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Epstein-Barr Virus: How Its Lytic Phase Contributes to Oncogenesis. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8111824. [PMID: 33228078 PMCID: PMC7699388 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8111824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 11/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV) contributes to the development of lymphoid and epithelial malignancies. While EBV’s latent phase is more commonly associated with EBV-associated malignancies, there is increasing evidence that EBV’s lytic phase plays a role in EBV-mediated oncogenesis. The lytic phase contributes to oncogenesis primarily in two ways: (1) the production of infectious particles to infect more cells, and (2) the regulation of cellular oncogenic pathways, both cell autonomously and non-cell autonomously. The production of infectious particles requires the completion of the lytic phase. However, the regulation of cellular oncogenic pathways can be mediated by an incomplete (abortive) lytic phase, in which early lytic gene products contribute substantially, whereas late lytic products are largely dispensable. In this review, we discuss the evidence of EBV’s lytic phase contributing to oncogenesis and the role it plays in tumor formation and progression, as well as summarize known mechanisms by which EBV lytic products regulate oncogenic pathways. Understanding the contribution of EBV’s lytic phase to oncogenesis will help design ways to target it to treat EBV-associated malignancies.
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52
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Chen J, Goyal N, Dai L, Lin Z, Del Valle L, Zabaleta J, Liu J, Post SR, Foroozesh M, Qin Z. Developing new ceramide analogs and identifying novel sphingolipid-controlled genes against a virus-associated lymphoma. Blood 2020; 136:2175-2187. [PMID: 32518949 PMCID: PMC7645984 DOI: 10.1182/blood.2020005569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) is an aggressive malignancy with poor prognosis even under chemotherapy. Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), one of the human oncogenic viruses, is the principal causative agent. Currently, there is no specific treatment for PEL; therefore, developing new therapies is of great importance. Sphingolipid metabolism plays an important role in determining the fate of tumor cells. Our previous studies have demonstrated that there is a correlation between sphingolipid metabolism and KSHV+ tumor cell survival. To further develop sphingolipid metabolism-targeted therapy, after screening a series of newly synthesized ceramide analogs, here, we have identified compounds with effective anti-PEL activity. These compounds induce significant PEL apoptosis, cell-cycle arrest, and intracellular ceramide production through regulation of ceramide synthesizing or ceramide metabolizing enzymes and dramatically suppress tumor progression without visible toxicity in vivo. These new compounds also increase viral lytic gene expression in PEL cells. Our comparative transcriptomic analysis revealed their mechanisms of action for inducing PEL cell death and identified a subset of novel cellular genes, including AURKA and CDCA3, controlled by sphingolipid metabolism, and required for PEL survival with functional validation. These data provide the framework for the development of promising sphingolipid-based therapies against this virus-associated malignancy.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Apoptosis
- Aurora Kinase A/genetics
- Aurora Kinase A/metabolism
- Cell Cycle Proteins/genetics
- Cell Cycle Proteins/metabolism
- Cell Survival
- Ceramides/chemistry
- Ceramides/pharmacology
- Female
- Gene Expression Profiling
- Herpesvirus 8, Human/pathogenicity
- Humans
- Lymphoma, Primary Effusion/drug therapy
- Lymphoma, Primary Effusion/etiology
- Lymphoma, Primary Effusion/metabolism
- Lymphoma, Primary Effusion/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred NOD
- Mice, SCID
- Sarcoma, Kaposi/complications
- Sarcoma, Kaposi/virology
- Sphingolipids/pharmacology
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
- Virus Replication
- Xenograft Model Antitumor Assays
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Affiliation(s)
- Jungang Chen
- Department of Pathology, Winthrop P. Rockefeller Cancer Institute, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR
| | - Navneet Goyal
- Department of Chemistry, Xavier University of Louisiana, New Orleans, LA
| | - Lu Dai
- Department of Pathology, Winthrop P. Rockefeller Cancer Institute, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR
| | - Zhen Lin
- Department of Pathology, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, Tulane Cancer Center, New Orleans, LA
| | | | - Jovanny Zabaleta
- Department of Pediatrics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Louisiana Cancer Research Center, New Orleans, LA; and
| | - Jiawang Liu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN
| | - Steven R Post
- Department of Pathology, Winthrop P. Rockefeller Cancer Institute, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR
| | - Maryam Foroozesh
- Department of Chemistry, Xavier University of Louisiana, New Orleans, LA
| | - Zhiqiang Qin
- Department of Pathology, Winthrop P. Rockefeller Cancer Institute, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR
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53
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Lange PT, Damania B. Modeling oncogenic herpesvirus infections in humanized mice. Curr Opin Virol 2020; 44:90-96. [PMID: 32784124 PMCID: PMC7755680 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2020.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The creation of humanized mice generally involves the reconstitution of immunodeficient mice with human immune constituents. Different methodologies have been employed, and significant progress has been made towards the development of robustly humanized mouse models. Some of the techniques used include the injection of mature human immune cells, the injection of human hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) capable of reconstituting radiation-depleted murine bone marrow, and the implantation of human fetal liver and thymus fragments under the kidney capsule to create a thymic organoid that can support thympoiesis. This review will serve as a brief introduction to the three most commonly utilized humanized mouse models for the study of gammaherpesvirus-driven pathogenesis, and highlight some of the critical discoveries these models have enabled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip T Lange
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Blossom Damania
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States.
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54
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Münz C. Probing Reconstituted Human Immune Systems in Mice With Oncogenic γ-Herpesvirus Infections. Front Immunol 2020; 11:581419. [PMID: 33013936 PMCID: PMC7509489 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.581419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mice with reconstituted human immune systems can mount cell-mediated immune responses against the human tumor viruses Epstein Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi sarcoma associated herpesvirus (KSHV). Primarily cytotoxic lymphocytes protect the vast majority of persistently infected carriers of these tumor viruses from the respective malignancies for life. Thus, EBV and KSHV infection can teach us how this potent immune control is induced, what phenotype and functions characterize the protective lymphocyte compartments and if similar immune responses could be induced by vaccination. This review will summarize similarities and differences between EBV and KSHV associated pathologies and their immune control in patients and mice with reconstituted human immune systems. Furthermore, it will high-light which aspects of the near perfect immune control can be modeled in the latter preclinical animal models and discuss their relevance for cancer immunology in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Münz
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, Zurich, Switzerland
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55
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Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Drives a Super-Enhancer-Mediated Survival Gene Expression Program in Primary Effusion Lymphoma. mBio 2020; 11:mBio.01457-20. [PMID: 32843547 PMCID: PMC7448273 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01457-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) causes primary effusion lymphoma (PEL). The cellular transcription factor (TF) interferon (IFN) regulatory factor 4 (IRF4) is an essential oncogene in PEL, but its specific role in PEL and how KSHV deregulates IRF4 remain unknown. Here, we report that the KSHV latency protein viral interferon regulatory factor 3 (vIRF3) cooperates with IRF4 and cellular BATF (basic leucine zipper ATF-like TF) to drive a super-enhancer (SE)-mediated oncogenic transcriptional program in PEL. Chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled with next-generation sequencing (ChIP-Seq) experiments demonstrated that IRF4, vIRF3, and BATF cooccupy the SEs of key survival genes, in a pattern that is distinct from those seen with other IRF4-driven malignancies. All three proteins cooperatively drive SE-mediated IRF4 overexpression. Inactivation of vIRF3 and, to a lesser extent, BATF phenocopies the gene expression changes and loss of cellular viability observed upon inactivation of IRF4. In sum, this work suggests that KSHV vIRF3 and cellular IRF4 and BATF cooperate as oncogenic transcription factors on SEs to promote cellular survival and proliferation in KSHV-associated lymphomas.IMPORTANCE Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) causes the aggressive disease primary effusion lymphoma (PEL). Here, we show that a viral transcription factor (vIRF3) cooperates with the cellular transcription factor IRF4 to control an oncogenic gene expression program in PEL cells. These proteins promote KSHV-mediated B cell transformation by activating the expression of prosurvival genes through super-enhancers. Our report thus demonstrates that this DNA tumor virus encodes a transcription factor that functions with cellular IRF4 to drive oncogenic transcriptional reprogramming.
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56
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Cytotoxicity in Epstein Barr virus specific immune control. Curr Opin Virol 2020; 46:1-8. [PMID: 32771660 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2020.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Epstein Barr virus (EBV) is the most common human tumor virus, persistently infecting more than 95% of the human adult population and readily transforming human B cell in culture. Fortunately, only a small minority of EBV carriers develops virus associated malignancies. The majority controls persistent EBV infection with cytotoxic lymphocytes, mainly NK, γδ and CD8+ T cells and the characteristics of the required immune responses get more and more defined by primary immunodeficiencies that affect molecules of these cytotoxic lymphocytes and their investigation in mice with reconstituted human immune system components (humanized mice) that are susceptible to EBV infection and associated lymphomagenesis. The gained information should be able to guide us to develop immunotherapies against EBV and tumors in general.
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57
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Dangerous Liaisons: Gammaherpesvirus Subversion of the Immunoglobulin Repertoire. Viruses 2020; 12:v12080788. [PMID: 32717815 PMCID: PMC7472090 DOI: 10.3390/v12080788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
A common biologic property of the gammaherpesviruses Epstein–Barr Virus and Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus is their use of B lymphocytes as a reservoir of latency in healthy individuals that can undergo oncogenic transformation later in life. Gammaherpesviruses (GHVs) employ an impressive arsenal of proteins and non-coding RNAs to reprogram lymphocytes for proliferative expansion. Within lymphoid tissues, the germinal center (GC) reaction is a hub of B cell proliferation and death. The goal of a GC is to generate and then select for a pool of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes that will provide a protective humoral adaptive immune response. B cells infected with GHVs are detected in GCs and bear the hallmark signatures of the mutagenic processes of somatic hypermutation and isotype class switching of the Ig genes. However, data also supports extrafollicular B cells as a reservoir engaged by GHVs. Next-generation sequencing technologies provide unprecedented detail of the Ig sequence that informs the natural history of infection at the single cell level. Here, we review recent reports from human and murine GHV systems that identify striking differences in the immunoglobulin repertoire of infected B cells compared to their uninfected counterparts. Implications for virus biology, GHV-associated cancers, and host immune dysfunction will be discussed.
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58
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Niedźwiedzka-Rystwej P, Grywalska E, Hrynkiewicz R, Wołącewicz M, Becht R, Roliński J. The Double-Edged Sword Role of Viruses in Gastric Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12061680. [PMID: 32599870 PMCID: PMC7352989 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12061680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to its high morbidity and mortality, gastric cancer is a topic of a great concern throughout the world. Major ways of treatment are gastrectomy and chemotherapy, unfortunately they are not always successful. In a search for more efficient therapy strategies, viruses and their potential seem to be an important issue. On one hand, several oncogenic viruses have been noticed in the case of gastric cancer, making the positive treatment even more advantageous, but on the other, viruses exist with a potential therapeutic role in this malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Niedźwiedzka-Rystwej
- Institute of Biology, University of Szczecin, Felczaka 3c, 71-412 Szczecin, Poland; (R.H.); (M.W.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Ewelina Grywalska
- Department of Clinical Immunology and Immunotherapy, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; (E.G.); (J.R.)
| | - Rafał Hrynkiewicz
- Institute of Biology, University of Szczecin, Felczaka 3c, 71-412 Szczecin, Poland; (R.H.); (M.W.)
| | - Mikołaj Wołącewicz
- Institute of Biology, University of Szczecin, Felczaka 3c, 71-412 Szczecin, Poland; (R.H.); (M.W.)
| | - Rafał Becht
- Clinical Department of Oncology, Chemotherapy and Cancer Immunotherapy, Pomeranian Medical University of Szczecin, 70-204 Szczecin, Poland;
| | - Jacek Roliński
- Department of Clinical Immunology and Immunotherapy, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; (E.G.); (J.R.)
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59
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McHugh D, Myburgh R, Caduff N, Spohn M, Kok YL, Keller CW, Murer A, Chatterjee B, Rühl J, Engelmann C, Chijioke O, Quast I, Shilaih M, Strouvelle VP, Neumann K, Menter T, Dirnhofer S, Lam JK, Hui KF, Bredl S, Schlaepfer E, Sorce S, Zbinden A, Capaul R, Lünemann JD, Aguzzi A, Chiang AK, Kempf W, Trkola A, Metzner KJ, Manz MG, Grundhoff A, Speck RF, Münz C. EBV renders B cells susceptible to HIV-1 in humanized mice. Life Sci Alliance 2020; 3:3/8/e202000640. [PMID: 32576602 PMCID: PMC7335381 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202000640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV and EBV are human pathogens that cause a considerable burden to worldwide health. In combination, these viruses are linked to AIDS-associated lymphomas. We found that EBV, which transforms B cells, renders them susceptible to HIV-1 infection in a CXCR4 and CD4-dependent manner in vitro and that CXCR4-tropic HIV-1 integrates into the genome of these B cells with the same molecular profile as in autologous CD4+ T cells. In addition, we established a humanized mouse model to investigate the in vivo interactions of EBV and HIV-1 upon coinfection. The respective mice that reconstitute human immune system components upon transplantation with CD34+ human hematopoietic progenitor cells could recapitulate aspects of EBV and HIV immunobiology observed in dual-infected patients. Upon coinfection of humanized mice, EBV/HIV dual-infected B cells could be detected, but were susceptible to CD8+ T-cell-mediated immune control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donal McHugh
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Renier Myburgh
- Department of Medical Oncology and Hematology, University and University Hospital of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Nicole Caduff
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Spohn
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Yik Lim Kok
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Christian W Keller
- Neuroinflammation, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Anita Murer
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Bithi Chatterjee
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Julia Rühl
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Christine Engelmann
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Obinna Chijioke
- Cellular Immunotherapy, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Institute of Pathology and Medical Genetics, University Hospital of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Isaak Quast
- Neuroinflammation, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Mohaned Shilaih
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Victoria P Strouvelle
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Kathrin Neumann
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Menter
- Institute of Pathology and Medical Genetics, University Hospital of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Dirnhofer
- Institute of Pathology and Medical Genetics, University Hospital of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Janice Kp Lam
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Kwai F Hui
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Simon Bredl
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Erika Schlaepfer
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Silvia Sorce
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andrea Zbinden
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Riccarda Capaul
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Jan D Lünemann
- Neuroinflammation, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Adriano Aguzzi
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alan Ks Chiang
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Werner Kempf
- Kempf und Pfaltz Histologische Diagnostik AG, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra Trkola
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Karin J Metzner
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Markus G Manz
- Department of Medical Oncology and Hematology, University and University Hospital of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Adam Grundhoff
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Roberto F Speck
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Christian Münz
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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60
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Zens K, Münz C. Tissue resident T cell memory or how the magnificent seven are chilling in the bone. Eur J Immunol 2020; 49:849-852. [PMID: 31017296 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201948208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Following infection, tissue-resident memory T cells (Trm) are thought to be left behind at sites of antigen encounter to protect affected tissues against subsequent reinfection. In this issue of the European Journal of Immunology, however, Pascutti et al. demonstrate that both murine and human CD8+ Trm specific to seven different pathogens, including systemic, skin, and lung tissue-localized pathogens, accumulate in the bone marrow (BM). These cells have a CD69+ phenotype, develop independently of local antigen, and require IL-15, Blimp-1, and Hobit for their differentiation and maintenance. Following restimulation, these cells expand and rapidly produce cytokines. While some of these responses may protect the BM from infection, the consideration that some of these pathogens or their antigens might never reach the BM suggests additional functional roles of BM Trm, possibly in supporting hematopoietic functions via cytokine production following infection. It will be further interesting to determine whether BM Trm contribute to the circulating effector pool following reinfection with tissue-localized or systemic pathogens and whether these cells can be elicited by vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyra Zens
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Christian Münz
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Switzerland
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61
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Nakaya Y, Ishii N, Kasamatsu Y, Shimizu K, Tatsumi N, Tsutsumi M, Yoshida M, Yoshimura T, Hayashi Y, Nakao T, Inoue T, Yamane T. Human herpesvirus 8-positive multicentric Castleman disease with germinotropic plasmablastic aggregates: Overlapping spectrum of human herpesvirus 8-associated lymphoproliferative disorder. Pathol Int 2020; 70:574-580. [PMID: 32449234 DOI: 10.1111/pin.12951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The diagnosis of human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8)-associated lymphoproliferative disorder (LPD) is challenging because of the rarity and extended spectrum of each entity. A 43-year-old, human immunodeficiency virus seropositive, Japanese man was referred to our department because of persistent fever, generalized lymphadenopathy, jaundice and anasarca. Biopsy of a left axially lymph node demonstrated relatively preserved nodal structure with multicentric Castleman disease (MCD) features. In the germinal center, there were aggregates of HHV8-infected plasmablasts that were diffusely positive for CD38, MUM1/IRF4, LCA, IgM and λ; partially positive for CD30, c-MYC, p53; and negative for CD138, CD20, PAX-5, κ, CD2, CD3 and CD5. A small number of Epstein-Barr virus encoded small RNA (EBER)-positive large cells infiltrated in the outer part of the germinal center and the mantle layer, but the cells copositive for EBER and HHV8 were not evident. We diagnosed the patient as HHV8-positive MCD with germinotropic plasmablastic aggregates, which demonstrated intermediate pathologic features between HHV8-positive MCD and germinotropic lymphoproliferative disorder. The pathogenesis of each HHV8-associated LPD differs in cellular origin, host immune status, cytoplasmic immunoglobulin expression, clonality pattern and EBV infection; however, these factors sometimes overlap and induce extended clinical and pathologic presentations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yosuke Nakaya
- Department of Hematology, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Naomi Ishii
- Department of Pathology, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yu Kasamatsu
- Department of Infectious Disease, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Katsujun Shimizu
- Department of Hematology, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Naoko Tatsumi
- Department of Hematology, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Minako Tsutsumi
- Department of Hematology, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masahiro Yoshida
- Department of Hematology, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takuro Yoshimura
- Department of Hematology, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yoshiki Hayashi
- Department of Hematology, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takafumi Nakao
- Department of Hematology, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takeshi Inoue
- Department of Pathology, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takahisa Yamane
- Department of Hematology, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
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62
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Chen C, Feng P, Slots J. Herpesvirus-bacteria synergistic interaction in periodontitis. Periodontol 2000 2020; 82:42-64. [PMID: 31850623 DOI: 10.1111/prd.12311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The etiopathogenesis of severe periodontitis includes herpesvirus-bacteria coinfection. This article evaluates the pathogenicity of herpesviruses (cytomegalovirus and Epstein-Barr virus) and periodontopathic bacteria (Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans and Porphyromonas gingivalis) and coinfection of these infectious agents in the initiation and progression of periodontitis. Cytomegalovirus and A. actinomycetemcomitans/P. gingivalis exercise synergistic pathogenicity in the development of localized ("aggressive") juvenile periodontitis. Cytomegalovirus and Epstein-Barr virus are associated with P. gingivalis in adult types of periodontitis. Periodontal herpesviruses that enter the general circulation may also contribute to disease development in various organ systems. A 2-way interaction is likely to occur between periodontal herpesviruses and periodontopathic bacteria, with herpesviruses promoting bacterial upgrowth, and bacterial factors reactivating latent herpesviruses. Bacterial-induced gingivitis may facilitate herpesvirus colonization of the periodontium, and herpesvirus infections may impede the antibacterial host defense and alter periodontal cells to predispose for bacterial adherence and invasion. Herpesvirus-bacteria synergistic interactions, are likely to comprise an important pathogenic determinant of aggressive periodontitis. However, mechanistic investigations into the molecular and cellular interaction between periodontal herpesviruses and bacteria are still scarce. Herpesvirus-bacteria coinfection studies may yield significant new discoveries of pathogenic determinants, and drug and vaccine targets to minimize or prevent periodontitis and periodontitis-related systemic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casey Chen
- Division of Periodontology, Diagnostic Sciences & Dental Hygiene, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Pinghui Feng
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Jørgen Slots
- Division of Periodontology, Diagnostic Sciences & Dental Hygiene, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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63
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Caduff N, McHugh D, Murer A, Rämer P, Raykova A, Landtwing V, Rieble L, Keller CW, Prummer M, Hoffmann L, Lam JKP, Chiang AKS, Raulf F, Azzi T, Berger C, Rubic-Schneider T, Traggiai E, Lünemann JD, Kammüller M, Münz C. Immunosuppressive FK506 treatment leads to more frequent EBV-associated lymphoproliferative disease in humanized mice. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008477. [PMID: 32251475 PMCID: PMC7162544 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is a potentially fatal complication after organ transplantation frequently associated with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). Immunosuppressive treatment is thought to allow the expansion of EBV-infected B cells, which often express all eight oncogenic EBV latent proteins. Here, we assessed whether HLA-A2 transgenic humanized NSG mice treated with the immunosuppressant FK506 could be used to model EBV-PTLD. We found that FK506 treatment of EBV-infected mice led to an elevated viral burden, more frequent tumor formation and diminished EBV-induced T cell responses, indicative of reduced EBV-specific immune control. EBV latency III and lymphoproliferation-associated cellular transcripts were up-regulated in B cells from immunosuppressed animals, akin to the viral and host gene expression pattern found in EBV-PTLD. Utilizing an unbiased gene expression profiling approach, we identified genes differentially expressed in B cells of EBV-infected animals with and without FK506 treatment. Upon investigating the most promising candidates, we validated sCD30 as a marker of uncontrolled EBV proliferation in both humanized mice and in pediatric patients with EBV-PTLD. High levels of sCD30 have been previously associated with EBV-PTLD in patients. As such, we believe that humanized mice can indeed model aspects of EBV-PTLD development and may prove useful for the safety assessment of immunomodulatory therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Caduff
- University of Zurich, Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Donal McHugh
- University of Zurich, Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Anita Murer
- University of Zurich, Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Rämer
- University of Zurich, Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ana Raykova
- University of Zurich, Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Vanessa Landtwing
- University of Zurich, Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lisa Rieble
- University of Zurich, Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christian W Keller
- University Hospital of Münster, Department of Neurology with Institute of Translational Neurology, Münster, Germany
| | - Michael Prummer
- Nexus Personalized Health Technologies, ETH Zurich, Zurich Switzerland, and Swiss Institute for Bioinformatics (SIB), Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Janice K P Lam
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Alan K S Chiang
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Friedrich Raulf
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Tarik Azzi
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Berger
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Jan D Lünemann
- University Hospital of Münster, Department of Neurology with Institute of Translational Neurology, Münster, Germany
| | | | - Christian Münz
- University of Zurich, Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, Zurich, Switzerland
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64
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Fröhlich J, Grundhoff A. Epigenetic control in Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus infection and associated disease. Semin Immunopathol 2020; 42:143-157. [PMID: 32219477 PMCID: PMC7174275 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-020-00787-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is the etiologic agent of several malignancies of endothelial and B-cell origin. The fact that latently infected tumor cells in these malignancies do not express classical viral oncogenes suggests that pathogenesis of KSHV-associated disease results from multistep processes that, in addition to constitutive viral gene expression, may require accumulation of cellular alterations. Heritable changes of the epigenome have emerged as an important co-factor that contributes to the pathogenesis of many non-viral cancers. Since KSHV encodes a number of factors that directly or indirectly manipulate host cell chromatin, it is an intriguing possibility that epigenetic reprogramming also contributes to the pathogenesis of KSHV-associated tumors. The fact that heritable histone modifications have also been shown to regulate viral gene expression programs in KSHV-infected tumor cells underlines the importance of epigenetic control during latency and tumorigenesis. We here review what is presently known about the role of epigenetic regulation of viral and host chromatin in KSHV infection and discuss how viral manipulation of these processes may contribute to the development of KSHV-associated disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline Fröhlich
- Heinrich-Pette-Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Adam Grundhoff
- Heinrich-Pette-Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany.
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65
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McHugh D, Caduff N, Murer A, Engelmann C, Deng Y, Zdimerova H, Zens K, Chijioke O, Münz C. Infection and immune control of human oncogenic γ-herpesviruses in humanized mice. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 374:20180296. [PMID: 30955487 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) comprise the oncogenic human γ-herpesvirus family and are responsible for 2-3% of all tumours in man. With their prominent growth-transforming abilities and high prevalence in the human population, these pathogens have probably shaped the human immune system throughout evolution for near perfect immune control of the respective chronic infections in the vast majority of healthy pathogen carriers. The exclusive tropism of EBV and KSHV for humans has, however, made it difficult in the past to study their infection, tumourigenesis and immune control in vivo. Mice with reconstituted human immune system components (humanized mice) support replication of both viruses with both persisting latent and productive lytic infection. Moreover, B-cell lymphomas can be induced by EBV alone and KSHV co-infection with gene expression hallmarks of human malignancies that are associated with both viruses. Furthermore, cell-mediated immune control by primarily cytotoxic lymphocytes is induced upon infection and can be probed for its functional characteristics as well as putative requirements for its priming. Insights that have been gained from this model and remaining questions will be discussed in this review. This article is part of the theme issue 'Silent cancer agents: multi-disciplinary modelling of human DNA oncoviruses'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donal McHugh
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Nicole Caduff
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Anita Murer
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Christine Engelmann
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Yun Deng
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Hana Zdimerova
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Kyra Zens
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Obinna Chijioke
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Christian Münz
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich , Switzerland
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66
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Animal Models for Gammaherpesvirus Infections: Recent Development in the Analysis of Virus-Induced Pathogenesis. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9020116. [PMID: 32059472 PMCID: PMC7167833 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9020116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is involved in the pathogenesis of various lymphomas and carcinomas, whereas Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) participates in the pathogenesis of endothelial sarcoma and lymphomas. EBV and KSHV are responsible for 120,000 and 44,000 annual new cases of cancer, respectively. Despite this clinical importance, no chemotherapies or vaccines have been developed for virus-specific treatment and prevention of these viruses. Humans are the only natural host for both EBV and KSHV, and only a limited species of laboratory animals are susceptible to their experimental infection; this strict host tropism has hampered the development of their animal models and thereby impeded the study of therapeutic and prophylactic strategies. To overcome this difficulty, three main approaches have been used to develop animal models for human gammaherpesvirus infections. The first is experimental infection of laboratory animals with EBV or KSHV. New-world non-human primates (NHPs) and rabbits have been mainly used in this approach. The second is experimental infection of laboratory animals with their own inherent gammaherpesviruses. NHPs and mice have been mainly used here. The third, a recent trend, employs experimental infection of EBV or KSHV or both to immunodeficient mice reconstituted with human immune system components (humanized mice). This review will discuss how these three approaches have been used to reproduce human clinical conditions associated with gammaherpesviruses and to analyze the mechanisms of their pathogenesis.
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67
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Herpesviruses in Head and Neck Cancers. Viruses 2020; 12:v12020172. [PMID: 32028641 PMCID: PMC7077226 DOI: 10.3390/v12020172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Head and neck cancers arise in the mucosa lining the oral cavity, oropharynx, hypopharynx, larynx, sinonasal tract, and nasopharynx. The etiology of head and neck cancers is complex and involves many factors, including the presence of oncogenic viruses. These types of cancers are among the most common cancers in the world. Thorough knowledge of the pathogenesis of viral infections is needed to fully understand their impact on cancer development.
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68
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Münz C. Tumor Microenvironment Conditioning by Abortive Lytic Replication of Oncogenic γ-Herpesviruses. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1225:127-135. [PMID: 32030652 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-35727-6_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Epstein Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) constitute the human γ-herpesviruses and two of the seven human tumor viruses. In addition to their viral oncogenes that primarily belong to the latent infection programs of these viruses, they encode proteins that condition the microenvironment. Many of these are early lytic gene products and are only expressed in a subset of infected cells of the tumor mass. In this chapter I will describe their function and the evidence that targeting them in addition to the latent oncogenes could be beneficial for the treatment of EBV- and KSHV-associated malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Münz
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.
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69
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Immune Control and Vaccination against the Epstein-Barr Virus in Humanized Mice. Vaccines (Basel) 2019; 7:vaccines7040217. [PMID: 31861045 PMCID: PMC6963577 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines7040217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 12/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mice with reconstituted human immune system components (humanized mice) offer the unique opportunity to test vaccines preclinically in the context of vaccine adjuvant sensing by human antigen presenting cells and priming of human cytotoxic lymphocyte populations. These features are particularly attractive for immune control of the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), which represents the most potent growth-transforming pathogen in man and exclusively relies on cytotoxic lymphocytes for its asymptomatic persistence in the vast majority of healthy virus carriers. This immune control is particularly impressive because EBV infects more than 95% of the human adult population and persists without pathology for more than 50 years in most of them. This review will discuss the pathologies that EBV elicits in humanized mice, which immune responses control it in this model, as well as which passive and active vaccination schemes with adoptive T cell transfer and with virus-like particles or individual antigens, respectively, have been explored in this model so far. EBV-specific CD8+ T cell priming in humanized mice could provide crucial insights into how cytotoxic lymphocytes against other viruses and tumors might be elicited by vaccination in humans.
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70
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Watanabe T, Sato Y, Masud HMAA, Takayama M, Matsuda H, Hara Y, Yanagi Y, Yoshida M, Goshima F, Murata T, Kimura H. Antitumor activity of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor alsterpaullone in Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative disorders. Cancer Sci 2019; 111:279-287. [PMID: 31743514 PMCID: PMC6942432 DOI: 10.1111/cas.14241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein‐Barr virus (EBV) is a well‐established tumor virus that has been implicated in a wide range of immunodeficiency‐associated lymphoproliferative disorders (LPDs). Although rituximab, a CD20 mAb, has proven effective against EBV‐associated LPDs, prolonged use of this drug could lead to resistance due to the selective expansion of CD20− cells. We have previously shown that cyclin‐dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors are able to specifically suppress the expression of viral late genes, particularly those encoding structural proteins; however, the therapeutic effect of CDK inhibitors against EBV‐associated LPDs is not clear. In this study, we examined whether CDK inhibitors confer a therapeutic effect against LPDs in vivo. Treatment with alsterpaullone, an inhibitor of the CDK2 complex, resulted in a survival benefit and suppressed tumor invasion in a mouse model of LPDs. Inhibition of CDK efficiently induced G1 cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in EBV‐positive B cells. These results suggest that alsterpaullone suppresses cell cycle progression, resulting in the antitumor effect observed in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Watanabe
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Sato
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - H M Abdullah Al Masud
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Masahiro Takayama
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Hiroki Matsuda
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yuya Hara
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yusuke Yanagi
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Masahiro Yoshida
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Fumi Goshima
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Takayuki Murata
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan.,Department of Virology and Parasitology, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kimura
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
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71
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The Role of Dendritic Cells in Immune Control and Vaccination against -Herpesviruses. Viruses 2019; 11:v11121125. [PMID: 31817510 PMCID: PMC6950272 DOI: 10.3390/v11121125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Revised: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The two human oncogenic -herpesviruses, Epstein Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), are prototypic pathogens that are controlled by T cell responses. Despite their ubiquitous distribution, persistent infections and transforming potential, most carriers' immune systems control them for life. Therefore, they serve as paradigms of how near-perfect cell-mediated immune control can be initiated and maintained for decades. Interestingly, EBV especially quite efficiently avoids dendritic cell (DC) activation, and little evidence exists that these most potent antigen-presenting cells of the human body are involved in the priming of immune control against this tumor virus. However, DCs can be harnessed therapeutically to expand virus-specific T cells for adoptive transfer therapy of patients with virus-associated malignancies and are also currently explored for vaccinations. Unfortunately, despite 55 and 25 years of research on EBV and KSHV, respectively, the priming of their immune control that belongs to the most robust and durable immune responses in humans still remains unclear.
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72
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Okoye AA, DeGottardi MQ, Fukazawa Y, Vaidya M, Abana CO, Konfe AL, Fachko DN, Duell DM, Li H, Lum R, Gao L, Park BS, Skalsky RL, Lewis AD, Axthelm MK, Lifson JD, Wong SW, Picker LJ. Role of IL-15 Signaling in the Pathogenesis of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Rhesus Macaques. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2019; 203:2928-2943. [PMID: 31653683 PMCID: PMC6864325 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Although IL-15 has been implicated in the pathogenic hyperimmune activation that drives progressive HIV and SIV infection, as well as in the generation of HIV/SIV target cells, it also supports NK and T cell homeostasis and effector activity, potentially benefiting the host. To understand the role of IL-15 in SIV infection and pathogenesis, we treated two cohorts of SIVmac239-infected rhesus macaques (RM; Macaca mulatta), one with chronic infection, the other with primary infection, with a rhesusized, IL-15-neutralizing mAb (versus an IgG isotype control) for up to 10 wk (n = 7-9 RM per group). In both cohorts, anti-IL-15 was highly efficient at blocking IL-15 signaling in vivo, causing 1) profound depletion of NK cells in blood and tissues throughout the treatment period; 2) substantial, albeit transient, depletion of CD8+ effector memory T cells (TEM) (but not the naive and central memory subsets); and 3) CD4+ and CD8+ TEM hyperproliferation. In primary infection, reduced frequencies of SIV-specific effector T cells in an extralymphoid tissue site were also observed. Despite these effects, the kinetics and extent of SIV replication, CD4+ T cell depletion, and the onset of AIDS were comparable between anti-IL-15- and control-treated groups in both cohorts. However, RM treated with anti-IL-15 during primary infection manifested accelerated reactivation of RM rhadinovirus. Thus, IL-15 support of NK cell and TEM homeostasis does not play a demonstrable, nonredundant role in SIV replication or CD4+ T cell deletion dynamics but may contribute to immune control of oncogenic γ-herpesviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afam A Okoye
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Maren Q DeGottardi
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Yoshinori Fukazawa
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Mukta Vaidya
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Chike O Abana
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Audrie L Konfe
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Devin N Fachko
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Derick M Duell
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - He Li
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Richard Lum
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Lina Gao
- Division of Biostatistics, Department of Public Health and Preventative Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239; and
| | - Byung S Park
- Division of Biostatistics, Department of Public Health and Preventative Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239; and
| | - Rebecca L Skalsky
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Anne D Lewis
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Michael K Axthelm
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Jeffrey D Lifson
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702
| | - Scott W Wong
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Louis J Picker
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006;
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
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73
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Newton R, Labo N, Wakeham K, Marshall V, Roshan R, Nalwoga A, Sebina I, Muhangi L, Webb EL, Miley W, Rochford R, Elliott AM, Whitby D. Determinants of Gammaherpesvirus Shedding in Saliva Among Ugandan Children and Their Mothers. J Infect Dis 2019; 218:892-900. [PMID: 29762709 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiy262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) are transmitted via saliva, but factors associated with salivary shedding are unknown. Methods We measured the DNA load of both viruses in saliva specimens collected from approximately 500 Ugandan mothers and their 6-year-old children, testing all participants for EBV and KSHV-seropositive individuals for KSHV. Results EBV and KSHV were shed by 72% and 22% of mothers, respectively, and by 85% and 40% of children, respectively; boys were more likely than girls to shed KSHV (48% vs 30%) but were equally likely to shed EBV. Children shed more KSHV and EBV than mothers, but salivary loads of EBV and KSHV were similar. KSHV shedding increased with increasing anti-KSHV (K8.1) antibodies in mothers and with decreasing antimalarial antibodies both in mothers and children. Among mothers, 40% of KSHV shedders also shed EBV, compared with 75% of KSHV nonshedders; among children, EBV was shed by 65% and 83%, respectively. Conclusions In summary, in this population, individuals were more likely to shed EBV than KSHV in saliva. We identified several factors, including child's sex, that influence KSHV shedding, and we detected an inverse relationship between EBV and KSHV shedding, suggesting a direct or indirect interaction between the two viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Newton
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda.,University of York, York
| | - Nazzarena Labo
- Viral Oncology Section, AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Inc.-Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Maryland
| | - Katie Wakeham
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda.,Sussex Cancer Center, Brighton and Sussex University Hospitals, National Health Service Trust, Sussex
| | - Vickie Marshall
- Viral Oncology Section, AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Inc.-Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Maryland
| | - Romin Roshan
- Viral Oncology Section, AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Inc.-Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Maryland
| | - Angela Nalwoga
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda.,London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ismail Sebina
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle
| | - Lawrence Muhangi
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda.,London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Emily L Webb
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Wendell Miley
- Viral Oncology Section, AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Inc.-Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Maryland
| | - Rosemary Rochford
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado, Denver
| | - Alison M Elliott
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda.,London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Denise Whitby
- Viral Oncology Section, AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Inc.-Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Maryland
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74
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Münz C. Latency and lytic replication in Epstein-Barr virus-associated oncogenesis. Nat Rev Microbiol 2019; 17:691-700. [PMID: 31477887 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-019-0249-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) was the first tumour virus identified in humans. The virus is primarily associated with lymphomas and epithelial cell cancers. These tumours express latent EBV antigens and the oncogenic potential of individual latent EBV proteins has been extensively explored. Nevertheless, it was presumed that the pro-proliferative and anti-apoptotic functions of these oncogenes allow the virus to persist in humans; however, recent evidence suggests that cellular transformation is not required for virus maintenance. Vice versa, lytic EBV replication was assumed to destroy latently infected cells and thereby inhibit tumorigenesis, but at least the initiation of the lytic cycle has now been shown to support EBV-driven malignancies. In addition to these changes in the roles of latent and lytic EBV proteins during tumorigenesis, the function of non-coding RNAs has become clearer, suggesting that they might mainly mediate immune escape rather than cellular transformation. In this Review, these recent findings will be discussed with respect to the role of EBV-encoded oncogenes in viral persistence and the contributions of lytic replication as well as non-coding RNAs in virus-driven tumour formation. Accordingly, early lytic EBV antigens and attenuated viruses without oncogenes and microRNAs could be harnessed for immunotherapies and vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Münz
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.
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75
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Shannon-Lowe C, Rickinson A. The Global Landscape of EBV-Associated Tumors. Front Oncol 2019; 9:713. [PMID: 31448229 PMCID: PMC6691157 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2019.00713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 254] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a gamma-1 herpesvirus, is carried as a life-long asymptomatic infection by the great majority of individuals in all human populations. Yet this seemingly innocent virus is aetiologically linked to two pre-malignant lymphoproliferative diseases (LPDs) and up to nine distinct human tumors; collectively these have a huge global impact, being responsible for some 200,000 new cases of cancer arising worldwide each year. EBV replicates in oral epithelium but persists as a latent infection within the B cell system and several of its diseases are indeed of B cell origin; these include B-LPD of the immunocompromised, Hodgkin Lymphoma (HL), Burkitt Lymphoma (BL), Diffuse Large B cell Lymphoma (DLBCL) and two rarer tumors associated with profound immune impairment, plasmablastic lymphoma (PBL) and primary effusion lymphoma (PEL). Surprisingly, the virus is also linked to tumors arising in other cellular niches which, rather than being essential reservoirs of virus persistence in vivo, appear to represent rare cul-de-sacs of latent infection. These non-B cell tumors include LPDs and malignant lymphomas of T or NK cells, nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) and gastric carcinoma of epithelial origin, and leiomyosarcoma, a rare smooth muscle cell tumor of the immunocompromised. Here we describe the main characteristics of these tumors, their distinct epidemiologies, histological features and degrees of EBV association, then consider how their different patterns of EBV latency may reflect the alternative latency programmes through which the virus first colonizes and then persists in immunocompetent host. For each tumor, we discuss current understanding of EBV's role in the oncogenic process, the identity (where known) of host genetic and environmental factors predisposing tumor development, and the recent evidence from cancer genomics identifying somatic changes that either complement or in some cases replace the contribution of the virus. Thereafter we look for possible connections between the pathogenesis of these apparently different malignancies and point to new research areas where insights may be gained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Shannon-Lowe
- Institute for Immunology and Immunotherapy, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Alan Rickinson
- Institute for Immunology and Immunotherapy, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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76
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The Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Protein ORF42 Is Required for Efficient Virion Production and Expression of Viral Proteins. Viruses 2019; 11:v11080711. [PMID: 31382485 PMCID: PMC6722526 DOI: 10.3390/v11080711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), the etiologic agent of Kaposi’s sarcoma and other aggressive AIDS-associated malignancies, encodes over 90 genes, most of which are expressed only during the lytic replication cycle. The role of many of the KSHV lytic proteins in the KSHV replication cycle remains unknown, and many proteins are annotated based on known functions of homologs in other herpesviruses. Here we investigate the role of the previously uncharacterized KSHV lytic protein ORF42, a presumed tegument protein. We find that ORF42 is dispensable for reactivation from latency but is required for efficient production of viral particles. Like its alpha- and beta-herpesviral homologs, ORF42 is a late protein that accumulates in the viral particles. However, unlike its homologs, ORF42 appears to be required for efficient expression of at least some viral proteins and may potentiate post-transcriptional stages of gene expression. These results demonstrate that ORF42 has an important role in KSHV replication and may contribute to shaping viral gene expression.
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77
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How Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus stably transforms peripheral B cells towards lymphomagenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:16519-16528. [PMID: 31363046 PMCID: PMC6697783 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1905025116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) is a highly aggressive B cell lymphoma. PELs are associated with Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), and most of them are coinfected with Epstein–Barr virus (EBV). Human B cells have not previously been stably infected with KSHV in vitro. In this study, we have defined conditions to infect human B cells stably with KSHV and show that optimal infection requires coinfection by EBV. We show that a subset of these dually infected cells acquires multiple properties of PEL cells. This dual infection in vitro allows a mechanistic analysis of the contributions of EBV and KSHV to early steps in the development of PEL and underscores the desirability of targeting both viruses in developing new therapies for PEL. Primary effusion lymphomas (PELs) are causally associated with Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and 86% of PELs are coinfected with Epstein–Barr virus (EBV). Understanding how PELs develop has been impaired by the difficulty of infecting B cells with KSHV in vitro, and the inability of KSHV to transform them. We show that EBV supports an optimal coinfection of 2.5% of peripheral B cells by KSHV. This coinfection requires 1 or more transforming genes of EBV but not entry into KSHV’s lytic cycle. We demonstrate that dually infected B cells are stably transformed in vitro and show that while both viruses can be maintained, different cells exhibit distinct, transformed properties. Transformed cells that grow to predominate in a culture express increased levels of most KSHV genes and differentially express a subset of cellular genes, as do bona fide PEL cells. These dually infected peripheral B cells are thus both stably transformed and allow in vitro molecular dissection of early steps in the progression to lymphomagenesis.
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78
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Kaposi Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Glycoprotein H Is Indispensable for Infection of Epithelial, Endothelial, and Fibroblast Cell Types. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.00630-19. [PMID: 31142670 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00630-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is an emerging pathogen and is the causative infectious agent of Kaposi sarcoma and two malignancies of B cell origin. To date, there is no licensed KSHV vaccine. Development of an effective vaccine against KSHV continues to be limited by a poor understanding of how the virus initiates acute primary infection in vivo in diverse human cell types. The role of glycoprotein H (gH) in herpesvirus entry mechanisms remains largely unresolved. To characterize the requirement for KSHV gH in the viral life cycle and in determination of cell tropism, we generated and characterized a mutant KSHV in which expression of gH was abrogated. Using a bacterial artificial chromosome containing a complete recombinant KSHV genome and recombinant DNA technology, we inserted stop codons into the gH coding region. We used electron microscopy to reveal that the gH-null mutant virus assembled and exited from cells normally, compared to wild-type virus. Using purified virions, we assessed infectivity of the gH-null mutant in diverse mammalian cell types in vitro Unlike wild-type virus or a gH-containing revertant, the gH-null mutant was unable to infect any of the epithelial, endothelial, or fibroblast cell types tested. However, its ability to infect B cells was equivocal and remains to be investigated in vivo due to generally poor infectivity in vitro Together, these results suggest that gH is critical for KSHV infection of highly permissive cell types, including epithelial, endothelial, and fibroblast cells.IMPORTANCE All homologues of herpesvirus gH studied to date have been implicated in playing an essential role in viral infection of diverse permissive cell types. However, the role of gH in the mechanism of KSHV infection remains largely unresolved. In this study, we generated a gH-null mutant KSHV and provided evidence that deficiency of gH expression did not affect viral particle assembly or egress. Using the gH-null mutant, we showed that gH was indispensable for KSHV infection of epithelial, endothelial, and fibroblast cells in vitro This suggests that gH is an important target for the development of a KSHV prophylactic vaccine to prevent initial viral infection.
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79
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Labo N, Marshall V, Miley W, Davis E, McCann B, Stolka KB, Ndom P, Hemingway-Foday JJ, Abassora M, Newton R, Smith JS, Whitby D. Mutual detection of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and Epstein-Barr virus in blood and saliva of Cameroonians with and without Kaposi's sarcoma. Int J Cancer 2019; 145:2468-2477. [PMID: 31265124 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.32546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) are prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa, together with HIV; the consequent burden of disease is grave. The cofactors driving transmission of the two viruses and pathogenesis of associated malignancies are not well understood. We measured KSHV and EBV DNA in whole blood and saliva as well as serum antibodies levels in 175 Cameroonians with Kaposi's sarcoma and 1,002 age- and sex-matched controls with and without HIV. KSHV seroprevalence was very high (81%) in controls, while EBV seroprevalence was 100% overall. KSHV DNA was detectable in the blood of 36-46% of cases and 6-12% of controls; EBV DNA was detected in most participants (72-89%). In saliva, more cases (50-58%) than controls (25-28%) shed KSHV, regardless of HIV infection. EBV shedding was common (75-100%); more HIV+ than HIV- controls shed EBV. Cases had higher KSHV and EBV VL in blood and saliva then controls, only among HIV+ participants. KSHV and EBV VL were also higher in HIV+ than in HIV- controls. Cases (but not controls) were more likely to have detectable KSHV in blood if they also had EBV, whereas shedding of each virus in saliva was independent. While EBV VL in saliva and blood were modestly correlated, no correlation existed for KSHV. Numerous factors, several related to parasitic coinfections, were associated with detection of either virus or with VL. These findings may help better understand the interplay between the two gammaherpesviruses and generally among copathogens contributing to cancer burden in sub-Saharan Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazzarena Labo
- Viral Oncology Section, AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Inc. Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD
| | - Vickie Marshall
- Viral Oncology Section, AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Inc. Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD
| | - Wendell Miley
- Viral Oncology Section, AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Inc. Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD
| | - Eliza Davis
- Viral Oncology Section, AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Inc. Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD
| | - Brendan McCann
- Viral Oncology Section, AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Inc. Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD
| | | | | | | | | | - Robert Newton
- University of York, York, United Kingdom.,MRC/UVRI and LSHTM Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
| | | | - Denise Whitby
- Viral Oncology Section, AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Inc. Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD
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80
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Rivera-Soto R, Damania B. Modulation of Angiogenic Processes by the Human Gammaherpesviruses, Epstein-Barr Virus and Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1544. [PMID: 31354653 PMCID: PMC6640166 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis is the biological process by which new blood vessels are formed from pre-existing vessels. It is considered one of the classic hallmarks of cancer, as pathological angiogenesis provides oxygen and essential nutrients to growing tumors. Two of the seven known human oncoviruses, Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), belong to the Gammaherpesvirinae subfamily. Both viruses are associated with several malignancies including lymphomas, nasopharyngeal carcinomas, and Kaposi’s sarcoma. The viral genomes code for a plethora of viral factors, including proteins and non-coding RNAs, some of which have been shown to deregulate angiogenic pathways and promote tumor growth. In this review, we discuss the ability of both viruses to modulate the pro-angiogenic process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Rivera-Soto
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States.,Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Blossom Damania
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States.,Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
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81
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Messinger JE, Dai J, Stanland LJ, Price AM, Luftig MA. Identification of Host Biomarkers of Epstein-Barr Virus Latency IIb and Latency III. mBio 2019; 10:e01006-19. [PMID: 31266868 PMCID: PMC6606803 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01006-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Deciphering the molecular pathogenesis of virally induced cancers is challenging due, in part, to the heterogeneity of both viral gene expression and host gene expression. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous herpesvirus prevalent in B-cell lymphomas of immune-suppressed individuals. EBV infection of primary human B cells leads to their immortalization into lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs), serving as a model of these lymphomas. In previous studies, reports from our laboratory have described a temporal model for immortalization with an initial phase characterized by expression of Epstein-Barr nuclear antigens (EBNAs), high levels of c-Myc activity, and hyperproliferation in the absence of the latent membrane proteins (LMPs), called latency IIb. This is followed by the long-term outgrowth of LCLs expressing the EBNAs along with the LMPs, particularly NFκB-activating LMP1, defining latency III. However, LCLs express a broad distribution of LMP1 such that a subset of these cells express LMP1 at levels similar to those seen in latency IIb, making it difficult to distinguish these two latency states. In this study, we performed mRNA sequencing (mRNA-Seq) on early EBV-infected latency IIb cells and latency III LCLs sorted by NFκB activity. We found that latency IIb transcriptomes clustered independently from latency III independently of NFκB. We identified and validated mRNAs defining these latency states. Indeed, we were able to distinguish latency IIb cells from LCLs expressing low levels of LMP1 using multiplex RNA-fluorescence in situ hybridization (RNA-FISH) targeting EBV EBNA2 or LMP1 and human CCR7 or MGST1 This report defines latency IIb as a bona fide latency state independent from latency III and identifies biomarkers for understanding EBV-associated tumor heterogeneity.IMPORTANCE EBV is a ubiquitous pathogen, with >95% of adults harboring a life-long latent infection in memory B cells. In immunocompromised individuals, latent EBV infection can result in lymphoma. The established expression profile of these lymphomas is latency III, which includes expression of all latency genes. However, single-cell analysis of EBV latent gene expression in these lymphomas suggests heterogeneity where most cells express the transcription factor, EBNA2, and only a fraction of the cells express membrane protein LMP1. Our work describes an early phase after infection where the EBNAs are expressed without LMP1, called latency IIb. However, LMP1 levels within latency III vary widely, making these states hard to discriminate. This may have important implications for therapeutic responses. It is crucial to distinguish these states to understand the molecular pathogenesis of these lymphomas. Ultimately, better tools to understand the heterogeneity of these cancers will support more-efficacious therapies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua E Messinger
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke Center for Virology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Joanne Dai
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke Center for Virology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Lyla J Stanland
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke Center for Virology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Alexander M Price
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke Center for Virology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Micah A Luftig
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke Center for Virology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
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82
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Mulama DH, Mutsvunguma LZ, Totonchy J, Ye P, Foley J, Escalante GM, Rodriguez E, Nabiee R, Muniraju M, Wussow F, Barasa AK, Ogembo JG. A multivalent Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus-like particle vaccine capable of eliciting high titers of neutralizing antibodies in immunized rabbits. Vaccine 2019; 37:4184-4194. [PMID: 31201053 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.04.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Revised: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is an emerging pathogen and the causative agent of multiple cancers in immunocompromised patients. To date, there is no licensed prophylactic KSHV vaccine. In this study, we generated a novel subunit vaccine that incorporates four key KSHV envelope glycoproteins required for viral entry in diverse cell types (gpK8.1, gB, and gH/gL) into a single multivalent KSHV-like particle (KSHV-LP). Purified KSHV-LPs were similar in size, shape, and morphology to KSHV virions. Vaccination of rabbits with adjuvanted KSHV-LPs generated strong glycoprotein-specific antibody responses, and purified immunoglobulins from KSHV-LP-immunized rabbits neutralized KSHV infection in epithelial, endothelial, fibroblast, and B cell lines (60-90% at the highest concentration tested). These findings suggest that KSHV-LPs may be an ideal platform for developing a safe and effective prophylactic KSHV vaccine. We envision performing future studies in animal models that are susceptible to KSHV infection, to determine correlates of immune protection in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- David H Mulama
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States; Biological Sciences Department, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kakamega, Kenya
| | - Lorraine Z Mutsvunguma
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | | | - Peng Ye
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Joslyn Foley
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Gabriela M Escalante
- Irell & Manella Graduate School of Biological Sciences of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Esther Rodriguez
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Ramina Nabiee
- Chapman University, School of Pharmacy, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Murali Muniraju
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Felix Wussow
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Anne K Barasa
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States; Department of Human Pathology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Javier Gordon Ogembo
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States.
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83
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Damania B, Münz C. Immunodeficiencies that predispose to pathologies by human oncogenic γ-herpesviruses. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2019; 43:181-192. [PMID: 30649299 PMCID: PMC6435449 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuy044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Human γ-herpesviruses include the closely related tumor viruses Epstein Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV). EBV is the most growth-transforming pathogen known and is linked to at least seven human malignancies. KSHV is also associated with three human cancers. Most EBV- and KSHV-infected individuals fortunately remain disease-free despite persistent infection and this is likely due to the robustness of the immune control that they mount against these tumor viruses. However, upon immune suppression EBV- and KSHV-associated malignancies emerge at increased frequencies. Moreover, primary immunodeficiencies with individual mutations that predispose to EBV or KSHV disease allow us to gain insights into a catalog of molecules that are required for the immune control of these tumor viruses. Curiously, there is little overlap between the mutation targets that predispose individuals to EBV versus KSHV disease, even so both viruses can infect the same host cell, human B cells. These differences will be discussed in this review. A better understanding of the crucial components in the near-perfect life-long immune control of EBV and KSHV should allow us to target malignancies that are associated with these viruses, but also induce similar immune responses against other tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blossom Damania
- Lineberger Cancer Research Center and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA
| | - Christian Münz
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
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84
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Abstract
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) contributes to about 1.5% of all cases of human cancer worldwide, and viral genes are expressed in the malignant cells. EBV also very efficiently causes the proliferation of infected human B lymphocytes. The functions of the viral proteins and small RNAs that may contribute to EBV-associated cancers are becoming increasingly clear, and a broader understanding of the sequence variation of the virus genome has helped to interpret their roles. The improved understanding of the mechanisms of these cancers means that there are great opportunities for the early diagnosis of treatable stages of EBV-associated cancers and the use of immunotherapy to target EBV-infected cells or overcome immune evasion. There is also scope for preventing disease by immunization and for developing therapeutic agents that target the EBV gene products expressed in the cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J. Farrell
- Section of Virology, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, London W2 1PG, United Kingdom
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85
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Bruce AG, Barcy S, Staheli J, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Ikoma M, Howard K, Rose TM. Experimental co-transmission of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) and the macaque homologs of the Kaposi Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus (KSHV) and Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV). PLoS One 2018; 13:e0205632. [PMID: 30444879 PMCID: PMC6239284 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0205632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Macaque RFHV and LCV are close homologs of human KSHV and EBV, respectively. No experimental model of RFHV has been developed due to the lack of a source of culturable infectious virus. Screening of macaques at the Washington National Primate Research Center detected RFHV in saliva of SIV-infected macaques from previous vaccine studies. A pilot experimental infection of two naïve juvenile pig-tailed macaques was initiated by inoculation of saliva from SIV-infected pig-tailed and cynomolgus macaque donors, which contained high levels of DNA (> 10(6) genomes/ml) of the respective species-specific RFHV strain. Both juvenile recipients developed SIV and RFHV infections with RFHV DNA detected transiently in saliva and/or PBMC around week 16 post-infection. One juvenile macaque was infected with the homologous RFHVMn from whole saliva of a pig-tailed donor, which had been inoculated into the cheek pouch. This animal became immunosuppressed, developing simian AIDS and was euthanized 23 weeks after inoculation. The levels of RFHV DNA in saliva and PBMC remained below the level of detection after week 17, showing no reactivation of the RFHVMn infection during the rapid development of AIDS. The other juvenile macaque was infected with the heterologous RFHVMf from i.v. inoculation of purified virions from saliva of a cynomolgus donor. The juvenile recipient remained immunocompetent, developing high levels of persistent anti-RFHV and -SIV antibodies. After the initial presence of RFHVMf DNA in saliva and PBMC decreased to undetectable levels by week 19, all attempts to reactivate the infection through additional inoculations, experimental infection with purified SRV-2 or SIV, or immunosuppressive treatments with cyclosporine or dexamethasone were unsuccessful. An heterologous LCV transmission was also detected in this recipient, characterized by continual high levels of LCVMf DNA from the cynomolgus donor in both saliva (> 10(6) genomes/ml) and PBMC (> 10(4) genomes/million cells), coupled with high levels of anti-LCV antibodies. The macaque was sacrificed 209 weeks after the initial inoculation. Low levels of LCVMf DNA were detected in salivary glands, tonsils and other lymphoid organs, while RFHVMf DNA was below the level of detection. These results show successful co-transmission of RFHV and LCV from saliva and demonstrate differential lytic activation of the different gammaherpesvirus lineages due to presumed differences in biology and tropism and control by the host immune system. Although this initial pilot transmission study utilized only two macaques, it provides the first evidence for experimental transmission of the macaque homolog of KSHV, setting the stage for larger transmission studies to examine the differential activation of rhadinovirus and lymphocryptovirus infections and the pathological effects of immunosuppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Gregory Bruce
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Serge Barcy
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Jeannette Staheli
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Helle Bielefeldt-Ohmann
- Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Minako Ikoma
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Kellie Howard
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Timothy M. Rose
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
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86
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Chattopadhyay PK, Roederer M, Bolton DL. A deadly dance: the choreography of host-pathogen interactions, as revealed by single-cell technologies. Nat Commun 2018; 9:4638. [PMID: 30401874 PMCID: PMC6219517 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-06214-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogens have numerous mechanisms by which they replicate within a host, who in turn responds by developing innate and adaptive immune countermeasures to limit disease. The advent of high-content single-cell technologies has facilitated a greater understanding of the properties of host cells harboring infection, the host's pathogen-specific immune responses, and the mechanisms pathogens have evolved to escape host control. Here we review these advances and argue for greater inclusion of higher resolution single-cell technologies into approaches for defining immune evasion mechanisms by pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mario Roederer
- ImmunoTechnology Section, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, 20892, MD, USA
| | - Diane L Bolton
- US Military HIV Research Program, Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, 20910, MD, USA.
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87
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Withers JB, Li ES, Vallery TK, Yario TA, Steitz JA. Two herpesviral noncoding PAN RNAs are functionally homologous but do not associate with common chromatin loci. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007389. [PMID: 30383841 PMCID: PMC6233925 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
During lytic replication of Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), a nuclear viral long noncoding RNA known as PAN RNA becomes the most abundant polyadenylated transcript in the cell. Knockout or knockdown of KSHV PAN RNA results in loss of late lytic viral gene expression and, consequently, reduction of progeny virion release from the cell. Here, we demonstrate that knockdown of PAN RNA from the related Rhesus macaque rhadinovirus (RRV) phenocopies that of KSHV PAN RNA. These two PAN RNA homologs, although lacking significant nucleotide sequence conservation, can functionally substitute for each other to rescue phenotypes associated with the absence of PAN RNA expression. Because PAN RNA is exclusively nuclear, previous studies suggested that it directly interacts with host and viral chromatin to modulate gene expression. We studied KSHV and RRV PAN RNA homologs using capture hybridization analysis of RNA targets (CHART) and observed their association with host chromatin, but the loci differ between PAN RNA homologs. Accordingly, we find that KSHV PAN RNA is undetectable in chromatin following cell fractionation. Thus, modulation of gene expression at specific chromatin loci appears not to be the primary, nor the pertinent function of this viral long noncoding RNA. PAN RNA represents a cautionary tale for the investigation of RNA association with chromatin whereby cross-linking of DNA spatially adjacent to an abundant nuclear RNA gives the appearance of specific interactions. Similarly, PAN RNA expression does not affect viral transcription factor complex expression or activity, which is required for generation of the late lytic viral mRNAs. Rather, we provide evidence for an alternative model of PAN RNA function whereby knockdown of KSHV or RRV PAN RNA results in compromised nuclear mRNA export thereby reducing the cytoplasmic levels of viral mRNAs available for production of late lytic viral proteins. Herpesviruses produce noncoding RNAs, some of which are essential to the viral life cycle. One such noncoding RNA from Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus is the polyadenylated, nuclear (PAN) RNA, which is required for production and release of progeny virions from infected cells. In this study, we demonstrate that although lacking nucleotide sequence conservation, PAN RNAs from two related viruses–when knocked down–exhibit the same phenotype, loss of late lytic viral gene expression and progeny virion production. Moreover, they can functionally substitute for each other to rescue this phenotype. We demonstrate that, in contrast to published literature, the reduction in viral gene expression upon PAN RNA knockdown is not due to loss of PAN RNA association with conserved, specific chromatin loci, nor does PAN RNA expression affect the viral transcription factor complex required for generation of the late lytic viral mRNAs. We present data suggesting that PAN RNA instead serves as a binding platform to sequester cellular proteins that are mislocalized to the nucleoplasm. These herpesviral noncoding RNAs can serve as models for the mechanistic study of human noncoding RNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna B. Withers
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Eric S. Li
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Tenaya K. Vallery
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Therese A. Yario
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Joan A. Steitz
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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88
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Epstein-Barr Virus Type 2 Infects T Cells and Induces B Cell Lymphomagenesis in Humanized Mice. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.00813-18. [PMID: 30089703 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00813-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) has been classified into two strains, EBV type 1 (EBV-1) and EBV type 2 (EBV-2) based on genetic variances and differences in transforming capacity. EBV-1 readily transforms B cells in culture while EBV-2 is poorly transforming. The differing abilities to immortalize B cells in vitro suggest that in vivo these viruses likely use alternative approaches to establish latency. Indeed, we recently reported that EBV-2 has a unique cell tropism for T cells, infecting T cells in culture and in healthy Kenyan infants, strongly suggesting that EBV-2 infection of T cells is a natural part of the EBV-2 life cycle. However, limitations of human studies hamper further investigation into how EBV-2 utilizes T cells. Therefore, BALB/c Rag2null IL2rγnull SIRPα humanized mice were utilized to develop an EBV-2 in vivo model. Infection of humanized mice with EBV-2 led to infection of both T and B cells, unlike infection with EBV-1, in which only B cells were infected. Gene expression analysis demonstrated that EBV-2 established a latency III infection with evidence of ongoing viral reactivation in both B and T cells. Importantly, EBV-2-infected mice developed tumors resembling diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL). These lymphomas had morphological features comparable to those of EBV-1-induced DLBCLs, developed at similar rates with equivalent frequencies, and expressed a latency III gene profile. Thus, despite the impaired ability of EBV-2 to immortalize B cells in vitro, EBV-2 efficiently induces lymphomagenesis in humanized mice. Further research utilizing this model will enhance our understanding of EBV-2 biology, the consequence of EBV infection of T cells, and the capacity of EBV-2 to drive lymphomagenesis.IMPORTANCE EBV is a well-established B cell-tropic virus. However, we have recently shown that the EBV type 2 (EBV-2) strain also infects primary T cells in culture and in healthy Kenyan children. This finding suggests that EBV-2, unlike the well-studied EBV-1 strain, utilizes the T cell compartment to persist. As EBV is human specific, studies to understand the role of T cells in EBV-2 persistence require an in vivo model. Thus, we developed an EBV-2 humanized mouse model, utilizing immunodeficient mice engrafted with human cord blood CD34+ stem cells. Characterization of the EBV-2-infected humanized mice established that both T cells and B cells are infected by EBV-2 and that the majority of infected mice develop a B cell lymphoma resembling diffuse large B cell lymphoma. This new in vivo model can be utilized for studies to enhance our understanding of how EBV-2 infection of T cells contributes to persistence and lymphomagenesis.
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89
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Manners O, Murphy JC, Coleman A, Hughes DJ, Whitehouse A. Contribution of the KSHV and EBV lytic cycles to tumourigenesis. Curr Opin Virol 2018; 32:60-70. [PMID: 30268927 PMCID: PMC6259586 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2018.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and Epstein Barr virus (EBV) are the causative agents of several malignancies. Like all herpesviruses, KSHV and EBV undergo distinct latent and lytic replication programmes. The transition between these states allows the establishment of a lifelong persistent infection, dissemination to sites of disease and the spread to new hosts. Latency-associated viral proteins have been well characterised in transformation and tumourigenesis pathways; however, a number of studies have shown that abrogation of KSHV and EBV lytic gene expression impairs the oncogenesis of several cancers. Furthermore, several lytically expressed proteins have been functionally tethered to the angioproliferative and anti-apoptotic phenotypes of virus-infected cells. As a result, the investigation and therapeutic targeting of KSHV and EBV lytic cycles may be essential for the treatment of their associated malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Manners
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom; Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - James C Murphy
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom; Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Alex Coleman
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom; Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - David J Hughes
- School of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Building, University of St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9AJ, United Kingdom
| | - Adrian Whitehouse
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom; Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom; Department of Biochemistry & Microbiology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa.
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90
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Frost TC, Gewurz BE. Epigenetic crossroads of the Epstein-Barr virus B-cell relationship. Curr Opin Virol 2018; 32:15-23. [PMID: 30227386 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2018.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a gamma-herpesvirus that establishes lifelong infection in the majority of people worldwide. EBV uses epigenetic reprogramming to switch between multiple latency states in order to colonize the memory B-cell compartment and to then periodically undergo lytic reactivation upon plasma cell differentiation. This review focuses on recent advances in the understanding of epigenetic mechanisms that EBV uses to control its lifecycle and to subvert the growth and survival pathways that underly EBV-driven B-cell differentiation versus B-cell growth transformation, a hallmark of the first human tumor virus. These include the formation of viral super enhancers that drive expression of key host dependency factors, evasion of tumor suppressor responses, prevention of plasmablast differentiation, and regulation of the B-cell lytic switch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas C Frost
- Graduate Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Benjamin E Gewurz
- Graduate Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Broad Institute of Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA.
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91
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Manzano M, Patil A, Waldrop A, Dave SS, Behdad A, Gottwein E. Gene essentiality landscape and druggable oncogenic dependencies in herpesviral primary effusion lymphoma. Nat Commun 2018; 9:3263. [PMID: 30111820 PMCID: PMC6093911 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-05506-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) is caused by Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus. Our understanding of PEL is poor and therefore treatment strategies are lacking. To address this need, we conducted genome-wide CRISPR/Cas9 knockout screens in eight PEL cell lines. Integration with data from unrelated cancers identifies 210 genes as PEL-specific oncogenic dependencies. Genetic requirements of PEL cell lines are largely independent of Epstein-Barr virus co-infection. Genes of the NF-κB pathway are individually non-essential. Instead, we demonstrate requirements for IRF4 and MDM2. PEL cell lines depend on cellular cyclin D2 and c-FLIP despite expression of viral homologs. Moreover, PEL cell lines are addicted to high levels of MCL1 expression, which are also evident in PEL tumors. Strong dependencies on cyclin D2 and MCL1 render PEL cell lines highly sensitive to palbociclib and S63845. In summary, this work comprehensively identifies genetic dependencies in PEL cell lines and identifies novel strategies for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Manzano
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Ajinkya Patil
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Alexander Waldrop
- Duke Cancer Institute and Center for Genomic and Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Sandeep S Dave
- Duke Cancer Institute and Center for Genomic and Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Amir Behdad
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Eva Gottwein
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.
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92
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Zhang K, Lv DW, Li R. B Cell Receptor Activation and Chemical Induction Trigger Caspase-Mediated Cleavage of PIAS1 to Facilitate Epstein-Barr Virus Reactivation. Cell Rep 2018; 21:3445-3457. [PMID: 29262325 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.11.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Revised: 10/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in tumor cells is predominately in the latent phase, but the virus can undergo lytic reactivation in response to various stimuli. However, the cellular factors that control latency and lytic replication are poorly defined. In this study, we demonstrated that a cellular factor, PIAS1, restricts EBV lytic replication. PIAS1 depletion significantly facilitated EBV reactivation, while PIAS1 reconstitution had the opposite effect. Remarkably, we found that various lytic triggers promote caspase-dependent cleavage of PIAS1 to antagonize PIAS1-mediated restriction and that caspase inhibition suppresses EBV replication through blocking PIAS1 cleavage. We further demonstrated that a cleavage-resistant PIAS1 mutant suppresses EBV replication upon B cell receptor activation. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that PIAS1 acts as an inhibitor for transcription factors involved in lytic gene expression. Collectively, these results establish PIAS1 as a key regulator of EBV lytic replication and uncover a mechanism by which EBV exploits apoptotic caspases to antagonize PIAS1-mediated restriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Zhang
- Philips Institute for Oral Health Research, School of Dentistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Dong-Wen Lv
- Philips Institute for Oral Health Research, School of Dentistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Renfeng Li
- Philips Institute for Oral Health Research, School of Dentistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA; Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA.
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93
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Murer A, McHugh D, Caduff N, Kalchschmidt J, Barros M, Zbinden A, Capaul R, Niedobitek G, Allday M, Chijioke O, Münz C. EBV persistence without its EBNA3A and 3C oncogenes in vivo. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007039. [PMID: 29709016 PMCID: PMC5945050 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2018] [Revised: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The oncogenic Epstein Barr virus (EBV) infects the majority of the human population and usually persists within its host for life without symptoms. The EBV oncoproteins nuclear antigen 3A (EBNA3A) and 3C (EBNA3C) are required for B cell transformation in vitro and are expressed in EBV associated immunoblastic lymphomas in vivo. In order to address the necessity of EBNA3A and EBNA3C for persistent EBV infection in vivo, we infected NOD-scid γcnull mice with reconstituted human immune system components (huNSG mice) with recombinant EBV mutants devoid of EBNA3A or EBNA3C expression. These EBV mutants established latent infection in secondary lymphoid organs of infected huNSG mice for at least 3 months, but did not cause tumor formation. Low level viral persistence in the absence of EBNA3A or EBNA3C seemed to be supported primarily by proliferation with the expression of early latent EBV gene products transitioning into absent viral protein expression without elevated lytic replication. In vitro, EBNA3A and EBNA3C deficient EBV infected B cells could be rescued from apoptosis through CD40 stimulation, mimicking T cell help in secondary lymphoid tissues. Thus, even in the absence of the oncogenes EBNA3A and 3C, EBV can access a latent gene expression pattern that is reminiscent of EBV persistence in healthy virus carriers without prior expression of its whole growth transforming program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Murer
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Donal McHugh
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Nicole Caduff
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Jens Kalchschmidt
- Genomics and Immunity, NIAMS, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Mario Barros
- Institute of Pathology, Unfallkrankenhaus Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andrea Zbinden
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Riccarda Capaul
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | - Martin Allday
- Molecular Virology, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Obinna Chijioke
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Institute of Pathology and Molecular Pathology, University Hospital Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Christian Münz
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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94
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Douam F, Ploss A. The use of humanized mice for studies of viral pathogenesis and immunity. Curr Opin Virol 2018; 29:62-71. [PMID: 29604551 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2018.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Humanized mice, that is, animals engrafted with human tissues and/or expressing human genes, have been instrumental in improving our understanding of the pathogenesis and immunological processes that define some of the most challenging human-tropic viruses. In particular, mice engrafted with components of a human immune system (HIS) offer unprecedented opportunities for mechanistic studies of human immune responses to infection. Here, we provide a brief overview of the current panel of HIS mouse models available and cite recent examples of how such humanized animals have been used to study immune responses and pathogenesis elicited by human-tropic viruses. Finally, we will outline some of the challenges that lay ahead and strategies to improve and refine humanized mice with the goal of more accurately recapitulating human immune responses to viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Douam
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, 110 Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Washington Road, Princeton, NJ 08544, United States
| | - Alexander Ploss
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, 110 Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Washington Road, Princeton, NJ 08544, United States.
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95
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Skelton JK, Ortega-Prieto AM, Dorner M. A Hitchhiker's guide to humanized mice: new pathways to studying viral infections. Immunology 2018; 154:50-61. [PMID: 29446074 PMCID: PMC5904706 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2018] [Revised: 02/09/2018] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Humanized mice are increasingly appreciated as an incredibly powerful platform for infectious disease research. The often very narrow species tropism of many viral infections, coupled with the sometimes misleading results from preclinical studies in animal models further emphasize the need for more predictive model systems based on human cells rather than surrogates. Humanized mice represent such a model and have been greatly enhanced with regards to their immune system reconstitution as well as immune functionality in the past years, resulting in their recommendation as a preclinical model by the US Food and Drug Administration. This review aims to give a detailed summary of the generation of human peripheral blood lymphocyte-, CD34+ haematopoietic stem cell- and bone marrow/liver/thymus-reconstituted mice and available improved models (e.g. myeloid- or T-cell-only mice, MISTRG, NSG-SGM3). Additionally, we summarize human-tropic viral infections, for which humanized mice offer a novel approach for the study of disease pathogenesis as well as future perspectives for their use in biomedical, drug and vaccine research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Katy Skelton
- Section of Virology, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | - Marcus Dorner
- Section of Virology, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
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96
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Abstract
KSHV is the etiologic agent of PEL-an aggressive lymphoma. Interestingly, EBV concurrently exists in nearly 70% of PEL cases. In this issue of Cell Host & Microbe, McHugh et al. (2017) develop humanized mouse models for EBV/KSHV co-infection and identify their complementary effect on in vivo tumor formation.
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97
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Münz C. Human γ-Herpesvirus Infection, Tumorigenesis, and Immune Control in Mice with Reconstituted Human Immune System Components. Front Immunol 2018; 9:238. [PMID: 29483919 PMCID: PMC5816265 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The human γ-herpesviruses Epstein–Barr virus (EBV or HHV4) and Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV or HHV8) are each associated with around 2% of all tumors in humans worldwide. However, investigations into their infection, oncogenesis, and immune responses that protect from the associated tumors have been hampered by the exclusive tropism of these pathogens for humans. Mice with reconstituted human immune system components (HIS mice) provide the unique opportunity to study persistent infection, virus associated lymphoma formation, and cell-mediated immune control of EBV and KSHV. Moreover, since these pathogens are unique stimuli for cytotoxic human lymphocyte responses, they also allow us to characterize long-lasting cell-mediated immune control and the requirements for its initiation, which would also be desirable to achieve during antitumor vaccination in general. Thus, human γ-herpesvirus infection of HIS mice provides unique insights into the biology of these important human pathogens and human cell-mediated immune responses that are considered to be the main protective entity against tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Münz
- Viral Immunobiology, Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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98
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Abstract
Kaposi's sarcoma human herpesvirus (KSHV) is the etiologic agent of primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) in which Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is also very often present. By using a humanized mouse model, Pr. Münz's team has been able to demonstrate that EBV/KSHV co-infection increases KSHV persistence and cell transformation through the stimulation of EBV replication. This is the first model of PEL in small animals, opening up exciting prospects for future studies on this unique lymphoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henri Gruffat
- CIRI, Centre international de recherche en infectiologie, université de Lyon, 69000 Lyon, France - Inserm U1111, Lyon, France - CNRS UMR5308, Lyon, France - École normale supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Evelyne Manet
- CIRI, Centre international de recherche en infectiologie, université de Lyon, 69000 Lyon, France - Inserm U1111, Lyon, France - CNRS UMR5308, Lyon, France - École normale supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France
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99
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van Krieken JH. New developments in the pathology of malignant lymphoma: a review of the literature published from May to August 2017. J Hematop 2017; 10:65-73. [PMID: 29057015 PMCID: PMC5630645 DOI: 10.1007/s12308-017-0303-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- J H van Krieken
- Department of Pathology, Radboud University Medical Centre, P.O. Box 9101, 6500, HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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100
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Günther T, Grundhoff A. Epigenetic manipulation of host chromatin by Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus: a tumor-promoting factor? Curr Opin Virol 2017; 26:104-111. [PMID: 28802146 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2017.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Revised: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Molecular and epidemiological evidence links Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) to a number of malignancies of endothelial or B cell origin. As for most virus-associated cancers, however, the tumor initiating and promoting events remain poorly understood. Given the emerging role of epigenetic alterations as drivers of human cancers, an interesting (and as of yet under-explored) hypothesis is that viral manipulation of host cell chromatin may contribute to the pathogenesis of KSHV-associated tumors. We here review the current knowledge regarding the interplay between KSHV-encoded factors and host chromatin and discuss how epigenetic alterations may contribute to the pathogenesis of KSHV-associated tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Günther
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Martinistrasse 52, 20252 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Adam Grundhoff
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Martinistrasse 52, 20252 Hamburg, Germany.
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