The anti-inflammatory drugs diclofenac, naproxen and ibuprofen are found in the bile of wild fish caught downstream of a wastewater treatment plant

Ibuprofen Degradation and Associated Bacterial Communities in Hyporheic Zone Sediments

Ibuprofen, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory pain reliever, is among pharmaceutical residues of environmental concern ubiquitously detected in wastewater effluents and receiving rivers. Thus, ibuprofen removal potentials and associated bacteria in the hyporheic zone sediments of an impacted river were investigated. Microbially mediated ibuprofen degradation was determined in oxic sediment microcosms amended with ibuprofen (5, 40, 200, and 400 µM), or ibuprofen and acetate, relative to an un-amended control. Ibuprofen was removed by the original sediment microbial community as well as in ibuprofen-enrichments obtained by re-feeding of ibuprofen. Here, 1-, 2-, 3-hydroxy- and carboxy-ibuprofen were the primary transformation products. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis revealed a significantly higher 16S rRNA abundance in ibuprofen-amended relative to un-amended incubations. Time-resolved microbial community dynamics evaluated by 16S rRNA gene and 16S rRNA analyses revealed many new ibuprofen responsive taxa of the Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Gemmatimonadetes, Latescibacteria, and Proteobacteria. Two ibuprofen-degrading strains belonging to the genera Novosphingobium and Pseudomonas were isolated from the ibuprofen-enriched sediments, consuming 400 and 300 µM ibuprofen within three and eight days, respectively. The collective results indicated that the hyporheic zone sediments sustain an efficient biotic (micro-)pollutant degradation potential, and hitherto unknown microbial diversity associated with such (micro)pollutant removal.

Monitoring pharmaceuticals and personal care products in water and fish from the Gulf of Urabá, Colombia

Gulf of Urabá is considered a tourist zone of Antioquia Department attracts a large number of visitors to explore the aquatic ecosystem and beaches thus offering a large economic benefit. However, this region has been affected by various anthropogenic effects thus generating an environmental problematic that affect aquatic ecosystem. Over the years, several research has been evaluated pollutant such as pesticides, metals and physicochemical parameters, even our laboratory had found several toxic metals in fish from this same area. The presence of emerging pollutant in matrices such as seawater and fish from Gulf of Urabá have not been reported, and to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study. This work presents important aspects relating to sampling, monitoring and surveillance of seawater and several fish species caught in the area in order to determinate the content of emerging pollutant (triclosan, ibuprofen, diclofenac) using UPLC-QqQ/MS. In general, all three pharmaceuticals in different sampling sites were detected and total concentrations ranged from 0.10 to 1.54 μg/L in surface water. However, emerging pollutants content in fish muscle was not detected. In addition, a high variability in triclosan, ibuprofen and diclofenac concentrations according to the season of sampling was found. Regarding to seasonal variations, most emerging pollutant in the surface water had variation in levels both dry and wet season. Better removal was presented in the dry season, due to stronger irradiation and greater activity of microorganisms.

Ibuprofen as an emerging organic contaminant in environment, distribution and remediation

Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) are the one of sub-class under emerging organic contaminants (EOCs). Ibuprofen is the world's third most consumable drug. This drug enters into our water system through human pharmaceutical use. It attracts the attention of environmentalist on the basis of risk associated, presence and transformation in the environment. The detection and removal are the two key area where we need to focus. The concentration of such compounds in waterbodies detected through conventional and also by the advanced methods. This review we described the available technologies including chemical, physical and biological methods, etc used the for removal of Ibuprofen. The pure culture based method, mixed culture approach and activated sludge culture approach focused and pathway of degradation of ibuprofen was deciphered by using the various methods of structure determination. The various degradation methods used for Ibuprofen are discussed. The advanced methods coupled with physical, chemical, biological, chemical methods like ozonolysis, oxidation and adsorption, nanotechnology based methods, nanocatalysis and use of nonosensors to detect the presence of small amount in waterbodies can enhance the future degradation of this drug. It is necessary to develop the new detection methods to enhance the detection of such pollutants. With the developments in new detection methods based on GC-MS//MS, HPLC, LC/MS and nanotechnology based sensors makes easier detection of these compounds which can detect even very minute amount with great sensitivity and in less time. Also, the isolation and characterization of more potent microbial strains and nano-photocatalysis will significantly increase the future degradation of such harmful compounds from the environment.

Naproxen in the environment: its occurrence, toxicity to nontarget organisms and biodegradation

This article summarizes the current knowledge about the presence of naproxen in the environment, its toxicity to nontarget organisms and the microbial degradation of this drug. Currently, naproxen has been detected in all types of water, including drinking water and groundwater. The concentrations that have been observed ranged from ng/L to μg/L. These concentrations, although low, may have a negative effect of long-term exposure on nontarget organisms, especially when naproxen is mixed with other drugs. The biological decomposition of naproxen is performed by fungi, algae and bacteria, but the only well-described pathway for its complete degradation is the degradation of naproxen by Bacillus thuringiensis B1(2015b). The key intermediates that appear during the degradation of naproxen by this strain are O-desmethylnaproxen and salicylate. This latter is then cleaved by 1,2-salicylate dioxygenase or is hydroxylated to gentisate or catechol. These intermediates can be cleaved by the appropriate dioxygenases, and the resulting products are incorporated into the central metabolism. KEY POINTS: •High consumption of naproxen is reflected in its presence in the environment. •Prolonged exposure of nontargeted organisms to naproxen can cause adverse effects. •Naproxen biodegradation occurs mainly through desmethylnaproxen as a key intermediate.

Graphene-Oxide-Based Electrochemical Sensors for the Sensitive Detection of Pharmaceutical Drug Naproxen

Here we report on a selective and sensitive graphene-oxide-based electrochemical sensor for the detection of naproxen. The effects of doping and oxygen content of various graphene oxide (GO)-based nanomaterials on their respective electrochemical behaviors were investigated and rationalized. The synthesized GO and GO-based nanomaterials were characterized using a field-emission scanning electron microscope, while the associated amounts of the dopant heteroatoms and oxygen were quantified using x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The electrochemical behaviors of the GO, fluorine-doped graphene oxide (F-GO), boron-doped partially reduced graphene oxide (B-rGO), nitrogen-doped partially reduced graphene oxide (N-rGO), and thermally reduced graphene oxide (TrGO) were studied and compared via cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). It was found that GO exhibited the highest signal for the electrochemical detection of naproxen when compared with the other GO-based nanomaterials explored in the present study. This was primarily due to the presence of the additional oxygen content in the GO, which facilitated the catalytic oxidation of naproxen. The GO-based electrochemical sensor exhibited a wide linear range (10 µM–1 mM), a high sensitivity (0.60 µAµM⁻¹cm⁻²), high selectivity and a strong anti-interference capacity over potential interfering species that may exist in a biological system for the detection of naproxen. In addition, the proposed GO-based electrochemical sensor was tested using actual pharmaceutical naproxen tablets without pretreatments, further demonstrating excellent sensitivity and selectivity. Moreover, this study provided insights into the participatory catalytic roles of the oxygen functional groups of the GO-based nanomaterials toward the electrochemical oxidation and sensing of naproxen.

Occurrence, interactive effects and ecological risk of diclofenac in environmental compartments and biota - a review

Diclofenac, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug has turned into a contaminant of emerging concern; hence, it was included in the previous Watch List of the EU Water Framework Directive. This review paper aims to highlight the metabolism of diclofenac at different trophic levels, its occurrence, ecological risks, and interactive effects in the water cycle and biota over the past two decades. Increased exposure to diclofenac not only raises health concerns for vultures, aquatic organisms, and higher plants but also causes serious threats to mammals. The ubiquitous nature of diclofenac in surface water (river, lake canal, estuary, and sea) is compared with drinking water, groundwater, and wastewater effluent in the environment. This comprehensive survey from previous studies suggests the fate of diclofenac in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and may predict its persistence in the environment. This review offers evidence of fragmentary available data for the water environment, soil, sediment, and biota worldwide and supports the need for further data to address the risks associated with the presence of diclofenac in the environment. Finally, we suggest that the presence of diclofenac and its metabolites in the environment may represent a high risk because of their synergistic interactions with existing contaminants, leading to the development of drug-resistant strains and the formation of newly emerging pollutants.

Transcriptomic profiling of Hydra magnipapillata after exposure to naproxen

The extensive use in humans and animals of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) increases their possible impact on aquatic organisms. In the present study, we investigated acute toxicity, morphological responses, and potential physiological and metabolic impacts of naproxen exposure on Hydra magnipapillata. The median lethal concentrations (LC₅₀) of naproxen in H. magnipapillata were 51.999 mg/L, 44.935 mg/L, and 42.500 mg/L after exposure for 24, 48, and 72 h, respectively. Morphological observation of the exposed Hydra showed that 40 mg/L naproxen stimulated the contraction of body column and tentacles after 24 h. A KEGG pathway analysis of the genes differentially expressed in the Hydra after exposure to naproxen for 6, 24, or 48 h demonstrated various cellular and metabolic effects, including protein processing in the endoplasmic reticulum, Wnt signaling, and tryptophan metabolism. These results suggest that exposure to naproxen affects the genetic material, inflammatory processes, and metabolic processes of aquatic organisms.

Long-term exposure to the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) naproxen causes thyroid disruption in zebrafish at environmentally relevant concentrations

The presence of trace levels of pharmaceuticals is an emerging issue impacting the aquatic ecosystem. Naproxen (NPX) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that has been frequently detected in aquatic environments worldwide. Recently, concerns regarding endocrine disruption by NSAIDs have increased; however, their effects on the thyroid system have yet to be understood. In this study, zebrafish were utilized to evaluate the thyroid-disrupting effects of NPX. After a 60-day exposure to various concentrations of NPX (0.1, 1, 10 and 100 μg/L), the body length and weight of the zebrafish were significantly decreased. The decrease of cytochrome P450 gene expression and enzyme activity might inhibit the metabolism of NPX, which might result in the significant bioconcentration in zebrafish. Thyroid hormone (TH) analysis showed that both triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) levels were substantially decreased. Gene transcription expressions along the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis were also markedly affected. Significant downregulation of dio1, dio2, nis, nkx2.1, pax8, tg, tpo, trβ and ttr levels, along with the stimulation of the tshβ gene, were also observed in exposed fish compared to controls. Western blot analysis indicated that expression of the TTR protein was significantly decreased, which coincides with the results of the gene expression analysis. Collectively, our observations show that NPX increases the risk of bioconcentration and thyroid disruption in zebrafish. Given the continued increasing consumption and emission of pharmaceuticals, thyroid disruption should be considered when assessing the aquatic risk of long-term exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of pharmaceuticals.

Optimization of screening-level risk assessment and priority selection of emerging pollutants - The case of pharmaceuticals in European surface waters

Pharmaceuticals in surface waters have raised significant concern in recent years for their potential environmental effects. This study identified that at present a total of 477 substances (including 66 metabolites and transformation products) have been analyzed in European surface waters. Around 60% (284) of these compounds belonging to 16 different therapeutic groups were positively detected in one or more of 33 European countries. To conveniently and effectively prioritize potential high-risk compounds, an optimized method that considers the frequency of concentrations above predicted no effects levels was developed on the basis of the traditional method, and it was then used to identify and screen candidate priority pollutants in European surface waters. The results proved the feasibility and advantages of the optimized method. Pharmaceuticals detected in European surface waters were classified into 5 categories (high, moderate, endurable, negligible and safe) depending on their potential environmental effects and the distribution of pharmaceuticals. Circa 9% (45 out of 477) analyzed compounds showed a potential environmental risk to aquatic ecosystems. Among these 45 compounds, 12 compounds were indicated to have high environmental risk in aquatic environments, while 17 and 7 compounds showed moderate and small-scale environmental risks, respectively.

Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products Can Be Transformed by Anaerobic Microbiomes in the Environment and in Waste-Treatment Processes

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are emerging environmental contaminants that can be transformed by anaerobic microorganisms in anoxic environments. The present study examined 2 consortia, enriched under methanogenic and sulfate-rich conditions, that demethylate the phenylmethyl ether anti-inflammatory drug naproxen to 6-O-desmethylnaproxen. Both enriched consortia were also able to demethylate a range of phenylmethyl ether compounds of plant-based origin or used as PPCPs. Results from 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed that the 2 communities were very different despite sharing the same PPCP metabolism. In most cases, the demethylated metabolite was not further degraded but rather accumulated in the culture medium. For the expectorant guaifenesin, this resulted in a novel microbial metabolite. Furthermore, to our knowledge, this is the first report of methylparaben metabolism under methanogenic conditions. The wide range of phenylmethyl ether substrates that underwent O-demethylation in both methanogenic and sulfate-rich conditions suggests that there are potentially bioactive transformation products in the environment that have not yet been quantified. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:1585-1593. © 2019 SETAC.

Mechanisms and quantification of adsorption of three anti-inflammatory pharmaceuticals onto goethite with/without surface-bound organic acids

Nowadays non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are often detected in surface water and groundwater. In this study, effects of environmental factors, i.e., solution pH, ionic strength, temperature and surface-bound organic acids, on bonding of three typical NSAIDs (ketoprofen, naproxen and diclofenac) onto goethite were systematically investigated. Column chromatography, batch experiments, attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy and surface complexation modeling were used to probe the adsorption mechanisms. Bonding of three NSAIDs onto goethite was totally reversible, ionic strength-dependent and endothermic (adsorption enthalpy 2.86-9.75 kJ/mol). These evidences supported H-bonding mechanism, which was further explained by ATR-FTIR observation and a triple planes model. Surface-bound organic acids (phthalic acid, trimellitic acid and pyromellitic acid) by inner-sphere complexation with goethite were hard to be desorbed. Surface-bound phthalic acid increased the uptake of NSAIDs but surface-bound trimellitic acid and pyromellitic acid reduced their adsorption. The reason is that the adsorbed phthalic acid can result in a more hydrophobic surface while adsorbed trimellitic acid and pyromellitic acid increased the surface negative charge and polarity. Finally, adsorption of NSAIDs onto goethite with/without surface-bound organic acids was well described by a free energy model, in which contributions of interactions (e.g., H-bonding and van der Waals) were evaluated.

Enhanced removal of coumarin by a novel O3/SPC system: Kinetic and mechanism

A high-efficient, eco-friendly and applicable oxidant of percarbonate (SPC, Na₂CO₃·1.5H₂O₂) is applied as oxidant in ozonation (O₃) process. In this work, coumarin (COU) decomposition by O₃ and O₃/SPC was proposed in terms of diverse parameters, including ozone concentration, SPC dosage and pH, with regard to the pseudo-first-order kinetic model. About 96.5% of 25 mg L^-1 COU was removed by 209.3 mg L^-1 SPC and 2.08 mg L^-1 O₃ within 30 min, whereas 49.8% of COU was exhausted in O₃ system alone. High ozone concentration and pH could enhance COU removal, and overdose SPC has an inhibition effect as CO₃^2- could react with ·OH. Furtherly, the generation of hydroxyl radicals (OH) via a chain reaction in O₃ was ascertained based on indirect alcohols quenching tests and direct electron spin resonance (ESR) spin-trapping tests, though high initial SPC concentration led to no trapping of OH by 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO) in O₃/SPC. According to the concentration of dissolved ozone and prior study, a fast reaction kinetic model was estimated firstly for O₃/SPC system and well fitted with different condition. The hydroxylated intermediates of 7-hydroxylcoumarin and 6,7-hydroxylcoumarin were recognized and the degradation pathways were proposed. The findings of the study can broaden the research direction of SPC and provide a new application information for SPC in environmental pollution control.

Naproxen ecotoxicity and biodegradation by Bacillus thuringiensis B1(2015b) strain

High level of naproxen consumption leads to the appearance of this drug in the environment but its possible effects on non-target organisms together with its biodegradation are not well studied. The aim of this work was to evaluate naproxen ecotoxicity by using the Microbial Assay for Risk Assessment. Moreover, Bacillus thuringiensis B1(2015b) was tested for both ecotoxicity and the ability of this strain to degrade naproxen in cometabolic conditions. The results indicate that the mean value of microbial toxic concentration estimated by MARA test amounts to 1.66 g/L whereas EC₅₀ of naproxen for B1(2015b) strain was 4.69 g/L. At toxic concentration, Bacillus thuringiensis B1(2015b) showed 16:0 iso 3OH fatty acid presence and an increase in the ratio of total saturated to unsaturated fatty acids. High resistance of the examined strain to naproxen correlated with its ability to degrade this drug in cometabolic conditions. The results of bacterial reverse mutation assay (Ames test) revealed that naproxen at concentrations above 1 g/L showed genotoxic effect but the response was not dose-dependent. Maximal specific naproxen removal rate was observed at pH 6.5 and 30 °C, and in the presence of 0.5 g/L glucose as a growth substrate. Kinetic analysis allowed estimation of the half saturation constant (K_s) and the maximum specific naproxen removal rate (q_max) as 6.86 mg/L and 1.26 mg/L day, respectively. These results indicate that Bacillus thuringiensis B1(2015b) has a high ability to degrade naproxen and is a potential tool for bioremediation.

Effects of chronic exposure to benzophenone and diclofenac on DNA methylation levels and reproductive success in a marine copepod

The UV-filter benzophenone and the anti-inflammatory diclofenac are commonly detected in the environment. The aim of this study was to assess the multigenerational effects of chronic exposure to low concentrations of these chemicals on toxicity and DNA methylation levels in the copepod Gladioferens pectinatus. Acute toxicity tests were conducted to determine the sensitivity of G. pectinatus to the chemicals. All chemicals impacted breeding, hatching and egg viability. Diclofenac (1 mg.L^-1) reduced the number of eggs per gravid female. Benzophenone (0.5 mg.L^-1) decreased egg hatching success. Exposure to the reference toxicant copper (0.02 mg.L^-1) led to unsuccessful hatching. Effects on DNA methylation was estimated by the percentage of 5- methylcytosine. The treatments resulted in strong differences in DNA methylation with increased methylation in the exposed animals. The two chemicals impacted both egg viability and the induction of differential DNA methylation, suggesting potential intra- and trans-generational evolutionary effects.

Comparative study of the toxicity between three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and their UV/Na2S2O8 degradation products on Cyprinus carpio

The efficiency of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for disposing of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) has been widely studied, but the environmental fates and effects of the NSAIDs and their degradation products (DPs) are poorly understood. In this study, the efficiency of ultraviolet light/Na₂S₂O₈ (UV/PS) in degrading three NSAIDs—diclofenac, naproxen, and ibuprofen—and the toxicity of their DPs on Cyprinus carpio (C. carpio) was investigated. Results showed that the three NSAIDs can be completely removed (removal rate > 99.9%) by UV/PS, while the mineralization rate of the NSAIDs was only 28%. When C. carpio were exposed to 0.1 μM NSAIDs, 10 μM persulfate (PS), and 0.1 μM DPs of the NSAIDs for 96 h, respectively, the toxicity effects are as the NSAID DPs > PS > NSAIDs. Research results into the time-dependent effect of NSAID DPs on C. carpio demonstrated that obvious toxicity effects were observed in the first 48 hours, and the toxicity effects strengthened over time. NSAID DPs may have more severe toxicity effects than NSAIDs on C. carpio; therefore, the operating conditions of UV/PS must be optimized to eliminate the ecotoxicity of DPs.

Naproxen Is Transformed Via Acetogenesis and Syntrophic Acetate Oxidation by a Methanogenic Wastewater Consortium

Over-the-counter pharmaceutical compounds can serve as microbial substrates in wastewater treatment processes as well as in the environment. The metabolic pathways and intermediates produced during their degradation, however, are poorly understood. In this study, we investigate an anaerobic wastewater community that metabolizes naproxen via demethylation. Enriched cultures, established from anaerobic digester inocula receiving naproxen as the sole carbon source, transformed naproxen to 6-O-desmethylnaproxen (DMN) within 22 days. Continual enrichment and culture transfer resulted in consistent demethylation of naproxen with no loss of DMN observed. Methane was generated at 0.83 mmol per 1 mmol transformed naproxen. In addition to naproxen, the consortium readily demethylated syringic acid and vanillic acid. DNA analysis revealed a community of acetogenic bacteria and syntrophic acetate oxidizing archaea. Combined with the biotransformation data, this suggests the enriched consortium performs aromatic O-demethylation through a syntrophic relationship between specific acetogens, acetate oxidizers, and methanogens. The proposed model of carbon transfer through the anaerobic food web highlights the significance of linked community interactions in the anaerobic transformation of aromatic O-methyl compounds such as naproxen.

Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry detection of diclofenac and related compounds in water samples

A frequently studied environmental contaminant is the active substance diclofenac, which is removed insufficiently in sewage treatment plants. Since its inclusion in the watch list of the EU Water Framework Directive, the concentrations in surface waters will be determined throughout Europe. For this, still, more precise analytical methods are needed. As a reference, HPLC-MS is frequently employed. One of the major metabolites is 4'-hydroxydiclofenac (4'-OH-DCF). Also, diclofenac lactam is important for assessing degradation and transformation. Aceclofenac (ACF), the glycolic acid ester of diclofenac is used as a drug, too, and could potentially be cleaved to yield diclofenac again. In various sewage treatment plant influent samples, diclofenac, 4'-OH-DCF, DCF lactam and ACF could be determined with detection limits of 3 μg/L, 0.2 μg/L, 0.17 μg/L and 10 ng/L, respectively.

Diclofenac exposure alter the expression of PXR and its downstream target genes in mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis)

As one of widely used drugs, Diclofenac (DCF) recently has been universally detected in aquatic environment and some negative effects derived from DCF exposure to mammals have been also reported. However, studies about its potential deleterious effects on non-target organisms like fish still require more investigation. In this study an ubiquitous small freshwater invader species in Southern of China, mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis), was employed as test organism. We firstly cloned the crucial partial sequences of nucleus transcriptional factor related genes pregnane X receptor (PXR) and its downstream genes, including P-glycoprotein (P-gp), cytochrome 3A (CYP3A), multidrug resistance protein 2 (MRP2), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and thioredoxin reductase (TXR) in mosquito fish. The phylogenetic trees of PXR, CYP3A and MRP2 were constructed based on their deduced amino acids sequences, respectively. Phylogenetic trees and blast results showed a high similarity between G. affinis and other killifish species, such as Xiphophorus maculatus. The transcriptional expression of these genes mentioned above and partly related enzymes/proteins activities were then measured under the exposure of environmentally relevant concentrations of DCF (from 0.5μgL^-1 to 500μgL^-1) for 24h and 168h. Results showed that the mRNA expression of PXR, CYP3A, P-gp and TXR showed dramatic induction under DCF exposure, exhibiting an obvious time-effect relationship with the extend of exposure time. In terms of enzyme activity and protein content, no dramatic changes as in transcription were observed. Western blotting showed PXR protein increased at 24h but decreased at 168h with the increasing of DCF concentration, displaying a dose-effect relationship to some extent. GPX activity was continuously induced both at 24h and 168h, exhibiting a good consistency with the performance of GPX gene. GSSH/T-GSH increased in all treatments. Overall, DCF had traceable effects on the expression of PXR and its downstream target genes in mosquito fish.

Effects of dissolved organic matter, feeding, and water flow on the bioconcentration of diclofenac in crucian carp (Carassius auratus)

Diclofenac (DCF), a prevalent anti-inflammatory drug, is frequently detected in aquatic organisms. However, little is known about the environmental factors that affect the bioconcentration of DCF in aquatic environments. Here, we firstly investigated the bioconcentration of DCF by crucian carp (Carassius auratus) following aqueous exposure (3.57, 14.5, and 71.8 μg L^-1) for 21 days. DCF can accumulate in crucian carp, and the maximum bioconcentration factors (BCFs) of 121 L kg^-1 in the liver, 52.3 L kg^-1 in the gills, and 46.8 L kg^-1 in the muscle were always found at 3.57 μg L^-1 after 14 days of exposure. Secondly, the influences of dissolved organic matter (DOM), feeding, and water flow on the bioconcentration of DCF were determined at the nominal concentration of 4 μg L^-1 for 14 days. The BCFs of DCF in various fish tissues decreased by 0.5-85% with the increasing DOM concentrations. Feeding also led to lower body burden of DCF in fish tissues (6-55%) with the increasing food amount. In hydrodynamic experiment, the BCFs of DCF decreased by15-57% at most in various fish tissues. Collectively, our results demonstrated the bioconcentration of DCF in fish can be influenced by various environmental factors, which should be considered in the risk assessment of pharmaceuticals.

Hydrophobic networked PbO2 electrode for electrochemical oxidation of paracetamol drug and degradation mechanism kinetics

A hydrophobic networked PbO₂ electrode was deposited on mesh titanium substrate and utilized for the electrochemical elimination towards paracetamol drug. Three dimensional growth mechanism of PbO₂ layer provided more loading capacity of active materials and network structure greatly reduced the mass transfer for the electrochemical degradation. The active electrochemical surface area based on voltammetric charge quantity of networked PbO₂ electrode is about 2.1 times for traditional PbO₂ electrode while lower charge transfer resistance (6.78 Ω cm²) could be achieved on networked PbO₂ electrode. The electrochemical incineration kinetics of paracetamol drug followed a pseudo first-order behavior and the corresponding rate constant were 0.354, 0.658 and 0.880 h^-1 for traditional, networked PbO₂ and boron doped diamond electrode. Higher electrochemical elimination kinetics could be achieved on networked PbO₂ electrode and the performance can be equal to boron doped diamond electrode in result. Based on the quantification of reactive oxidants (hydroxyl radicals), the utilization rate of hydroxyl radicals could reach as high as 90% on networked PbO₂ electrode. The enhancement of excellent electrochemical oxidation capacity towards paracetamol drug was related to the properties of higher loading capacity, enhanced mass transfer and hydrophobic surface. The possible degradation mechanism and pathway of paracetamol on networked PbO₂ electrode were proposed in details accordingly based on the intermediate products.

Presence of active pharmaceutical ingredients in the continuum of surface and ground water used in drinking water production

Anthropogenic chemicals in surface water and groundwater cause concern especially when the water is used in drinking water production. Due to their continuous release or spill-over at waste water treatment plants, active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are constantly present in aquatic environment and despite their low concentrations, APIs can still cause effects on the organisms. In the present study, Chemcatcher passive sampling was applied in surface water, surface water intake site, and groundwater observation wells to estimate whether the selected APIs are able to end up in drinking water supply through an artificial groundwater recharge system. The API concentrations measured in conventional wastewater, surface water, and groundwater grab samples were assessed with the results obtained with passive samplers. Out of the 25 APIs studied with passive sampling, four were observed in groundwater and 21 in surface water. This suggests that many anthropogenic APIs released to waste water proceed downstream and can be detectable in groundwater recharge. Chemcatcher passive samplers have previously been used in monitoring several harmful chemicals in surface and wastewaters, but the path of chemicals to groundwater has not been studied. This study provides novel information on the suitability of the Chemcatcher passive samplers for detecting APIs in groundwater wells.

Vulnerability of marsh frog Pelophylax ridibundus to the typical wastewater effluents ibuprofen, triclosan and estrone, detected by multi-biomarker approach

Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) are the environmental pollutants of growing concern. The aim of this study was to indicate the effects of typical PPCPs on the marsh frog Pelophylax ridibundus. We treated male frogs with waterborne ibuprofen (IBU, 250ng·L^-1), triclosan (TCS, 500ng·L^-1), or estrone (E1, 100ng·L^-1) for 14days. Common vulnerability of the frogs was detected from dramatic decrease of Zn, total and metalated metallothionein (MT) concentrations, Zn/Cu ratio, the elevation of activity of glutathione-S-transferase, cathepsin D and DNA instability in the liver, the depletion of cholinesterase in the brain and cortisol in the blood plasma in all exposures. Nevertheless, lipofuscin concentration in the liver was always decreased. The groups were best distinguished by cytochrome P450 (CYP450) activity determined by ELISA. The exposure to IBU caused lesser damage, but elevated the levels of oxyradicals and glutathione (GSH and GSSG) and lysosomal membrane instability. Exposures to TCS and E1 provoked the endocrine disturbance (increased levels of vitellogenin and thyrotropin in blood plasma), decreased lactate dehydrogenase activity and increased level of pyruvate in the liver. TCS caused the increase of GSSG by 7.3 times and lactate levels. Only E1 lead to decrease of deiodinase activity in the liver, activation of CYP450 and caspase-3 and efflux of cathepsin D from lysosomes. Spectrophotometric and ELISA assays of MTs and CYP450 gave distinct results in E1-group. Broad disruption of the hormonal pathways caused by E1 could be of concern for the health status of frogs in their habitats.

Eco-pharmacovigilance of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: Necessity and opportunities

Eco-pharmacovigilance (EPV) is a practical and powerful approach to minimize the potential risks posed by pharmaceutical residues in environment. However, it is impracticable to practise rigorous and unitary EPV process for all the existing and new pharmaceuticals. Here, we focused on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and discussed the necessity and potential opportunities of practising EPV of NSAIDs. We found that the consumption of NSAIDs is huge and ubiquitous across the globe. NSAIDs were worldwidely reported as one of the most dominant and frequently detected groups in environmental matrices including wastewater, surface water, suspended solids, sediments, groundwater, even drinking water. Besides, there is definitive evidence for the adverse impacts of NSAID residues on scavenging birds and aquatic species. These data suggested the necessity of implementing EPV of NSAIDs. From the perspective of drug administration, we identified some things that can be done as management practice options for EPV implementation on NSAIDs.

Inhibition of immune responses and related proteins in Rhamdia quelen exposed to diclofenac

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are among the most widely detected pharmaceuticals in surface water worldwide. The nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac is used to treat many types of pain and inflammation. Diclofenac's potential to cause adverse effects in exposed wildlife is a growing concern. To evaluate the effects of waterborne diclofenac on the immune response in Rhamdia quelen (South American catfish), fish were exposed to 3 concentrations of diclofenac (0.2, 2.0, and 20.0 μg/L) for 14 d. Some of the exposed fish were also given an intraperitoneal injection on day 14 of 1 mg/kg of carrageenan to evaluate cell migration to the peritoneum. Total blood leukocyte count and carrageenan-induced leukocyte migration to the peritoneal cavity, particularly of polymorphonuclear cells, were significantly affected for all diclofenac exposure groups. Nitric oxide production was significantly reduced in the diclofenac-treated fish. Plasma and kidney proteins were analyzed by means of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in a shotgun proteomic approach. In both plasma and kidney of diclofenac-exposed R. quelen, the expression of 20 proteins related to the inflammatory process, nitric oxide production, leukocyte migration, and the complement cascade was significantly altered. In addition, class I major histocompatibility complex was significantly decreased in plasma of diclofenac-treated fish. Thus, waterborne exposure to diclofenac could lead to suppression of the innate immune system in R. quelen. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:2092-2107. © 2017 SETAC.

Effects of diclofenac on the expression of Nrf2 and its downstream target genes in mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis)

Diclofenac (DCF) is one of widely used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Recently, this drug has been universally detected in aquatic environment. However, its potential adverse effects and oxidative stress toxic mechanisms on fish remain unclear. In the present study, we first cloned the crucial partial sequences of some key oxidative stress related genes, which include NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), NAD(P)H: quinoneoxidoreductase (NQO1), glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC), Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD2), catalase (CAT), alpha-glutathione S-transferase (GSTA), and UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT) in mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis). We also deduced amino acids of Nrf2 and then constructed the phylogenetic trees of Nrf2, NQO1 and GCLC, respectively. Results showed that a high identity percentage was founded between G. affinis and other bony fish species, such as Xiphophorus maculates and Poecilia reticulate. The transcriptional expression of these genes and partly related enzymes activities were then investigated under the included environmental relevant concentration DCF exposure (0μmolL^-1, 1.572×10^-3μmolL^-1, 1.572×10^-2μmolL^-1, 0.1572μmolL^-1 and 1.572μmolL^-1) for 24h and 168h. The expression of Nrf2 was inhibited at 24h but induced at 168h, exhibiting a significant time and/or dose-effect relationship under DCF exposure. Similar observation was found in its downstream target genes. However, Nrf2-mediated antioxidant enzymes activities displayed differently under the same concentration of DCF exposure for the same time. Under DCF exposure for 168h, the genes exhibited dramatic induction trend, but there were no significant changes in enzyme activities and MDA content. Overall, mRNA responses were more sensitive than enzyme changes in mosquito fish under DCF exposure.

Impact of selected non-steroidal anti-inflammatory pharmaceuticals on microbial community assembly and activity in sequencing batch reactors

This study covers three widely detected non-steroidal anti-inflammatory pharmaceuticals (NSAIDs), diclofenac (DCF), ibuprofen (IBP) and naproxen (NPX), as NSAIDs pollutants. The objective is to evaluate the impact of NSAIDs at their environmental concentrations on microbial community assembly and activity. The exposure experiments were conducted under three conditions (5 μg L^-1 DCF, 5 μg L^-1 DCF+5 μg L^-1 IBP and 5 μg L^-1 DCF+5 μg L^-1 IBP+ 5 μg L^-1 NPX) in sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) for 130 days. Removals of COD and NH₄⁺-N were not affected but total nitrogen (TN) removal decreased. IBP and NPX had the high removal efficiencies (79.96% to 85.64%), whereas DCF was more persistent (57.24% to 64.12%). In addition, the decreased removals of TN remained the same under the three conditions (p > 0.05). The results of oxidizing enzyme activities, live cell percentages and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) indicated that NSAIDs damaged the cell walls or microorganisms and the mixtures of the three NSAIDs increased the toxicity. The increased Shannon-Wiener diversity index suggested that bacterial diversity was increased with the addition of selected NSAIDs. Bacterial ribosomal RNA small subunit (16S) gene sequencing results indicated that Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes were enriched, while Micropruina and Nakamurella decreased with the addition of NSAIDs. The enrichment of Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes indicated that both of them might have the ability to degrade NSAIDs and thereby could adapt well with the presence of NSAIDs.

Occurrence and behaviour of pharmaceutical compounds in a Portuguese wastewater treatment plant: Removal efficiency through conventional treatment processes

Wastewater treatments can eliminate or remove a substantial amount of pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs), but there may still be significant concentrations of them in effluents discharged into surface water bodies. Beirolas wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is located in the Lisbon area and makes its effluent discharges into Tagus estuary (Portugal). The main objective of this study is to quantify a group of 32 PhACs in the different treatments used in this WWTP. Twelve sampling campaigns of wastewater belonging to the different treatments were made in 2013-2014 in order to study their removal efficiency. The wastewaters were analysed by solid phase extraction (SPE) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass detection (UPLC-MS/MS). The anti-diabetics were the most frequently found in wastewater influent (WWI) and wastewater effluent (WWE) (208 and 1.7 μg/L, respectively), followed by analgesics/antipyretics (135 μg/L and < LOQ, respectively), psychostimulants (113 and 0.49 μg/L, respectively), non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (33 and 2.6 μg/L, respectively), antibiotics (5.2 and 1.8 μg/L, respectively), antilipidemics (1.6 and 0.24 μg/L, respectively), anticonvulsants (1.5 and 0.63 μg/L, respectively) and beta blockers (1.3 and 0.51 μg/L, respectively). A snapshot of the ability of each treatment step to remove these target PhACs is provided, and it was found that global efficiency is strongly dependent on the efficiency of secondary treatment. Seasonal occurrence and removal efficiency was also monitored, and they did not show a significant seasonal trend.

Environmental photochemistry of fenamate NSAIDs and their radical intermediates

Fenamates are a class of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that are not fully removed during wastewater treatment and can be released to surface waters. Here, near-surface photochemical half-lives were evaluated to range from minutes to hours of four fenamates and the closely related diclofenac. While quantum yields for direct photochemical reactions at the water surface vary widely from 0.071 for diclofenac to <0.001 for mefenamic acid, all fenamates showed significant reactivity towards singlet oxygen and hydroxyl radical with bimolecular reaction rate constants of 1.3-2.8 × 10⁷ M^-1 s^-1 and 1.1-2.7 × 10¹⁰ M^-1 s^-1, respectively. Photodecay rates increased in the presence of dissolved organic matter (DOM) for diclofenac (+19%), tolfenamic acid (+9%), and mefenamic acid (+95%), but decreased for flufenamic acid (-2%) and meclofenamic acid (-14%) after accounting for light screening effects. Fast reaction rate constants of all NSAIDs with model triplet sensitizers were quantified by laser flash photolysis. Here, the direct observation of diphenylamine radical intermediates by transient absorption spectroscopy demonstrates one-electron oxidation of all fenamates. Quenching rate constants of these radical intermediates by ascorbic acid, a model antioxidant, were also quantified. These observations suggest that the balance of oxidation by photoexcited triplet DOM and quenching of the formed radical intermediates by antioxidant moieties determines whether net sensitization or net quenching by DOM occurs in the photochemical degradation of fenamates.

Enhanced electrochemical degradation of ibuprofen in aqueous solution by PtRu alloy catalyst

Electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs) regarded as a green technology for aqueous ibuprofen treatment was investigated in this study. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), Pt nanoparticles (Pt NPs), and PtRu alloy, of which physicochemical properties were characterized by XRD and X-ray absorption spectroscopy, were used to synthesize three types of cheap and effective anodes based on commercial conductive glass. Furthermore, the operating parameters, such as the current densities, initial concentrations, and solution pH were also investigated. The intermediates determined by a UPLC-Q-TOF/MS system were used to evaluate the possible reaction pathway of ibuprofen (IBU). The results revealed that the usage of MWCNTs and PtRu alloy can effectively reduce the grain size of electrocatalysts and increase the surface activity from the XRD and XANES analysis. The results of CV analysis, degradation and mineralization efficiencies revealed that the EAOPs with PtRu-FTO anode were very effective due to advantages of the higher capacitance, CO tolerance, catalytic ability at less positive voltage and stability. The concentration trend of intermediates indicated that the potential cytotoxic to human caused by 1-(1-hydroxyenthyl)-4-isobutylbenzene was completely eliminated as the reaction time reaches 60 min. Therefore, EAOPs combined with synthesized anodes can be feasibly applied on the electrochemical degradation of ibuprofen.

Uptake and Disposition of Select Pharmaceuticals by Bluegill Exposed at Constant Concentrations in a Flow-Through Aquatic Exposure System

The increasing use of pharmaceuticals has led to their subsequent input into and release from wastewater treatment plants, with corresponding discharge into surface waters that may subsequently exert adverse effects upon aquatic organisms. Although the distribution of pharmaceuticals in surface water has been extensively studied, the details of uptake, internal distribution, and kinetic processing of pharmaceuticals in exposed fish have received less attention. For this research, we investigated the uptake, disposition, and toxicokinetics of five pharmaceuticals (diclofenac, methocarbamol, rosuvastatin, sulfamethoxazole, and temazepam) in bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations (1000-4000 ng L^-1) in a flow-through exposure system. Temazepam and methocarbamol were consistently detected in bluegill biological samples with the highest concentrations in bile of 4, 940, and 180 ng g^-1, respectively, while sulfamethoxazole, diclofenac, and rosuvastatin were only infrequently detected. Over 30-day exposures, the relative magnitude of mean concentrations of temazepam and methocarbamol in biological samples generally followed the order: bile ≫ gut > liver and brain > muscle, plasma, and gill. Ranges of bioconcentration factors (BCFs) in different biological samples were 0.71-3960 and 0.13-48.6 for temazepam and methocarbamol, respectively. Log BCFs were statistically positively correlated to pH adjusted log K_ow (that is, log D_ow), with the strongest relations for liver and brain (r² = 0.92 and 0.99, respectively), implying that bioconcentration patterns of ionizable pharmaceuticals depend on molecular status, that is, whether a pharmaceutical is un-ionized or ionized at ambient tissue pH. Methocarbamol and temazepam underwent rapid uptake and elimination in bluegill biological compartments with uptake rate constants (K_u) and elimination rate constants (K_e) at 0.0066-0.0330 h^-1 and 0.0075-0.0384 h^-1, respectively, and half-lives at 18.1-92.4 h. Exposure to mixtures of diclofenac, methocarbamol, sulfamethoxazole, and temazepam had little or no influence on the uptake and elimination rates, suggesting independent multiple uptake and disposition behaviors of pharmaceuticals by fish would occur when exposed to effluent-influenced surface waters.

Method for quantifying NSAIDs and clofibric acid in aqueous samples, lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus) roe, and zebrafish (Danio rerio) eleutheroembryos and evaluation of their bioconcentration in zebrafish eleutheroembryos

Pharmaceuticals such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and lipid regulators are being repeatedly detected at low concentrations (pg · mL^-1-ng · mL^-1) in the environment. A large fraction of these compounds are ionizable. Ionized compounds show different physico-chemical properties and environmental behavior in comparison to their neutral analogs; as a consequence, the quantification methods currently available, based on the neutral molecules, might not be suitable to detect the corresponding ionized compounds. To overcome this problem, we developed a specific analytical method to quantify NSAIDs and lipid regulators (i.e., ibuprofen, diclofenac, naproxen, and clofibric acid) and their ionized compounds. This method is based on three steps: (1) the extraction of the organic compounds with an organic solvent assisted with an ultrasonic probe, (2) the cleaning of the extracts with a dispersive SPE with C₁₈, and (3) the determination of the chemical compounds by GC-MS (prior derivatization of the analytes). We demonstrated that the proposed method can successfully quantify the pharmaceuticals and their ionized compounds in aqueous samples, lumpfish eggs, and zebrafish eleutheroembryos. Additionally, it allows the extraction and the cleanup of extracts from small samples (0.010 g of wet weight in pools of 20 larvae) and complex matrixes (due to high lipid content) and can be used as a basis for bioaccumulation assays performed with zebrafish eleutheroembryos in alternative to OECD test 305.

Toxicity and biodegradation of ibuprofen by Bacillus thuringiensis B1(2015b)

In recent years, the increased intake of ibuprofen has resulted in the presence of the drug in the environment. This work presents results of a study on degradation of ibuprofen at 25 mg L^-1 in the presence of glucose, as an additional carbon source by Bacillus thuringiensis B1(2015b). In the cometabolic system, the maximum specific growth rate of the bacterial strain was 0.07 ± 0.01 mg mL^-1 h^-1 and K _sμ 0.27 ± 0.15 mg L^-1. The maximum specific ibuprofen removal rate and the value of the half-saturation constant were q _max = 0.24 ± 0.02 mg mL^-1 h^-1 and K _s = 2.12 ± 0.56 mg L^-1, respectively. It has been suggested that monooxygenase and catechol 1,2-dioxygenase are involved in ibuprofen degradation by B. thuringiensis B1(2015b). Toxicity studies showed that B. thuringiensis B1(2015b) is more resistant to ibuprofen than other tested organisms. The EC50 of ibuprofen on the B1 strain is 809.3 mg L^-1, and it is 1.5 times higher than the value of the microbial toxic concentration (MTC_avg). The obtained results indicate that B. thuringiensis B1(2015b) could be a useful tool in biodegradation/bioremediation processes.

Occurrence and risk assessment of antibiotics in surface water and groundwater from different depths of aquifers: A case study at Jianghan Plain, central China

The occurrence of 14 antibiotics (fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines, macrolides and sulfonamides) in groundwater and surface water at Jianghan Plain was investigated during three seasons. The total concentrations of target compounds in the water samples were higher in spring than those in summer and winter. Erythromycin was the predominant antibiotic in surface water samples with an average value of 1.60μg/L, 0.772μg/L and 0.546μg/L respectively in spring, summer and winter. In groundwater samples, fluoroquinolones and tetracyclines accounted for the dominant proportion of total antibiotic residues. The vertical distributions of total antibiotics in groundwater samples from three different depths boreholes (10m, 25m, and 50m) exhibited irregular fluctuations. Consistently decreasing of antibiotic residues with increasing of depth was observed in four (G01, G02, G03 and G05) groundwater sampling sites over three seasons. However, at the sampling sites G07 and G08, the pronounced high concentrations of total antibiotic residues were detected in water samples from 50m deep boreholes instead of those at upper aquifer in winter sampling campaign, with the total concentrations of 0.201μg/L and 0.100μg/L respectively. The environmental risks posed by the 14 antibiotics were assessed by using the methods of risk quotient and mixture risk quotient for algae, daphnids and fish in surface water and groundwater. The results suggested that algae might be the aquatic organism most sensitive to the antibiotics, with the highest risk levels posed by erythromycin in surface water and by ciprofloxacin in groundwater among the 14 antibiotics. In addition, the comparison between detected antibiotics in groundwater samples and the reported effective concentrations of antibiotics on denitrification by denitrifying bacteria, indicating this biogeochemical process driven by microorganisms won't be inhibitory influenced by the antibiotic residues in groundwater.

Transport of sulfacetamide and levofloxacin in granular porous media under various conditions: Experimental observations and model simulations

Understanding the fate and transport of antibiotics in porous media can help reduce their contamination risks to soil and groundwater systems. In this work, batch and column experiments were conducted to determine the interactions between two representative antibiotics, sulfacetamide (SA) and levofloxacin (LEV), and sand porous media under various solution pH, humic acid (HA) concentration, grain size, and moisture content conditions. Batch sorption experimental results indicated that the sand had relatively strong bonding affinity to LEV, but little sorption of SA under different pH, HA concentration, grain size conditions. Results from the packed sand column experiments showed that SA had extremely high mobility in the porous media for all combinations of pH, HA concentration, grain size, and moisture content. The mass recovery of SA was higher than 98.5% in all the columns with the exception of the one packed with fine sand (97.2%). The retention of LEV in the columns was much higher and the recovery rates ranged from 0% to 71.1%. Decreases in solution pH, HA concentration, grain size, or moisture content reduced the mobility of LEV in the columns under the tested conditions. These results indicated that type of antibiotics and environmental conditions also played an important role in controlling their fate and transport in porous media. Mathematical models were applied to simulate and interpret experimental data, and model simulations described the interactions between the two antibiotics and sand porous media very well. Findings from this study elucidated the key factors and processes controlling the fate of SA and LEV in porous media, which can inform the prediction and assessment of the environmental risks of antibiotics.

Bioconcentration, metabolism, and biomarker responses in marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) exposed to sulfamethazine

The antibiotic sulfamethazine (SM₂) is commonly used in agriculture and livestock for its broad-spectrum antibacterial properties. Due to its widespread application, SM₂ is frequently detected in surface water and sediments. The objective of this study was to investigate the bioconcentration, distribution and biomarker responses of SM₂ and its main metabolite, acetylated sulfamethazine (N-SM₂) in medaka (Oryzias melastigma). Two treated groups of medaka were exposed to concentrations of 40μg/L and 200μg/L of SM₂ for 24h to simulate the habitual use of those antibiotics in aquiculture activities. SM₂ and its main metabolite, N-SM₂, were measured in several tissues during the 24h uptake period by UPLC/MS/MS. The bile exhibited the highest SM₂ concentration followed by the liver, gonad, gills, and muscle and the bioconcenration factor (BCF) was 10.69-42.95 in female fish and 2.78-145.36 in male fish. N-SM₂ showed a different distribution pattern from the parent compound, accumulating mainly in the gonad, and its BCF was much higher in the male group. Gender-related differences were also observed in the bioconcentration, transform rate and biomarkers of SM₂. Biomarkers (SOD, CAT) in the liver changed significantly after 2, 12, and 24h of exposure (P<0.05), and presented a double-peak phenomenon. These results indicated that SM₂ can be absorbed and metabolized through multiple routes by fish in a short time. Interactions between biological systems and SM₂ or its metabolites may induce biochemical disturbances in fish.

Drugs of environmental concern modify Solea senegalensis physiology and biochemistry in a temperature-dependent manner

The alerted presence in recent decades of pharmaceuticals has become an issue of environmental concern, and most of the mechanisms of biotransformation and biochemical and physiological responses to them in fish are still unknown, as well as the influence of water temperature in their ability to cope with them. This study aims to detect the main effects of two of the most widespread drugs on a set of physiological and biochemical markers in Solea senegalensis. Sole juveniles acclimatized at 15 and 20 °C were administered an intraperitoneal injection of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug ibuprofen (IB; 10 mg/kg) and the anti-convulsant drug carbamazepine (CBZ; 1 mg/kg). Two days after the injection, liver, muscle and plasma were sampled. Liver enzymatic activities of 15 °C acclimated fish were more responsive to pharmaceuticals than those acclimated at 20 °C, especially for CYP450-related activities (7-ethoxyresorufin (EROD), 7-methoxyresorufin (MROD), 3-cyano-7-ethoxycoumarin (CECOD) and 7-benzyloxy-4-[trifluoromethyl]-coumarin-O-debenzyloxylase (BFCOD)) and uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase (UDPGT). Cytosolic anti-oxidant enzyme activities and glutathione S-transferase (GST) did not show a clear effect of temperature. Glucose and transferase activities in plasma were not affected by the treatments, while ammonium, osmolality and lactate were affected by both pharmaceuticals. Plasma triglycerides were affected in a temperature-dependent manner, and creatinine was only responsive to CBZ injection. HSP70 levels in muscle were only affected by CBZ injection. Some of the physiological identified responses to IB and CBZ are proposed as endpoints in further chronic studies.

Synthesis of magnetically separable Bi2O4/Fe3O4 hybrid nanocomposites with enhanced photocatalytic removal of ibuprofen under visible light irradiation

Ibuprofen (IBU) is one of the representative persistent organic pollutants (POPs) which can cause severe adverse effects in humans and wildlife. Therefore, effectively removing IBU from water is a worldwide necessity. In this study, a novel superparamagnetic Bi2O4/Fe3O4 nanocomposite was successfully prepared by an in-situ growth method and utilized for photocatalytic removal of IBU. The structural characterization of the Bi2O4/Fe3O4 nanocomposite indicates that the monodisperse Fe3O4 nanoparticles of diameter 10 nm are highly assembled on the Bi2O4 nanorods of diameter 120 nm. Under visible light irradiation, using an optimum molar ratio of Bi2O4/Fe3O4 (1:2.5) resulted in a complete photocatalytic degradation of IBU within 2 h, which is a 1.7 times higher efficiency than pure Bi2O4, and a complete mineralization of IBU with a prolonged irradiation time of 4 h. In addition, the potential practicality of Bi2O4/Fe3O4 (1:2.5) was also demonstrated by the efficient photocatalytic degradation of IBU in actual drinking water. The photocatalytic mechanisms of Bi2O4/Fe3O4 (1:2.5) were revealed, indicating that the enhanced photocatalytic performance was mainly attributed to the accelerated separation of electron-hole pairs after surface modification of Fe3O4, and that the photogenerated h(+) was the primary reactive species for the photocatalytic removal of IBU. Furthermore, the Bi2O4/Fe3O4 (1:2.5) can be magnetically recycled and shows good reusability without significant loss of photocatalytic activity or structural change even after reuse over five cycles, showing a promising application for the photocatalytic degradation of POPs from water.

Suitability of passive sampling for the monitoring of pharmaceuticals in Finnish surface waters

The occurrence of five pharmaceuticals, consisting of four anti-inflammatory and one antiepileptic drug, was studied by passive sampling and grab sampling in northern Lake Päijänne and River Vantaa. The passive sampling was performed by using Chemcatcher® sampler with a SDB-RPS Empore disk as a receiving phase. In Lake Päijänne, the sampling was conducted during summer 2013 at four locations near the discharge point of a wastewater treatment plant and in the years 2013 and 2015 at four locations along River Vantaa. The samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in the multiple reaction monitoring mode. The concentrations of carbamazepine, diclofenac, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen in Lake Päijänne determined by passive sampling ranged between 1.4-2.9 ng L(-1), 15-35 ng L(-1), 13-31 ng L(-1), 16-27 ng L(-1), and 3.3-32 ng L(-1), respectively. Similarly, the results in River Vantaa ranged between 1.2-40 ng L(-1), 15-65 ng L(-1), 13-33 ng L(-1), 16-31 ng L(-1), and 3.3-6.4 ng L(-1). The results suggest that the Chemcatcher passive samplers are suitable for detecting pharmaceuticals in lake and river waters.

The effects of the painkiller diclofenac and hypoxia on gene transcription and antioxidant system in the gills of three-spined stickleback

Aquatic organisms face multiple stressors in natural ecosystems. More and more often painkillers are detected in surface waters since their prescription has increased worldwide within the last years. Here we examined the effects of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac and hypoxia on three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). We exposed sticklebacks to an environmentally relevant concentration of diclofenac (1μg/L) for 14days, to 24h of hypoxia (2.0mg O2/L), and a combination of both. Hypoxia and diclofenac both can be associated with oxidative stress in fish, but it is unclear whether they would act synergistically. Expression analysis of genes related to antioxidant response, hypoxia response, and chemical metabolism in gills showed that diclofenac alone had little effect, while the combination of hypoxia and diclofenac affected transcript levels most, indicating synergistic effects of these stressors. Of the antioxidant enzymes, only superoxide dismutase activity remained unchanged by treatments, while glutathione peroxidase (GPx) was the most affected antioxidant response on both the transcript and activity levels. Our results suggest that diclofenac may lead to suppressed catalase (CAT) activity but increased GPx activity, probably as compensatory mechanism to remove increasing H2O2 in the gills, and that this response is not affected by hypoxia. The activities of lactate dehydrogenase, CAT, and GPx also showed temporal variability during treatments, which can be attributable to tissue-specific circadian rhythms. Our study shows how responses to NSAIDs and hypoxia can interact in fish, suggesting that getting more insight into temporal variation and about the different levels of regulation of environmental responses is necessary in future studies.

Widely used pharmaceuticals present in the environment revealed as in vitro antagonists for human estrogen and androgen receptors

A considerable amount of scientific evidence indicates that a number of pharmaceuticals that could be detected in the environment can contribute towards the development of problems associated with human reproductive systems, as well as those of wildlife. We investigated the estrogenic and androgenic effects of select pharmaceuticals with high production volume and environmental relevance. We examined the receptor-binding activities of these pharmaceuticals in the T47D human cell line using altered secretion of cytokine CXCL12. Functional yeast-luciferase reporter gene assays were also employed to confirm the mechanism of receptor binding by estrogen and androgen. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, namely ibuprofen, diclofenac and antiarrhythmic agent amiodarone showed strong anti-estrogenic effects in the T47D cell line. In the yeast-luciferase assay, these anti-inflammatory drugs also demonstrated anti-estrogenic potency and inhibited the E2 response in a concentration-dependent manner. Amiodarone did not exhibit any response in the yeast-luciferase assay; therefore, the endocrine disruption presumably occurred at a different level without directly involving the receptor. All the anti-inflammatory drugs considered in this study, including ketoprofen, naproxen and clofibrate, exhibited a dose-dependent antagonism towards the androgen receptor in the yeast-luciferase assays. Several other drugs, including the stimulant caffeine, did not show any response in the tests that were employed. A risk assessment analysis using 'Hazard Quotient' suggested a potential risk, especially in the cases of ibuprofen, ketoprofen, diclofenac and clofibrate. The results reveal the intrinsic endocrine disrupting nature of several pharmaceuticals and thus could contribute towards explaining a number of adverse health effects on humans and wildlife.