Farmers' attitudes to disease risk management in England: a comparative analysis of sheep and pig farmers

The importance of understanding end user acceptability of new technology to support animal health management

This pilot study investigates the acceptability of a mobile application (app) developed to assist livestock producers make better animal health decisions with the support of a local veterinarian. With the increase in new technologies available for producers, acceptability evaluation is important to ensure that technology is designed considering end users' needs. An acceptability qualitative study, using semi-structured interviews, was designed including a purposive selection of sheep producers and livestock veterinarians. Eleven producers and six veterinarians participated in the study. Results suggest that producers would use such a tool to contact private veterinarians in non-emergency situations to obtain animal health advice. From veterinarians' perspective, while features of the app, such as messaging and notifications, were considered useful, concerns were raised about its capacity to enhance business opportunities and potential privacy implications. This study highlights the importance of engaging with end users in the early stages of the design and the introduction of new technology to maximise potential for adoption.

Antibiotics use versus profitability on sow farms in the Netherlands

In 2009, the Dutch government provided policy objectives (i.e., targets) for a reduction in veterinary antibiotics use of -20 % in 2011, -50 % in 2013 and -70 % in 2015 relative to the use in 2009. The relationship between antibiotics use and performance of Dutch sow farms during this policy reform was analysed using the Farm Accountancy Data Network database comprising cross-sectional farm data from 2004 to 2016. The results show that there is a significant downward trend in antibiotics use of 57 %. Panel data analysis (n = 74 sow farms) revealed that the reduction in antibiotic use did not lead to negative effects on technical or economic farm results. A follow-up survey was conducted on measures taken to improve animal health, which made the reduction in antibiotic use feasible. Of the 79 sow farmers approached, 55 participated in this survey. Sow farmers used a variety of relatively easy and affordable measures, such as more attention to hygiene, use of pain killers and anti-inflammatory agents, or applied more preventive vaccinations. Multivariable linear regression models showed that the intention, perceived risk and uncertainty, and perceived capability (to keep or get the use of antibiotics under the target value) were the most important predictors for antibiotics use from 2014 to 2016. Sow farmers who used more antibiotics were more concerned that low antibiotics use compromises their farm results, perceived more risk and uncertainty, and thought to a lesser extent that they have enough knowledge and time. These results indicate that providing these farmers with knowledge and information on management practices to reduce the use of antibiotics may be helpful. Thereby, it would be useful to focus on continuous involvement of the veterinarian and possibly the feed supplier, preferably by means of individual advice, as the results showed that individual advice was the preferred way to gather knowledge for the interviewed sow farmers and the veterinarian appeared to be the most important source of information to the interviewed sow farmers, followed by the feed supplier. In summary, the study shows that decrease in antibiotics use can be quite successful without compromising on the economic or technical performance, and moreover taking into account farmers' attitudes, perceptions and preferences can be helpful to get a better understanding of farmers' decision making and is useful for the design of tailor-made interventions.

Exploring the Mental Model of Cattle Farmers in Disease Prevention and Control Practices

Farmers play an integral role in minimizing disease threats and managing ongoing diseases on their farms. Various environmental factors influence the decision-making processes of farmers. Deciphering the mental models of farmers allows us to understand the motivations and reasons behind disease prevention and control choices. This study aimed to explore the mental models of cattle farmers in implementing disease prevention and control practices. Using qualitative in-depth, semi-structured interviews, seven cattle farmers from a university’s foster farm extension program were sampled. Interview transcripts were analyzed using inductive content analysis. Results revealed 23 dimensions comprising the mental model of cattle farmers. The dimensions were conceptualized under four major themes. Farmers were most influenced by perceived risk of disease, perceived effectiveness and benefits of disease prevention and control practices, experience, knowledge and emotions, subjective norms and perceived economic loss. The decision-making processes of farmers are complex and are influenced by various factors. While additional research is needed to confirm the findings using quantitative methods and larger sample sizes, insights gained from the study can be used as inputs to tailor communication and training strategies for improved disease prevention and control interventions.

Knowledge and attitudes are important factors in farmers' choice of lamb tail docking length

BACKGROUND

Tail docking is common practice in the sheep industry to prevent soiling of the breech and flystrike. To ensure optimal healing after tail docking and reduce the risk of arthritis, perineal cancers and prolapses, it is recommended to dock tails equivalent to the length of the vulva. However, recent studies have found that some tails are docked too short (24-86 per cent).

METHODS

To address this issue, this study aimed to identify key drivers behind tail docking length decisions. Two focus groups, phone (n=30) and online surveys (n=21) were conducted in regional Victoria, Australia to examine farmer knowledge of and attitudes towards appropriate lamb tail length and barriers to best practice. The focus group data were analysed qualitatively, and the surveys were analysed qualitatively and quantitatively.

RESULTS

In total, 57 per cent of farmers were classed as docking tails short. Short tail docking appeared to be influenced by unawareness of the recommended length and docking at a length that shearers approve of. Other potential factors included lack of knowledge of negative health consequences associated with short tails, importance placed on dag and flystrike prevention, and impracticality of measuring where to dock.

CONCLUSION

Addressing these factors in future education and intervention programmes may improve tail docking practice and sheep welfare.

Understanding farmers’ biosecurity beliefs and behaviours related to antimicrobial resistant bacteria in Michigan,USA

Context Antimicrobial resistant bacteria (AMRB) are transmitted from animals to humans and vice versa through many pathways, and AMRB has been an issue on farms and in food production systems. Aims The aim of this exploratory study was to understand what preventative measures farmers may or may not be using to decrease human and animal exposure to AMRB in Central Michigan, and develop a set of measures for biosecurity behaviours. Methods Participants selected for the study were involved in commercial animal husbandry in central Michigan. Data from farmers were collected via a mixed methods approach. Semistructured interviews and a structured questionnaire were administered, based on the theory of planned behaviour. Data were analysed using Spearman’s rank correlation and thematic analyses. Key results There were no associations between sex, level of education or personal income with biosecurity beliefs or behaviours. There was a positive correlation between farm revenue and the presence of pests in animal holding areas, and how often farmers quarantine new animals before adding them to their herd or flock. The farmers interviewed had increased perceived control over implementing biosecurity measures that are perceived as simple and fast to implement. Conclusions Generally, the farmers believed they could affect AMRB on their farms, but were not always engaging in biosecurity behaviours. Implications Understanding farmers’ perceptions and beliefs of biosecurity practices may help develop efficient and effective outreach, education and extension services.

Animal Hygiene Indexes in Relation to Big-Five Personality Traits of German Pig Farmers Evaluated by Self- and Other-Rating

Improving biosecurity in intensive livestock production has become an increasingly challenging task. Often, animal hygiene measures are implemented at lower levels than recommended. Therefore, veterinarians and farm advisors look for new approaches to improve their advisory process with farmers. In the current study it has been hypothesized that German pig farmers' big-five measured personality traits might correlate with farms' biosecurity level expressed by a “continuous animal hygiene index” and a “technical animal hygiene index.” Hence, comprehensive data on the implementation of more than 100 hygiene measures were collected at farm level from a specific pilot sample of 42 pig farmers from a livestock intensive region in north-western Germany. In addition, big-five personality traits (BFI-S) were measured by self- and other-rating. Inter-rater reliabilities for personality traits indicated expected positive correlations apart from agreeableness (r_S = −0.101). Regarding the self-rating, neuroticism was valued lowest (x¯ = 3.88 ± 1.18) and conscientiousness highest (x¯ = 5.68 ± 0.70). The animal hygiene indexes revealed medium biosecurity levels on the participating farms. Piglet breeders had a significantly higher value for the “continuous animal hygiene index” (x¯ = 63.00 ± 9.91%). Personality traits conscientiousness and openness showed correlations with the continuous and the technical animal hygiene index. Depending on the production systems as well as the rating perspectives, correlations varied. For one of the personality traits playing a direct role in social interaction—extraversion—the advisory process might function as a mediating factor. The current results show that clustering of single hygiene measures into indexes in the evaluation of pig farms' biosecurity level might have advantages. The preliminary results from this study should be validated in larger, more representative samples. Furthermore, structured and systematic consideration of personality traits of farmers adds an additional aspect to include individuality of farmers more systematically in complex advisory processes. Interaction of personality traits with characteristics of the advisory process should be further researched and should be included in a much broader socio-political understanding of what is involved in changing practices.

Controlling hepatitis E virus in the pig production sector: Assessment of the technical and behavioural feasibility of on-farm risk mitigation strategies

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a zoonotic agent with pigs as the main reservoir in industrialised countries. Recent studies conducted on pig farms, in experimental conditions or through modelling approaches, have led to a better understanding of the spread of HEV on pig farms. The findings have also made it possible to define a set of measures to reduce HEV prevalence and the risk of marketing contaminated products. The objective of this study was to assess the feasibility of a set of HEV control strategies on pig farms. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with farmers, veterinarians and farming advisors to collect general data, their level of knowledge of HEV, their opinion on the technical feasibility of certain changes in practices, their perception of the respective responsibilities of the different stakeholders, and their feelings about the importance of the issue, following the framework of the Theory of Planned Behaviour. The interviews made it possible to highlight potential barriers and preferred motivators for the implementation of on-farm risk mitigation strategies. Barriers included lack of knowledge, scientific gaps, perceived inability to control HEV, and low perception of the importance of the issue. Motivators included professional satisfaction, family recognition, and the opportunity to achieve higher quality standards. Three clusters of stakeholders were also identified, with a group of leaders who could help unlock reluctance and disseminate innovations. This type of behavioural approach appeared useful to help risk managers facilitate zoonotic control on pig farms.

Preliminary insight into horse owners' perceptions of, and attitudes towards, exotic diseases in the United Kingdom

Background

The potential for an exotic disease incursion is a significant concern for the United Kingdom (UK) equine industry. Horse owners’ perceptions of, and attitudes towards, exotic diseases can influence decisions to adopt disease preparedness strategies. The objectives of this study were to describe horse owners’ 1) perceptions of the term ‘exotic disease’, and 2) attitudes towards their risk of being affected by an exotic disease. In order to address these objectives, qualitative content analysis was undertaken on data collected using two open-ended survey questions.

Results

Horse owners (n = 423) perceived exotic diseases as 1) belonging somewhere else, and 2) a dangerous threat to their horse(s). The term ‘exotic’ was associated with being foreign, non-native, and out-of-place in the UK. Attitudes towards exotic disease risk were summarised into four categories: 1) responsible horse owners prevent disease, 2) horse owners need support to stop disease spread, 3) risk depends on proximity to the ‘risky’ horse, and 4) some risk is inevitable. A ‘responsible’ owner was aware of health hazards and took actions to protect their horse from disease. Reliance on others, including stakeholders, to uphold disease prevention in the community led to feeling vulnerable to disease threats. When evaluating risk, horse owners considered which horses were the ‘riskiest’ to their horse’s health (horses that travelled, participated in competitions, or were simply unfamiliar) and avoided situations where they could interact. Despite undertaking disease prevention measures, the perceived uncontrollable nature of exotic diseases led some owners to feel an incursion was inevitable.

Conclusions

Without accounting for horse owners’ perceptions of, and attitudes towards, exotic diseases, recommendations to increase preparedness may be ineffective. Improved communication among stakeholders in the industry may assist in clarifying expectations for exotic disease-specific prevention measures. A collaborative approach among horse owners and stakeholders is recommended to improve disease preparedness within the industry.

Dairy goat producers' understanding, knowledge and attitudes towards biosecurity and Q-fever in Australia

The Australian dairy goat sector is an emerging animal industry undergoing rapid expansion. Limited information is available within this industry in relation to socio-demographic characteristics and biosecurity implementation. Q-Fever, caused by the bacterium Coxiella burnetii, is a zoonotic disease endemic in Australia, with a range of domestic and wild-animal reservoir species, including goats, with infected pregnant goats posing a significant public health risk. The aim of the current study was to investigate the socio-demographics of Australian dairy goat producers, their biosecurity implementation and levels of understanding, knowledge and attitudes towards Q-Fever. To achieve this aim, a cross-sectional study was conducted, using an online survey and follow-up semi-structured interviews among dairy goat producers. A total of 106 goat producers participated in the online survey (35.3% response rate) and 14 participated in the semi-structured interviews. Findings from this study suggest that most goat producers implement biosecurity practices related to direct animal husbandry, such as separating sick goats (86%), vaccinations (79%) and providing separate kidding space (75%); and, practices minimizing the risk of disease introduction, such as maintaining boundary fences (86%) and isolating incoming animals (67%). However, implementation of other biosecurity practices, such as keeping records of visitors and visitor biosecurity requirements, was inadequate. Furthermore, this study identifies a deficit of knowledge and understanding surrounding Q-Fever in the Australian dairy goat sector, and a disconnect between producers' perception of risk and implementation of known appropriate biosecurity measures. The research has identified that producers rely on 'trusted' community networks to provide advice on biosecurity implementation, due to a perceived absence of industry-specific, reputable information sources. Producers identified those outside of these networks as the 'other'. The creation of this other allows producers to deflect responsibility for individual biosecurity on to the other. A multifaceted approach is necessary to increase knowledge, understanding and perception of risk surrounding Q-fever, and promote positive uptake of biosecurity measures, for improved outcomes for animal and human health.

Biosecurity in multifunctional landscapes: challenges for approaches based on the concept of 'shared responsibility'

Biosecurity policy in NSW is based on the concept of 'shared responsibility' that emphasises small government and devolution of responsibility to stakeholders. This paper draws on a case study of the cattle tick program to illustrate the challenges for governments implementing a 'shared responsibility' biosecurity strategy in the multifunctional rural landscapes that are now typical of the more closely settled regions of south-eastern Australia. Agriculture may remain the dominant land use in these regions but other values underpin landownership and management for an increasing proportion of landholders who are not farmers by occupation, are disconnected from traditional producer networks, and often lack the knowledge and skills to effectively manage biosecurity threats. We describe the challenges posed by multifunctionality including a high property turnover rate, rapidly increasing rural land values, in-migration of new landholders and multiple landholder types holding different values and beliefs that influence their cattle tick management practices. We suggest ways biosecurity programs within a 'shared responsibility' framework can more effectively engage producers. These include negotiating with industry or a representative body the level of responsibility and management decisions being delegated, and to building the social and human capital of landholders taking into account the specific information and training needs of new and non-farmer landholders in addition to cattle tick management.

Lameness in Beef Cattle: UK Farmers' Perceptions, Knowledge, Barriers, and Approaches to Treatment and Control

Lameness in the beef industry has received little attention in the UK, despite the fact that it is a well-recognised problem in the dairy industry. The aims of this study were to (i) compare UK beef farmers' estimates of lameness prevalence to that of researchers, (ii) explore beef farmers' attitudes towards lameness, and (iii) help identify farmer reported barriers to lameness control and treatment. Beef farmers (11 finishing units and 10 suckler farms) were recruited from England and Wales. Farmers were asked to estimate their lameness prevalence, before a researcher conducted locomotion scoring using a five point scale, and a Bland Altman analysis performed. Face to face interviews were also conducted using a semi structured interview script aimed at capturing information such as current approaches and protocols as well as their views of lameness importance. Interviews were recorded and transcribed. An inductive thematic analysis was performed. All but two farmers underestimated lameness prevalence on their farms when compared to the researcher. Farmers initially underestimated lameness prevalence compared to the researchers estimates, with a mean underestimate of 7% (95% CI 5–9%). This is an important barrier to lameness detection and treatment. Thematic analysis identified four major themes: (1). Perception of lameness prevalence, (2). Technical knowledge and skills, (3). Perception of the impact of lameness, and (4). Barriers to the treatment and control of lameness. This study highlights that some approaches to lameness treatment are likely to be causing harm, despite being done with the intention to help the animal. There were four key areas of concern identified: recognition of lameness, treatment approaches, the training provided to farmers and confusion over transport and slaughter options available to farmers. This suggests an urgent need for future work to quantify and address the problem, and to provide evidence to justify the role of prevention and potentially start to break down barriers to control and treatment of lameness.

Exploring dairy producer and veterinarian perceptions of barriers and motivators to adopting on-farm management practices for Johne's disease control in Ontario, Canada

Motivating uptake of management change recommendations requires knowledge of the barriers and motivators influencing producer behavior. This study investigated dairy producers' and veterinarians' perceptions of the barriers and motivators influencing the adoption of Johne's disease (JD) control recommendations in Ontario, Canada. Eight focus groups, 6 with dairy producers and 2 with veterinarians, were conducted and thematically analyzed. Both producer and veterinarian groups identified physical resources (i.e., time, money, infrastructure) and producer mindset (i.e., perceived priority of JD, perceived practicality of JD control recommendations) as key barriers to adoption. Producers tended to prioritize JD control on their farm based on their lived experiences with JD and their view of the public's concern about JD. Many agreed that JD recommendations should focus on biosecurity more holistically and emphasize the broader health benefits of limiting calf exposure to many fecal-orally transmitted diseases. Producers also highlighted that some recommendations for on-farm change (i.e., keeping a closed herd, buying from low-risk herds) were unrealistic or too difficult to perform and often disrupted their habits or routine. In contrast, veterinarians suggested that most recommendations were practical and are routinely recommended. Participants suggested both extrinsic (i.e., incentives, premiums, penalties and regulations, and extension and communication) and intrinsic (i.e., pride and responsibility) methods for motivating producers. This study highlights the importance of producer mindset in on-farm change and offers insights into the attitudes and perceived barriers influencing on-farm change.

A review of paratuberculosis in dairy herds - Part 2: On-farm control

Bovine paratuberculosis is a chronic infectious disease of cattle, caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP). This is the second in a two-part review of the epidemiology and control of paratuberculosis in dairy herds. Several negative production effects associated with MAP infection have been described, but perhaps the most significant concern in relation to the importance of paratuberculosis as a disease of dairy cattle is the potential link with Crohn's disease in humans. Milk is considered a potential transmission route to humans and it is recognised that pasteurisation does not necessarily eliminate the bacterium. Therefore, control must also include reduction of the levels of MAP in bulk milk supplied from dairy farms. There is little field evidence in support of specific control measures, although several studies seem to show a decreased prevalence associated with the implementation of a combined management and test-and-cull programme. Improvements in vaccination efficacy and reduced tuberculosis (TB) test interference may increase uptake of vaccination as a control option. Farmer adoption of best practice recommendations at farm level for the control of endemic diseases can be challenging. Improved understanding of farmer behaviour and decision making will help in developing improved communication strategies which may be more efficacious in affecting behavioural change on farm.

The Effectiveness of a Foot and Mouth Disease Outbreak Control Programme in Thailand 2008⁻2015: Case Studies and Lessons Learned

Three Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) outbreaks in northern Thailand that occurred during the implementation of the national FMD strategic plan in 2008⁻2015 are described to illustrate the lessons learned and to improve the prevention and control of future outbreaks. In 2008, during a FMD outbreak on a dairy farm, milk delivery was banned for 30 days. This was a part of movement management, a key strategy for FMD control in dairy farms in the area. In 2009, more than half the animals on a pig farm were affected by FMD. Animal quarantine and restricted animal movement played a key role in preventing the spread of FMD. In 2010, FMD infection was reported in a captive elephant. The suspected source of virus was a FMD-infected cow on the same premises. The infected elephant was moved to an elephant hospital that was located in a different province before the diagnosis was confirmed. FMD education was given to elephant veterinarians to promote FMD prevention and control strategies in this unique species. These three cases illustrate how differences in outbreak circumstances and species require the implementation of a variety of different FMD control and prevention measures. Control measures and responses should be customized in different outbreak situations.

Determinants of Breeding Farmers' Safe Use of Veterinary Drugs: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis

As food safety has attracted the widespread attention of society, the quality safety of agricultural products has become an important part of food safety and also confronts multiple challenges. In fact, the safe use of veterinary drugs in the production process has become one of important guarantees for the quality safety of agricultural products. It’s of great significance to regulate the breeding farmers’ safe use of veterinary drugs and to create a safe and healthy production environment for agricultural products. A field survey of individual and large-scale swine breeding farmers in four typical provinces including Henan, Shandong, Jiangxi and Guizhou generated 397 questionnaires. This field survey conducted the internal and external classification of breeding farmers’ safe use of veterinary drugs and defined the breeding farmers’ safe use of veterinary drugs in the light of dosage, type and standardized operation of veterinary drugs. Based on Lewin’s behavior theory, the survey used the structural equation modeling method to systematically examine the generation path of breeding farmers’ safe use of veterinary drugs. The comprehensive analysis reveals that breeding farmers’ knowledge about veterinary drugs, the attitudes toward the government supervision and the market environment of breeding activities all exert some effects on breeding farmers’ use of veterinary drugs. Some suggestions and countermeasures for breeding farmers’ safe use of veterinary drugs are provided as follows: First, more efforts should be pumped into publicity and instruction so that breeding farmers can have a better understanding of veterinary drugs. Second, preferential policies should be formulated to encourage the breeding farmers’ participation in the industrial organizations of swine breeding farmers, and advocate the industrial organizations’ active provision of different technical trainings. Third, the communication and cooperation platform should be created among breeding farmers, slaughter and processing plants and supermarkets, the poultry insurance market should be regulated, and the insurance purchase process should be improved. Fourth, when more subsidies for harm-free and environment-friendly veterinary drugs are provided, more serious punishments should be imposed on the unsafe use of veterinary drugs to offer policy support for the breeding farmers’ standardized use of veterinary drugs.

Elimination of bovine viral diarrhoea virus in New Zealand: a review of research progress and future directions

The major impacts of bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) on cattle health and production have prompted many countries to embark on national elimination programmes. These programmes typically involve identifying and removing persistently infected (PI) cattle in infected herds and implementing biosecurity measures, such as pre- or post-movement testing. In order to design a systematic national control programme to eliminate BVD in New Zealand, which achieves the greatest benefits to the industries at the lowest cost to individual farmers, an accurate understanding is necessary of the epidemiology, economics and social motivation for BVD control in New Zealand. In this article we briefly review the pathogenesis of BVD, transmission and diagnosis of BVD virus infection, and effectiveness of vaccination. We summarise the current state of knowledge of the prevalence, risk factors for transmission, and financial impacts of BVD in New Zealand. We describe control programmes in Europe and then discuss the challenges that must be addressed to design a cost-effective national control programme to eliminate BVD in New Zealand.

Understanding the biosecurity monitoring and reporting intentions of livestock producers: Identifying opportunities for behaviour change

In many countries, government strategies for biosecurity planning and outbreaks depend upon private livestock producers being willing and able to conduct surveillance of their animals and the timely reporting of suspicious signs of disease. From a behavioural perspective, these two kinds of behaviours - surveillance and reporting - should be treated separately when developing a biosecurity plan in which producers play a key role in the prevention, detection, and reporting of animal diseases. Having an effective surveillance system in place is conceptually and practically independent of a reporting system that is both feasible and trustworthy. The behavioural intentions of 200 Australian producers to monitor their livestock and report to either the government or a private vet were measured in a structured telephone interview. Structural equation modelling revealed that these intentions had different statistical relationships with a common set of predictor variables. Moreover, classification of the producers based on belief about monitoring and surveillance resulted in three contrasting groups. These results are discussed in terms of their meaning for the development of behavioural strategies to promote surveillance and monitoring of animal disease.

Socio-economic factors associated with voluntary rabies control measures in Vietnam

Rabies is a fatal zoonosis, and in Vietnam, it remains problematic despite the availability of dog rabies vaccination. The purpose of this study was to clarify the socio-economic factors associated with voluntary rabies control measures among the general population using a "Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practice" framework to provide health and veterinary authorities in Vietnam with baseline information for better planning of policy supports. A questionnaire survey with interviews was conducted in 495 households (64 mountainous and 431 plain-area households) in Thai Nguyen Province in September 2016. After the survey, uni- and multivariable analyses were performed to detect factors associated with the practices of dog rabies vaccination and tethering dogs. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was performed to understand the structures associated with practice decisions. Contingent valuation was performed to calculate willingness-to-pay for vaccination. Vaccination coverage was 77.4% (724/935 dogs), and was significantly lower in mountainous areas dominated by ethnic minorities (63.8%, 67/105) than in plains (79.2%, 657/830, x² = 11.7, df = 1, p <  0.001). Mean estimation of willingness-to-pay for a vaccination was 2.30 USD (51,959 Vietnamese dong), which was more than double the current price. The willingness-to-pay in mountainous areas was 2.16 USD, while that in plain areas was 2.32 USD. The proportion that never confined dogs was significantly higher in mountainous areas (65.6%, 42/64 households) than in plain areas (26.5%, 114/430, x² = 37.7, df = 1, p < 0.001). Despite the low proportion of households tethering dogs, the majority answered that they would confine (479/489, 98.0%) or leash while walking (482/491, 98.2%) if such orders were enforced. SEM result showed that higher social status promoted better knowledge (β, the coefficient, = 0.75, se = 0.05, p <  0.001), better knowledge positive attitudes (β = 1.0, se = 0.0, p value not calculated), and positive attitudes better practices of confinement (β = 0.4, se = 0.05, p <  0.001), vaccination (β = 0.52, se = 0.06, p <  0.001), and sterilization (β = 0.11, se = 0.04, p <  0.001). Our study suggested that rabies education targeted to mountainous areas using local languages for ethnic minority groups as well as the national language, and higher subsidies on dog rabies vaccination for poor households may improve vaccination coverage. Dog management may be improved by promotion campaigns.

Modeling Dynamic Human Behavioral Changes in Animal Disease Models: Challenges and Opportunities for Addressing Bias

Over the past several decades, infectious disease modeling has become an essential tool for creating counterfactual scenarios that allow the effectiveness of different disease control policies to be evaluated prior to implementation in the real world. For livestock diseases, these models have become increasingly sophisticated as researchers have gained access to rich national livestock traceability databases, which enables inclusion of explicit spatial and temporal patterns in animal movements through network-based approaches. However, there are still many limitations in how we currently model animal disease dynamics. Critical among these is that many models make the assumption that human behaviors remain constant over time. As many studies have shown, livestock owners change their behaviors around trading, on-farm biosecurity, and disease management in response to complex factors such as increased awareness of disease risks, pressure to conform with social expectations, and the direct imposition of new national animal health regulations; all of which may significantly influence how a disease spreads within and between farms. Failing to account for these dynamics may produce a substantial layer of bias in infectious disease models, yet surprisingly little is currently known about the effects on model inferences. Here, we review the growing evidence on why these assumptions matter. We summarize the current knowledge about farmers' behavioral change in on-farm biosecurity and livestock trading practices and highlight the knowledge gaps that prohibit these behavioral changes from being incorporated into disease modeling frameworks. We suggest this knowledge gap can be filled only by more empirical longitudinal studies on farmers' behavioral change as well as theoretical modeling studies that can help to identify human behavioral changes that are important in disease transmission dynamics. Moreover, we contend it is time to shift our research approach: from modeling a single disease to modeling interactions between multiple diseases and from modeling a single farmer behavior to modeling interdependencies between multiple behaviors. In order to solve these challenges, there is a strong need for interdisciplinary collaboration across a wide range of fields including animal health, epidemiology, sociology, and animal welfare.

Assessing the Linkages between Knowledge and Use of Veterinary Antibiotics by Pig Farmers in Rural China

Improper use of veterinary antibiotics (VAs) has led to antibiotic resistance and food safety issues that are harmful for sustainable development and public health. In this study, farmers' knowledge influencing their usage of veterinary antibiotics was analyzed based on a survey of 654 pig farmers in Funing County, China. A behavior probability model was constructed, and a Matlab simulation was used to evaluate the dynamic changes in farmers' behavioral choice regarding VAs use. The survey results showed that the 654 pig farmers' knowledge of VAs were relatively poor, along with a high occurrence of improper behavior. Specifically, 68.35% of the 654 surveyed pig farmers admitted their violation of VAs use regulations, while 55.50% among them overused and 24.31% among them misused VAs. The simulation results showed that the probability of improper VA use decreased with the increase in farmers' knowledge about VA use specification, and when farmers' knowledge about the hazards of VA residues increased. However, when farmers had a high level of knowledge about relevant laws and their penalties, there was still a high probability of improper VA use.

Motivators and barriers for dog and cat owners and veterinary surgeons in the United Kingdom to using preventative medicines

Routine use of preventative medicines is advocated as part of responsible dog and cat ownership. However, it has been suggested that the number of owners in the United Kingdom (UK) using preventative medicines to protect their pets is in decline. The aim of this novel study was to use a qualitative methodology to explore the attitudes of pet owners and veterinary surgeons in the UK to using preventative medicine products in dogs and cats. Preventative medicine was defined as "a drug or any other preparation used to prevent disease, illness or injury." Semi-structured interviews were conducted by telephone with owners and veterinary surgeons who had recently participated in a preventative healthcare consultation. Thematic analysis of transcribed recordings of these interviews identified four themes. This paper reports the theme related to motivators and barriers to using preventative medicines. Owners' understanding varied widely about the importance of preventative medicines for pets, as did their confidence in the safety of prescription products. A good relationship with their veterinary surgeon or practice, seeing adverts on the television about specific diseases, advice from a breeder and having personally seen infected animals appeared to be motivators for owners to use preventative medicines. Concern about adverse events and uncertainty about the necessity of using preventative medicines were barriers. Owners who trusted their veterinary surgeons to advise them on preventative medicine products described little use of alternative information sources when making preventative medicine choices. However, owners who preferred to do their own research described reading online opinions, particular in relation to the safety of preventative medicines, which they found confusing. In contrast, veterinary surgeons described broad confidence in the safety and efficacy of prescription preventative medicines and described protection of pet health as a strong motivator for their use. Several expressed some concern about being seen to "sell" products, which may present a barrier to their advocacy. Veterinary surgeons were unsure about owners' level of understanding of the necessity of preventative medicines, particularly in relation to vaccinations, and few recalled instigating conversations with owners about product safety. Owner uncertainties about preventative medicine products may not be adequately addressed in the consulting room. This first qualitative study to investigate dog and cat preventative medicines suggests strategies are needed to increase discussion between pet owners and veterinary surgeons in the UK about the necessity, safety, efficacy and cost of preventative medicines.

Connecting Different Data Sources to Assess the Interconnections between Biosecurity, Health, Welfare, and Performance in Commercial Pig Farms in Great Britain

This study aimed to provide an overview of the interconnections between biosecurity, health, welfare, and performance in commercial pig farms in Great Britain. We collected on-farm data about the level of biosecurity and animal performance in 40 fattening pig farms and 28 breeding pig farms between 2015 and 2016. We identified interconnections between these data, slaughterhouse health indicators, and welfare indicator records in fattening pig farms. After achieving the connections between databases, a secondary data analysis was performed to assess the interconnections between biosecurity, health, welfare, and performance using correlation analysis, principal component analysis, and hierarchical clustering. Although we could connect the different data sources the final sample size was limited, suggesting room for improvement in database connection to conduct secondary data analyses. The farm biosecurity scores ranged from 40 to 90 out of 100, with internal biosecurity scores being lower than external biosecurity scores. Our analysis suggested several interconnections between health, welfare, and performance. The initial correlation analysis showed that the prevalence of lameness and severe tail lesions was associated with the prevalence of enzootic pneumonia-like lesions and pyaemia, and the prevalence of severe body marks was associated with several disease indicators, including peritonitis and milk spots (r > 0.3; P < 0.05). Higher average daily weight gain (ADG) was associated with lower prevalence of pleurisy (r > 0.3; P < 0.05), but no connection was identified between mortality and health indicators. A subsequent cluster analysis enabled identification of patterns which considered concurrently indicators of health, welfare, and performance. Farms from cluster 1 had lower biosecurity scores, lower ADG, and higher prevalence of several disease and welfare indicators. Farms from cluster 2 had higher biosecurity scores than cluster 1, but a higher prevalence of pigs requiring hospitalization and lameness which confirmed the correlation between biosecurity and the prevalence of pigs requiring hospitalization (r > 0.3; P < 0.05). Farms from cluster 3 had higher biosecurity, higher ADG, and lower prevalence for some disease and welfare indicators. The study suggests a smaller impact of biosecurity on issues such as mortality, prevalence of lameness, and pig requiring hospitalization. The correlations and the identified clusters suggested the importance of animal welfare for the pig industry.

A comparison of the efficacy of three intervention trial types: postal, group, and one-to-one facilitation, prior management and the impact of message framing and repeat messages on the flock prevalence of lameness in sheep

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of three knowledge-transfer intervention trial types (postal, group, one-to-one) to promote best practice to treat sheep with footrot. Further aims were to investigate whether farmer behaviour (i.e. management of lameness) before the trial was associated with uptake of best practice and whether the benefits of best practice framed positively or negatively influenced change in behaviour. The intervention was a message developed from evidence and expert opinion. It was entitled "Six steps to sound sheep" and promoted (1) catch sheep within three days of becoming lame, (2) inspect feet without foot trimming, (3) correctly diagnose the cause, (4) treat sheep lame with footrot or interdigital dermatitis with antibiotic injection and spray without foot trimming, (5) record the identity of treated sheep, (6) cull repeatedly lame sheep. In 2013, 4000 randomly-selected English sheep farmers were sent a questionnaire, those who responded were recruited to the postal (1081 farmers) or one-to-one intervention (32 farmers) trials. A random sample of 400 farmers were invited to join the group trial; 78 farmers participated. A follow-up questionnaire was sent to all participants in summer 2014. There were 72%, 65% and 91% useable responses for the postal, group and one-to-one trials respectively. In both 2013 and 2014, the prevalence of lameness was lower in flocks managed by LC1 farmers than LC2 and LC3 farmers. Between 2013 and 2014, the reduction in geometric mean (95% CI) period prevalence of lameness, proportional between flock reduction in lameness and within flock reduction in lameness was greatest in the one-to-one (7.6% (7.1-8.2%) to 4.3% (3.6-5.0%), 35%, 72%) followed by the group (4.5% (3.9-5.0%) to 3.1% (2.4-3.7%), 27%, 55%) and then the postal trial (from 3.5% (3.3-3.7%) to 3.2% (3.1-3.4%), 21%, 43%). There was a marginally greater reduction in lameness in farmers using most of Six steps but slow to treat lame sheep pre-trial than those not using Six steps at all. There was no significant effect of message framing. The greatest behavioural change was a reduction in therapeutic and routine foot trimming and the greatest attitude change was an increase in negative attitudes towards foot trimming. We conclude that all three intervention trial approaches were effective to promote best practice to treat sheep with footrot with one-to-one facilitation more effective than group and postal intervention trials. Results suggest that farmers' behaviour change was greater among those practising aspects of the intervention message before the trial began than those not practising any aspect.

Quantitative analysis of antibiotic usage in British sheep flocks

The aim of this study was to examine the variation in antibiotic usage between 207 commercial sheep flocks using their veterinary practice prescribing records. Mean and median prescribed mass per population corrected unit (mg/PCU) was 11.38 and 5.95, respectively and closely correlated with animal defined daily dose (ADDD) 1.47 (mean), 0.74 (median) (R²=0.84, P<0.001). This is low in comparison with the suggested target (an average across all the UK livestock sectors) of 50 mg/PCU. In total, 80 per cent of all antibiotic usage occurred in the 39 per cent of flocks where per animal usage was greater than 9.0 mg/PCU. Parenteral antibiotics, principally oxytetracycline, represented 82 per cent of the total prescribed mass, 65.5 per cent of antibiotics (mg/PCU) were prescribed for the treatment of lameness. Oral antibiotics were prescribed to 49 per cent of flocks, 64 per cent of predicted lamb crop/farm. Lowland flocks were prescribed significantly more antibiotics than hill flocks. Variance partitioning apportioned 79 per cent of variation in total antibiotic usage (mg/PCU) to the farm level and 21 per cent to the veterinary practice indicating that veterinary practices have a substantial impact on overall antimicrobial usage. Reducing antibiotic usage in the sheep sector should be possible with better understanding of the drivers of high usage in individual flocks and of veterinary prescribing practices.

The intention of North-Western Ethiopian dairy farmers to control mastitis

Understanding the intentions of dairy farmers towards mastitis control is important to design effective udder health control programs. We used the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to explore the intentions of North-Western Ethiopian dairy farmers towards implementing non-specified mastitis control measures (nsMCMs) and towards implementing 4 specific MCMs. Face to face interviews were held with 134 dairy farmers to study associations between their intentions and any of three factors (attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control) that, according to the TPB, determine intentions. The majority of the farmers (93%) had a positive intention to implement nsMCMs, whereas a smaller majority of farmers had the intention to implement the specific MCMs to improve udder cleaning (87%), to improve stall hygiene (78%), to improve feeding of cows (76%), and to perform foremilk stripping (74%). Farmers had a more positive attitude, but lower subjective norm and lower perceived behavioural control towards implementing nsMCMs compared with implementing most specific MCMs, although the subjective norms for stall hygiene and perceived behavioural control for improving feeding of cows were also low. Attitude was positively associated with intentions to implement nsMCMs, to improve cleaning of the udders, to improve stall hygiene and to implement foremilk stripping. Both the intention to improve udder cleaning and to implement foremilk stripping, were positively associated to subjective norms towards these MCMs. Our data can help tailor intervention programs aiming to increase the intention of Ethiopian dairy farmers to implement MCMs and thus to improve udder health in this country. We show that such programs should primarily focus on changing attitude and secondarily on improving the farmers’ subjective norms.

"Catch 22": Biosecurity awareness, interpretation and practice amongst poultry catchers

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Barriers to good biosecurity during catching are investigated using mixed methods.

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Awareness of biosecurity is assessed using a Watch-&-Click hazard awareness survey.

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Time pressure and lack of equipment are important causes of lapses in biosecurity.

Campylobacter contamination of chicken on sale in the UK remains at high levels and has a substantial public health impact. This has prompted the application of many interventions in the supply chain, including enhanced biosecurity measures on-farm. Catching and thinning are acknowledged as threats to the maintenance of good biosecurity, yet the people employed to undertake this critical work (i.e. ‘catchers’) are a rarely studied group.

This study uses a mixed methods approach to investigate catchers’ (n = 53) understanding of the biosecurity threats posed by the catching and thinning, and the barriers to good biosecurity practice. It interrogated the role of training in both the awareness and practice of good biosecurity. Awareness of lapses in biosecurity was assessed using a Watch-&-Click hazard awareness survey (n = 53). Qualitative interviews (n = 49 catchers, 5 farm managers) explored the understanding, experience and practice of catching and biosecurity.

All of the catchers who took part in the Watch-&-Click study identified at least one of the biosecurity threats with 40% detecting all of the hazards. Those who had undergone training were significantly more likely to identify specific biosecurity threats and have a higher awareness score overall (48% compared to 9%, p = 0.03). Crucially, the individual and group interviews revealed the tensions between the high levels of biosecurity awareness evident from the survey and the reality of the routine practice of catching and thinning. Time pressures and a lack of equipment rather than a lack of knowledge appear a more fundamental cause of catcher-related biosecurity lapses. Our results reveal that catchers find themselves in a ‘catch-22′ situation in which mutually conflicting circumstances prevent simultaneous completion of their job and compliance with biosecurity standards.3 Hence, although education about, and enforcement of, biosecurity protocols has been recommended, our findings suggest that further reforms, including changing the context in which catching occurs by improving the equipment and other resources available to catchers and providing more time for biosecurity, will be essential for successful implementation of existing biosecurity protocols.

"We've learned to live with it"-A qualitative study of Australian horse owners' attitudes, perceptions and practices in response to Hendra virus

Hendra virus causes sporadic zoonotic disease in Australia following spill over from flying foxes to horses and from horses to people. Prevention and risk mitigation strategies such as vaccination of horses or biosecurity and property management measures are widely publicised, but hinge on initiative and action taken by horse owners as they mediate management, care and treatment of their animals. Hence, underlying beliefs, values and attitudes of horse owners influence their uptake of recommended risk mitigation measures. We used a qualitative approach to investigate attitudes, perceptions and self-reported practices of horse owners in response to Hendra virus to gain a deeper understanding of their decision-making around prevention measures. Data presented here derive from a series of in-depth interviews with 27 horse owners from Hendra virus 'hot spot' areas in New South Wales and Queensland. Interviews explored previous experience, perceptions and resulting behaviour as well as communication around Hendra virus. All interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed in NVivo using thematic analysis. Analysis revealed four major themes: perception of Hendra virus as a risk and factors influencing this perception, Hendra virus risk mitigation strategies implemented by horse owners, perceived motivators and barriers of these strategies, and interaction of perceived risk, motivators and barriers in the decision-making process. Although Hendra virus disease was perceived as a serious threat to the health of horses and humans, individual risk perception diverged among horse owners. Perceived severity, likelihood and unpredictability as well as awareness and knowledge of Hendra virus, trust in information obtained and information pathways, demographic characteristics and personal experience were the main factors influencing Hendra virus risk perceptions. Other key determinants of horse owners' decision-making process were attitudes towards Hendra virus risk mitigation measures as well as perceived motivators and barriers thereof. Horse owners' awareness of the necessity to consider individual Hendra virus risk and adequate risk management strategies was described as a learning process, which changed over time. However, different perceptions of risk, barriers and motivators in combination with a weighing up of advantages and disadvantages resulted in different behaviours. These findings demonstrate the multifactorial determinants of cognitive mediating processes and facilitate a better understanding of horse owners' perspectives on preventive horse health measures. Furthermore, they provide valuable feedback to industry and government stakeholders on how to improve effective risk communication and encourage uptake of recommended risk mitigation measures.

Invited review: Determinants of farmers' adoption of management-based strategies for infectious disease prevention and control

The prevention and control of endemic pathogens within and between farms often depends on the adoption of best management practices. However, farmers regularly do not adopt recommended measures or do not enroll in voluntary disease control programs. This indicates that a more comprehensive understanding of the influences and extension tools that affect farmers' management decisions is necessary. Based on a review of relevant published literature, we developed recommendations to support policy-makers, industry representatives, researchers, veterinarians, and other stakeholders when motivating farmers to adopt best management practices, and to facilitate the development and implementation of voluntary prevention and control programs for livestock diseases. Farmers will make management decisions based on their unique circumstances, agricultural contexts, beliefs, and goals. Providing them with rational but universal arguments might not always be sufficient to motivate on-farm change. Implementation of recommended management practices is more likely if farmers acknowledge the existence of a problem and their responsibility to take action. The perceived feasibility and effectiveness of the recommended management strategy and sufficient technical knowledge further increase the likelihood of adequate adoption. Farmers will also weigh the expected advantages of a proposed change against the expected disadvantages, and these considerations often include internal drivers such as pride or the desire to conform with perceived standards. Extension tools and farmers' social referents (e.g., veterinarians, peers) not only provide technical information but also influence these standards. Whereas mass media have the potential to deliver information to a broad audience, more personal approaches such as participatory group learning or individual communication with farm advisors can enable the tailoring of recommendations to farmers' situations. Approaches that appeal to farmers' internal motivators or that unconsciously elicit the desired behavior will increase the success of the intervention. Collaboration among stakeholders, assisted by social scientists and communication specialists, is necessary to provide a context that facilitates on-farm change and transfers consistent messages across extension tools in the most effective way.

A quantitative analysis of attitudes and behaviours concerning sustainable parasite control practices from Scottish sheep farmers

Nematode control in sheep, by strategic use of anthelmintics, is threatened by the emergence of roundworms populations that are resistant to one or more of the currently available drugs. In response to growing concerns of Anthelmintic Resistance (AR) development in UK sheep flocks, the Sustainable Control of Parasites in Sheep (SCOPS) initiative was set up in 2003 in order to promote practical guidelines for producers and advisors. To facilitate the uptake of 'best practice' approaches to nematode management, a comprehensive understanding of the various factors influencing sheep farmers' adoption of the SCOPS principles is required. A telephone survey of 400 Scottish sheep farmers was conducted to elicit attitudes regarding roundworm control, AR and 'best practice' recommendations. A quantitative statistical analysis approach using structural equation modelling was chosen to test the relationships between both observed and latent variables relating to general roundworm control beliefs. A model framework was developed to test the influence of socio-psychological factors on the uptake of sustainable (SCOPS) and known unsustainable (AR selective) roundworm control practices. The analysis identified eleven factors with significant influences on the adoption of SCOPS recommended practices and AR selective practices. Two models established a good fit with the observed data with each model explaining 54% and 47% of the variance in SCOPS and AR selective behaviours, respectively. The key influences toward the adoption of best practice parasite management, as well as demonstrating negative influences on employing AR selective practices were farmer's base line understanding about roundworm control and confirmation about lack of anthelmintic efficacy in a flock. The findings suggest that improving farmers' acceptance and uptake of diagnostic testing and improving underlying knowledge and awareness about nematode control may influence adoption of best practice behaviour.

Exploring expert opinion on the practicality and effectiveness of biosecurity measures on dairy farms in the United Kingdom using choice modeling

Biosecurity, defined as a series of measures aiming to stop disease-causing agents entering or leaving an area where farm animals are present, is very important for the continuing economic viability of the United Kingdom dairy sector, and for animal welfare. This study gathered expert opinion from farmers, veterinarians, consultants, academics, and government and industry representatives on the practicality and effectiveness of different biosecurity measures on dairy farms. The study used best-worst scaling, a technique that allows for greater discrimination between choices and avoids the variability in interpretation associated with other methods, such as Likert scales and ranking methods. Keeping a closed herd was rated as the most effective measure overall, and maintaining regular contact with the veterinarian was the most practical measure. Measures relating to knowledge, planning, and veterinary involvement; buying-in practices; and quarantine and treatment scored highly for effectiveness overall. Measures relating to visitors, equipment, pest control, and hygiene scored much lower for effectiveness. Overall, measures relating to direct animal-to-animal contact scored much higher for effectiveness than measures relating to indirect disease transmission. Some of the most effective measures were also rated as the least practical, such as keeping a closed herd and avoiding nose-to-nose contact between contiguous animals, suggesting that real barriers exist for farmers when implementing biosecurity measures on dairy farms. We observed heterogeneity in expert opinion on biosecurity measures; for example, veterinarians rated the effectiveness of consulting the veterinarian on biosecurity significantly more highly than dairy farmers, suggesting a greater need for veterinarians to promote their services on-farm. Still, both groups rated it as a practical measure, suggesting that the farmer-veterinarian relationship holds some advantages for the promotion of biosecurity.

Exploring Attitudes and Beliefs towards Implementing Cattle Disease Prevention and Control Measures: A Qualitative Study with Dairy Farmers in Great Britain

Simple Summary

Further understanding of why dairy farmers do not engage in disease prevention and control strategies (biosecurity) is required. Using semi-structured interviews informed by a health psychology approach with 25 dairy farmers, a number of barriers, such as disease testing inaccuracies, types of disease transmission, perceived lack of risk and effectiveness of measures, were identified. Motivators included being advised to undertake measures by veterinarians, and the increased threat and severity of the disease in focus. These results suggest there is an advantage to farm advisors and herd health professionals understanding and working with the beliefs of individual dairy farmers to target appropriate communication and advice strategies relating to biosecurity recommendations.

Abstract

Disease prevention and control practices are frequently highlighted as important to ensure the health and welfare of farmed animals, although little is known as to why not many practices are carried out. The aim of this study was to identify the motivators and barriers of dairy cattle farmers towards the use of biosecurity measures on dairy farms using a health psychology approach. Twenty-five farmers on 24 farms in Great Britain (GB) were interviewed using the Theory of Planned Behaviour framework. Results indicated that farmers perceived they had the ability to control what happened on their farms in terms of preventing and controlling disease, and described benefits from being proactive and vigilant. However, barriers were cited in relation to testing inaccuracies, effectiveness and time-efficiency of practices, and disease transmission route (e.g., airborne transmission). Farmers reported they were positively influenced by veterinarians and negatively influenced by the government (Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA)) and the general public. Decisions to implement practices were influenced by the perceived severity of the disease in question, if disease was diagnosed on the farm already, or was occurring on other farms. Farmers described undertaking a form of personal risk assessment when deciding if practices were worth doing, which did not always involve building in disease specific factors or opinions from veterinarians or other advisors. These results indicate that further guidance about the intricacies of control and prevention principles in relation to specific animal diseases may be required, with an obvious role for veterinarians. There appears to be an opportunity for farm advisors and herd health professionals to further understand farmer beliefs behind certain attitudes and target communication and advice accordingly to further enhance dairy cattle health and welfare.

Biosecurity and the management of emergency animal disease among commercial beef producers in New South Wales and Queensland (Australia)

Australia places great importance on the prevention and management of emergency animal diseases (EAD), with strict quarantine measures offshore and at the border. Livestock producers are crucial for disease control onshore; however, limited information is available on commercial livestock producers' practices in relation to the management of disease risks. The aims of this paper are to investigate how commercial beef producers in Australia's Northern and Southern beef zones manage EADs and to identify drivers for effective biosecurity and EAD prevention. This paper forms part of a broader mixed methods research project involving an analysis of literature and current policies, qualitative semi-structured interviews with government and industry stakeholders and a cross-sectional study among beef producers. The cross-sectional study used a postal survey (n=182) and face-to-face interviews (n=34) to gather data on beef producers' knowledge and practices on biosecurity and EADs and their communication networks. Findings indicate that producers are uncertain about the roles and responsibilities of stakeholders involved in biosecurity and EAD management. This uncertainty may create confusion about EAD management and impact upon producers' willingness to report animal disease, with over 20% reporting the last veterinary contact more than five years ago and an additional 8.5% who had never contacted a veterinarian. Producers had a generally high awareness of the key sources of animal disease risk and they prioritise herd health planning as part of their everyday practices. Over 40% of producers had limited knowledge of the meaning of EAD; and EAD and biosecurity planning was given a low priority, primarily due to the perceived limited likelihood of an EAD event in Australia and the belief that EAD prevention is primarily the role of government. Only a moderate implementation of biosecurity practices, such as isolating incoming animals, having a single property entry point or keeping visitors' records was reported. If faced with an unusual disease event, most producers would contact their private or government veterinarian; however, in some instances most would also treat themselves and over a third would do nothing. Findings from this study suggest that there is a need for better coordination between stakeholders to encourage a shared biosecurity and EAD understanding and to communicate a consistent message to all stakeholders including producers. Further, there is a need for improving producer awareness of the importance of EAD prevention and biosecurity practices as well as the stakeholders' roles within the broader animal health system.

English Pig Farmers' Knowledge and Behaviour towards African Swine Fever Suspicion and Reporting

African swine fever (ASF) is a notifiable, virulent swine disease, and is a major threat to animal health and trade for many European Union (EU) countries. Early detection of the introduction of ASF virus is of paramount importance to be able to limit the potential extent of outbreaks. However, the timely and accurate reporting of ASF primary cases strongly depends on how familiar pig farmers are with the clinical signs, and their motivation to report the disease. Here, an online questionnaire survey was conducted between December 2014 and April 2015 to investigate English pig farmers' knowledge and behaviour towards ASF in terms of clinical suspicion and reporting. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors influencing the two variables of interest: 1) farmers who "would immediately suspect ASF" if they observed clinical signs of fever, lethargy, reduced eating and high mortality on their farm and 2) farmers who "would immediately report ASF" if they suspected ASF on their farm. The questionnaire was completed by 109 pig farmers. Results indicate that pig farmers having poor knowledge about ASF clinical signs and limited concern about ASF compared with other pig diseases are less likely to consider the possibility of an outbreak of ASF on their farm. In addition, pig farmers lacking awareness of outbreaks in other countries, having a perception of the negative impact on them resulting from false positive reporting and the perceived complexity of reporting procedures are less likely to report an ASF suspicion. These findings indicate important areas for educational campaigns targeted at English pig farmers to focus on in an attempt to increase the likelihood of a rapid response in the event of an ASF outbreak.

Swedish Farmers' Opinions about Biosecurity and Their Intention to Make Professionals Use Clean Protective Clothing When Entering the Stable

The study was part of a series of studies aiming to increase knowledge about spread and prevention of livestock diseases in Sweden. A specific biosecurity behavior, i.e., making professionals (e.g., veterinarian, repairman, livestock transporter) wear clean protective clothing when entering the stables was investigated through focus groups and a questionnaire survey. This behavior was seen as a proxy for other biosecurity behaviors. As part of questionnaire development, three focus group discussions with a total of 11 participating livestock farmers were held. The questionnaire was based on the model of Theory of Planned Behavior. Response was received from 2,081 farmers. In the focus groups, farmers expressed a willingness to provide visitors with clean protective clothing. However, some had experienced difficulties in making veterinarians use protective clothing, and mentioned a reluctance to correct their veterinarians. The participants mostly focused on diseases regulated by control programs, especially Salmonella. In parts, participants were well informed but some showed a lack of knowledge concerning routes of disease spread. They also mentioned external factors that made them deviate from biosecurity recommendations. Farmers called for biosecurity advice with focus on cost–benefit return. Among survey respondents, the intention to make visitors wear protective clothing was moderate. Analysis of underlying elements showed that a majority of farmers (88%) had a neutral attitude, i.e., they were neither in favor nor against this behavior. Measures of subjective norm indicated a varying degree of social pressure among respondents. However, the majority (63%) indicated a strong behavioral control, thus suggesting that they could make visitors use protective clothing if they wanted to. Although most farmers (84%) indicated a strong willingness to comply with the opinion of their veterinarians in biosecurity matters, 30% replied that their farm veterinarian is indifferent or negative toward making visitors use protective clothing. Demographic factors were significantly associated with the intention, and farmers with pigs, larger herds, and female farmers had a stronger intention. Regional differences were also found. The findings provide new insights into why farmers apply, or do not apply, biosecurity routines, and will be useful in the on-going work to improve farm biosecurity in Sweden.

Broken biosecurity? Veterinarians' framing of biosecurity on dairy farms in England

There is seen to be a need for better biosecurity - the control of disease spread on and off farm - in the dairy sector. Veterinarians play a key role in communicating and implementing biosecurity measures on farm, and little research has been carried out on how veterinarians see their own and farmers' roles in improving biosecurity. In order to help address this gap, qualitative interviews were carried out with 28 veterinarians from Royal College of Veterinary Surgeon farm accredited practices in England. The results were analysed using a social ecology framework and frame analysis to explore not only what barriers vets identified, but also how vets saw the problem of inadequate biosecurity as being located. Veterinarians' frames of biosecurity were analysed at the individual, interpersonal and contextual scales, following the social ecology framework, which see the problem in different ways with different solutions. Farmers and veterinarians were both framed by veterinarians as individualised groups lacking consistency. This means that best practice is not spread and veterinarians are finding it difficult to work as a group to move towards a "predict and prevent" model of veterinary intervention. But diversity and individualism were also framed as positive and necessary among veterinarians to the extent that they can tailor advice to individual farmers. Veterinarians saw their role in educating the farmer as not only being about giving advice to farmers, but trying to convince the farmer of their perspective and values on disease problems. Vets felt they were meeting with limited success because vets and farmers may be emphasising different framings of biosecurity. Vets emphasise the individual and interpersonal frames that disease problems are a problem on farm that can and should be controlled by individual farmers working with vets. According to vets, farmers may emphasise the contextual frame that biosecurity is largely outside of their control on dairy farms because of logistical, economic and geographical factors, and so some level of disease on dairy farms is not entirely unexpected or controllable. There needs to be a step back within the vet-farmer relationship to realise that there may be different perspectives at play, and within the wider debate to explore the question of what a biosecure dairy sector would look like within a rapidly changing agricultural landscape.

Attitudes of farm consultants in the South Island of New Zealand towards the role of veterinarians in farm businesses

AIMS

To assess the attitude of dairy farm consultants to the role of veterinarians on dairy farms and whether they viewed veterinary advice as impartial, free from commercial bias and central to farm productivity and profitability.

METHODS

A telephone survey was commissioned in September 2014 of 36 full-time farm consultants in the Canterbury and Otago region of New Zealand using a pre-prepared questionnaire to explore their attitudes towards the veterinary profession. Of those approached, 25 completed the survey.

RESULTS

The consultants surveyed agreed or strongly agreed (21/23) that they were the custodians of animal health expenditure on farms, which was seen as an expense to be controlled (19/25 agreed or strongly agreed). This view was held more strongly (9/9 agreed or strongly agreed) by consultants with >5 years' professional experience, compared to 10/16 consultants with ≤5 years' experience. Most consultants (24/25) disagreed that they did not respect veterinary advice, but agreed (24/25) that veterinarians almost always had a vested interest in the advice that they gave. The role of veterinarians was seen by respondents to be mainly treatment of sick animals (22/25) and provision of animal health products (24/25), but not in maximising farm profitability (selected by 8/25 respondents). Consultants viewed their own roles as providing advice on the influence of animal health on farm profitability (21/25), nutrition (22/25) and reproduction (20/25). Most respondents (21/25) stated that reducing disease and animal health issues was important, but they (21/25) also identified a reduction in farm animal health expenditure as a measure of success. Only 7/25 consultants felt that they should work in partnership with veterinarians.

CONCLUSIONS

This was a small scale study from one region of New Zealand but it indicates that consultants are ambivalent about the role and value of working more closely with veterinarians, and about the benefit that veterinary intervention may bring to a farm's profitability.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

More successful veterinary involvement on dairy farms will follow from a better understanding of how other rural professionals are involved in the farm's management and in meeting the individual farmer's goals and motivations.

Familiarity with and uptake of alternative methods to control sheep gastro-intestinal parasites on farms in England

A questionnaire was distributed electronically amongst sheep farmers in England; it aimed to provide a quantification of current anthelmintic practices, farmer awareness of the issue of anthelmintic resistance (AR) and the uptake, awareness and opinions surrounding conventional and alternative methods of nematode control. The majority of farmers relied on several anthelmintics and used faecal egg counts to identify worm problems. Although farmers were aware of the issue of AR amongst helminth parasites in the UK, there was a disconnection between such awareness and on farm problems and practice of nematode control. Grazing management was used by 52% of responders, while breeding for resistance and bioactive forages by 22 and 18% respectively. Farms with more than 500 ewes, and farmers who felt nematodes were a problem, had a higher probability of using selective breeding. Farmers who considered their wormer effective, had a qualification in agriculture and whose staff did not include any family members, were more likely to use bioactive forages; the opposite was the case if farmers dosed their lambs frequently. Amongst the alternatives, highest preference was for selective breeding and vaccination, if the latter was to become commercially available, with more respondents having a preference for breeding than actually using it. Several barriers to the uptake of an alternative were identified, the most influential factor being the cost to set it up and the length of time for which it would remain effective. The disconnection between awareness of AR and practice of nematode control on farm reinforces the need for emphasising the links between the causes of AR and the consequences of strategies to address its challenge.

Livestock keepers' reasons for doing and not doing things which governments, vets and scientists would like them to do

Farmers are rational. They do what makes sense to them in the particular circumstances of their farm, family and business. The challenge for those who want to influence farmers' behaviour - policy makers, veterinarians, public health professionals - is to understand their rationality, to gain some insight into how they see the world and the various options it offers to them. This study explores some of the reasons that emerge from recent research on why their decisions are not always the ones that other people expect or want them to take. These include differences in values, motivations, social influences and behavioural types. Also relevant is how farmers view the sources from which advice and information are seen to come: some advice is rejected simply because a farmer does not see the person or organization as a trustworthy source. It is now widely accepted that farmers' motivations for continuing what they are doing, and for changing what they are doing, are not simply economic or financial. Their decisions cannot be predicted on the basis of simplistic notions of 'economic rationality'. While costs and returns are clearly important in weighing up choices (and farm management economics has given us several useful tools and methodologies for analysing these), farmers operate within a social context that both constrains and facilitates their behavioural choices. They have complex sets of core values, just like anyone else, which will make some choices more attractive than others that are potentially more rewarding financially. It is therefore appropriate to look to the wider family of social sciences beyond economics, including sociology, psychology and social psychology, to help us understand more fully the factors that inform and influence farm-level decisions. And this improved understanding should make us better at designing policy and advisory interventions that will benefit farmers and society.

Pig producer perspectives on the use of meat inspection as an animal health and welfare diagnostic tool in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland

BACKGROUND

Currently, there is growing interest in developing ante and post mortem meat inspection (MI) to incorporate measures of pig health and welfare for use as a diagnostic tool on pig farms. However, the success of the development of the MI process requires stakeholder engagement with the process. Knowledge gaps and issues of trust can undermine the effective exchange and utilisation of information across the supply chain. A social science research methodology was employed to establish stakeholder perspectives towards the development of MI to include measures of pig health and welfare. In this paper the findings of semi-structured telephone interviews with 18 pig producers from the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland are presented.

RESULTS

Producers recognised the benefit of the utilisation of MI data as a health and welfare diagnostic tool. This acknowledgment, however, was undermined for some by dissatisfaction with the current system of MI information feedback, by trust and fairness concerns, and by concerns regarding the extent to which data would be used in the producers' interests. Tolerance of certain animal welfare issues may also have a negative impact on how producers viewed the potential of MI data. The private veterinary practitioner was viewed as playing a vital role in assisting them with the interpretation of MI data for herd health planning.

CONCLUSIONS

The development of positive relationships based on trust, commitment and satisfaction across the supply chain may help build a positive environment for the effective utilisation of MI data in improving pig health and welfare. The utilisation of MI as a diagnostic tool would benefit from the development of a communication strategy aimed at building positive relationships between stakeholders in the pig industry.

Differing perceptions - Swedish farmers' views of infectious disease control

Although farm biosecurity reduces the risk of disease spread among livestock, this knowledge is not always applied. Farmers' application of disease preventive measures is expected to depend on many things, e.g. whether they consider disease prevention possible and demographic factors. In this study, Swedish livestock farmers' perspectives on occurrence, control and communication related to infectious livestock diseases were investigated. A questionnaire study was performed in 2012-2013, and included responses from almost 2000 livestock farmers with cattle, pigs, sheep or goats. Associations between responses and factors related to herd type and demography were investigated using multivariable regression models. Results showed a strong general agreement among farmers that disease prevention is important. However, results also showed differing opinions among farmers. For example, female farmers indicated higher levels of perceived knowledge of disease spread and a stronger belief that they can prevent disease introduction. Results indicate that farmers who believe they have the necessary knowledge, have stronger sense of control and also demand that others take responsibility to prevent spread. Furthermore, dairy farmers were more likely to respond that repeated exposure to infections could be beneficial for animal health. The number of perceived disease outbreaks was also higher among these farmers. Regarding government issued compensation to farmers in case of outbreaks, a wide range of opinions were recorded. Responses confirm that the farm veterinarian is an important source of disease information and several different communication channels are needed to reach farmers. In conclusion, our results show that factors such as gender, education level and age influence how prevention and occurrence of disease outbreaks are perceived and best communicated. We suggest that efforts are made to increase knowledge about disease prevention among farmers and veterinary practitioners and that farm veterinarians should be encouraged to motivate farmers to strengthen farm biosecurity.