs) to produce a multisite DA sensing electrode. MEA implantation allows for the quantification of basal DA from different brain regions with excellent spatial resolution. SWV detection paired with PEDOT/CNT functionalization is highly adaptable and shows great promise for tonic DA detection with high spatial and temporal resolution.

Modulating Electrode Kinetics for Discrimination of Dopamine by a PEDOT:COOH Interface Doped with Negatively Charged Tricarboxylate

The rapidly developing field of conducting polymers in organic electronics has many implications for bioelectronics. For biosensing applications, tailoring the functionalities of the conducting polymer's surface is an efficient approach to improve both sensitivity and selectivity. Here, we demonstrated a facile and economic approach for the fabrication of a high-density, negatively charged carboxylic-acid-group-functionalized PEDOT (PEDOT:COOH) using an inexpensive ternary carboxylic acid, citrate, as a dopant. The polymerization efficiency was significantly improved by the addition of LiClO₄ as a supporting electrolyte yielding a dense PEDOT:COOH sensing interface. The resulting PEDOT:COOH interface had a high surface density of carboxylic acid groups of 0.129 μmol/cm² as quantified by the toluidine blue O (TBO) staining technique. The dopamine response measured with the PEDOT:COOH sensing interface was characterized by cyclic voltammetry with a significantly reduced ΔE_p of 90 mV and a 3-fold increase in the I_pa value compared with those of the nonfunctionalized PEDOT sensing interface. Moreover, the cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy results demonstrated the increased electrode kinetics and highly selective discrimination of dopamine (DA) in the presence of the interferents ascorbic acid (AA) and uric acid (UA), which resulted from the introduction of negatively charged carboxylic acid groups. The negatively charged carboxylic acid groups could favor the transfer, preconcentration, and permeation of positively charged DA to deliver improved sensing performance while repelling the negatively charged AA and UA interferents. The PEDOT:COOH interface facilitated measurement of dopamine over the range of 1-85 μM, with a sensitivity of 0.228 μA μM^-1, which is 4.1 times higher than that of a nonfunctionalized PEDOT electrode (0.055 μA μM^-1). Our results demonstrate the feasibility of a simple and economic fabrication of a high-density PEDOT:COOH interface for chemical sensing, which also has the potential for coupling with other biorecognition molecules via carboxylic acid moieties for the development of a range of advanced PEDOT-based biosensors.

Next-generation interfaces for studying neural function

Monitoring and modulating the diversity of signals used by neurons and glia in a closed-loop fashion is necessary to establish causative links between biochemical processes within the nervous system and observed behaviors. As developments in neural-interface hardware strive to keep pace with rapid progress in genetically encoded and synthetic reporters and modulators of neural activity, the integration of multiple functional features becomes a key requirement and a pressing challenge in the field of neural engineering. Electrical, optical and chemical approaches have been used to manipulate and record neuronal activity in vivo, with a recent focus on technologies that both integrate multiple modes of interaction with neurons into a single device and enable bidirectional communication with neural circuits with enhanced spatiotemporal precision. These technologies not only are facilitating a greater understanding of the brain, spinal cord and peripheral circuits in the context of health and disease, but also are informing the development of future closed-loop therapies for neurological, neuro-immune and neuroendocrine conditions.

Biomedical Application of Electroactive Polymers in Electrochemical Sensors: A Review

Conducting polymers are of interest due to their unique behavior on exposure to electric fields, which has led to their use in flexible electronics, sensors, and biomaterials. The unique electroactive properties of conducting polymers allow them to be used to prepare biosensors that enable real time, point of care (POC) testing. Potential advantages of these devices include their low cost and low detection limit, ultimately resulting in increased access to treatment. This article presents a review of the characteristics of conducting polymer-based biosensors and the recent advances in their application in the recognition of disease biomarkers.

Fabrication of Au Nanoparticle-Decorated MoS2 Nanoslices as Efficient Electrocatalysts for Electrochemical Detection of Dopamine

Herein, MoS2 nanoslices were simply prepared by using ultrasonic treatment, and were further decorated with Au nanoparticles (AuNPs) through an electrodeposition process to obtain the MoS2/Au nanocomposites. The obtained nanocomposites display synergetic electrocatalytic effect for the oxidation of dopamine due to the large surface area and two-dimensional structure of the MoS2 nanoslices, combining with the high catalytic activity and good conductivity of AuNPs. An electrochemical sensor was constructed based on MoS2/Au-modified carbon paste electrode, for sensitive and quantitative determination of dopamine. The prepared electrochemical sensor proves excellent analytical performances: very high sensitivity, wide linear ranges (0.5–300 μM), and low detection limit (76 nM). Moreover, the dopamine sensor also displays high selectivity, good reproducibility and stability, and can be used in real sample analysis. The method of fabricating high-efficiency electrocatalysts and electrochemical sensors proposed in this study provides a good reference for developing more functionalized nanocomposites and for extending practical applications.

Graphene-Based Nanomaterials: From Production to Integration With Modern Tools in Neuroscience

Graphene, a two-dimensional carbon crystal, has emerged as a promising material for sensing and modulating neuronal activity in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we provide a primer for how manufacturing processes to produce graphene and graphene oxide result in materials properties that may be tailored for a variety of applications. We further discuss how graphene may be composited with other bio-compatible materials of interest to make novel hybrid complexes with desired characteristics for bio-interfacing. We then highlight graphene's ever-widen utility and unique properties that may in the future be multiplexed for cross-modal modulation or interrogation of neuronal network. As the biological effects of graphene are still an area of active investigation, we discuss recent development, with special focus on how surface coatings and surface properties of graphene are relevant to its biological effects. We discuss studies conducted in both non-murine and murine systems, and emphasize the preclinical aspect of graphene's potential without undermining its tangible clinical implementation.

Electrochemical Nanocomposite Single-Use Sensor for Dopamine Detection

In this work, we report the development of a simple and sensitive sensor based on graphite screen-printed electrodes (GSPEs) modified by a nanocomposite film for dopamine (DA) detection. The sensor was realized by electrodepositing polyaniline (PANI) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) onto the graphite working electrode. The sensor surface was fully characterized by means of the cyclic voltammetry (CV) technique using [Fe(CN)6]4-/3- and [Ru(NH3)6]2+/3+ as redox probes. The electrochemical behavior of the nanocomposite sensor towards DA oxidation was assessed by differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) in phosphate buffer saline at physiological pH. The sensor response was found to be linearly related to DA concentration in the range 1-100 μM DA, with a limit of detection of 0.86 μM. The performance of the sensor in terms of reproducibility and selectivity was also studied. Finally, the sensor was successfully applied for a preliminary DA determination in human serum samples.

Applications of PEDOT in bioelectronic medicine

The widespread use of conducting polymers, especially poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) (PEDOT), within the space of bioelectronics has enabled improvements, both in terms of electrochemistry and functional versatility, of conventional metallic electrodes. This short review aims to provide an overview of how PEDOT coatings have contributed to functionalizing existing bioelectronics, the challenges which meet conducting polymer coatings from a regulatory and stability point of view and the possibilities to bring PEDOT-based coatings into large-scale clinical applications. Finally, their potential use for enabling new technologies for the field of bioelectronics as biodegradable, stretchable and slow-stimulation materials will be discussed.

Latest Trends in Electrochemical Sensors for Neurotransmitters: A Review

Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemical messengers which play an important role in many of the brain functions, abnormal levels being correlated with physical, psychotic and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's disease. Therefore, their sensitive and robust detection is of great clinical significance. Electrochemical methods have been intensively used in the last decades for neurotransmitter detection, outclassing more complicated analytical techniques such as conventional spectrophotometry, chromatography, fluorescence, flow injection, and capillary electrophoresis. In this manuscript, the most successful and promising electrochemical enzyme-free and enzymatic sensors for neurotransmitter detection are reviewed. Focusing on the activity of worldwide researchers mainly during the last ten years (2010-2019), without pretending to be exhaustive, we present an overview of the progress made in sensing strategies during this time. Particular emphasis is placed on nanostructured-based sensors, which show a substantial improvement of the analytical performances. This review also examines the progress made in biosensors for neurotransmitter measurements in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo.

Facile Synthesis of a 3,4-Ethylene-Dioxythiophene (EDOT) Derivative for Ease of Bio-Functionalization of the Conducting Polymer PEDOT

In the pursuit of conducting polymer based bio-functional devices, a cost-effective and high yield synthesis method for a versatile monomer is desired. We report here a new synthesis strategy for a versatile monomer 2-methylene-2,3-dihydrothieno (3,4-b) (1,4) dioxine, or 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene with a exomethylene side group (EDOT-EM). Compared to the previously reported synthesis route, the new strategy uses less steps, with faster reaction rate, and higher yield. The presence of EM group opens up endless possibility for derivatization via either hydro-alkoxy addition or thiol-ene click chemistry. EDOT-EM could be polymerized into stable and low impedance PEDOT-EM polymer using electro-polymerization method on different conducting substrates at both macro and micro scales. Facile post-functionalization of PEDOT-EM with molecules of varying size and functionality (from small molecules to DNAs and proteins) was achieved. The new synthetic route of EDOT-EM and the ease of post-functionalization of PEDOT-EM will greatly accelerate the use of conducting polymer in a broad range of organic electronics and bioelectronics applications.

A chemiluminescence biosensor for lysozyme detection based on aptamers and hemin/G-quadruplex DNAzyme modified sandwich-rod carbon fiber composite

In our work, aptamers and hemin/G-quadruplex DNAzyme modified sandwich-rod graphene quantum dots @ graphene oxide @ carbon fiber composite (DNAzyme/L-Apt/GQDs@GO@CF) was successfully prepared for sensitive and selective chemiluminescence (CL) detection of lysozyme (LZM). Initially, GQDs@GO@CF was successfully prepared and characterized. Lysozyme aptamers (L-Apt) as a recognition element and hemin/G-quadruplex DNAzyme (DNAzyme) as a catalyst of luminal - H₂O₂ were modified on the surface of GQDs@GO@CF, sequentially. The immobilization properties of GQDs@GO@CF to L-Apt and the adsorption properties of L-Apt/GQDs@GO@CF to DNAzyme were also researched, respectively. Then, the modified sandwich-rod carbon fiber composite was applied to the construction of CL biosensor for LZM detection. When LZM existed, DNAzyme would be released from the surface of L-Apt/GQDs@GO@CF and catalyzed the reaction of luminal - H₂O₂. Under optimized conditions, the CL biosensor for LZM detection showed wide linear range of 2.64 × 10^-10 to 6.6 × 10^-8 g/L and low detection limit of 1.25 × 10^-11 g/L (3δ). Finally, the CL biosensor was successfully used for LZM detection in human urine samples and illustrated the potential application in pratical samples.

Review: New insights into optimizing chemical and 3D surface structures of carbon electrodes for neurotransmitter detection

The carbon-fiber microelectrode has been used for decades as a neurotransmitter sensor. Recently, new strategies have been developed for making carbon electrodes, including using carbon nanomaterials or pyrolyzing photoresist etched by nanolithography or 3D printing. This review summarizes how chemical and 3D surface structures of new carbon electrodes are optimized for neurotransmitter detection. There are effects of the chemical structure that are advantageous and nanomaterials are used ranging from carbon nanotube (CNT) to graphene to nanodiamond. Functionalization of these materials promotes surface oxide groups that adsorb dopamine and dopants introduce defect sites good for electron transfer. Polymer coatings such as poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) or Nafion also enhance the selectivity, particularly for dopamine over ascorbic acid. Changing the 3D surface structure of an electrode increases current by adding more surface area. If the surface structure has roughness or pores on the micron scale, the electrode also acts as a thin layer cell, momentarily trapping the analyte for redox cycling. Vertically-aligned CNTs as well as lithographically-made or 3D printed pillar arrays act as thin layer cells, producing more reversible cyclic voltammograms. A better understanding of how chemical and surface structure affects electrochemistry enables rational design of electrodes. New carbon electrodes are being tested in vivo and strategies to reduce biofouling are being developed. Future studies should test the robustness for long term implantation, explore electrochemical properties of neurotransmitters beyond dopamine, and combine optimized chemical and physical structures for real-time monitoring of neurotransmitters.

Development of Highly Sensitive Immunosensor for Clenbuterol Detection by Using Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/Graphene Oxide Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode

Clenbuterol (CLB) is an antibiotic and illegal growth promoter drug that has a long half-life and easily remains as residue and contaminates the animal-based food product that leads to various health problems. In this work, electrochemical immunosensor based on poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/graphene oxide (PEDOT/GO) modified screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) for CLB detection was developed for antibiotic monitoring in a food product. The modification of SPCE with PEDOT/GO as a sensor platform was performed through electropolymerization, while the electrochemical assay was accomplished while using direct competitive format in which the free CLB and clenbuterol-horseradish peroxidase (CLB-HRP) in the solution will compete to form binding with the polyclonal anti-clenbuterol antibody (Ab) immobilized onto the modified electrode surface. A linear standard CLB calibration curve with R² = 0.9619 and low limit of detection (0.196 ng mL-1) was reported. Analysis of milk samples indicated that this immunosensor was able to detect CLB in real samples and the results that were obtained were comparable with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA).

Polydopamine Dots-Based Fluorescent Nanoswitch Assay for Reversible Recognition of Glutamic Acid and Al3+ in Human Serum and Living Cell

We developed a facile and feasible fluorescent nanoswitch assay for reversible recognition of glutamate (Glu) and Al³⁺ in human serum and living cell. The proposed nanoswitch assay is based on our recently developed method for controlled synthesis of fluorescent polydopamine dots (PDADs) at room temperature with dopamine as the sole precursor. The fluorescence of nanoswitch assay could be quickly and efficiently quenched by Glu (turn-Off), and the addition of Al³⁺ could recover the fluorescence of the PDADs-Glu system (turn-On). Meanwhile, the reversible recognition of Glu and Al³⁺ in this nanoswitch system was stable after three cycles. Additionally, the system displayed excellent performance for Glu and Al³⁺ determination with a low detection limit of 0.12 and 0.2 μM, respectively. Moreover, PDADs are successfully applied to determine Glu and monitor Al³⁺ in human serum. Noteworthy, the nanoswitch assay is transported into HepG2 cells and realized "Off" detection of Glu and "On" sensing Al³⁺ in the living cells. Therefore, this PDADs-based nanoswitch assay provides a strategy to develop reversible recognition biosensors for intracellular and external molecular analysis.