Internalization of a polysialic acid-binding Escherichia coli bacteriophage into eukaryotic neuroblastoma cells

Amino acid sequence associated with bacteriophage recombination site helps to reveal genes potentially acquired through horizontal gene transfer

Background

Horizontal gene transfer, i.e. the acquisition of genetic material from nonparent organism, is considered an important force driving species evolution. Many cases of horizontal gene transfer from prokaryotes to eukaryotes have been registered, but no transfer mechanism has been deciphered so far, although viruses were proposed as possible vectors in several studies. In agreement with this idea, in our previous study we discovered that in two eukaryotic proteins bacteriophage recombination site (AttP) was adjacent to the regions originating via horizontal gene transfer. In one of those cases AttP site was present inside the introns of cysteine-rich repeats. In the present study we aimed to apply computational tools for finding multiple horizontal gene transfer events in large genome databases. For that purpose we used a sequence of cysteine-rich repeats to identify genes potentially acquired through horizontal transfer.

Results

HMMER remote similarity search significantly detected 382 proteins containing cysteine-rich repeats. All of them, except 8 sequences, belong to eukaryotes. In 124 proteins the presence of conserved structural domains was predicted. In spite of the fact that cysteine-rich repeats are found almost exclusively in eukaryotic proteins, many predicted domains are most common for prokaryotes or bacteriophages. Ninety-eight proteins out of 124 contain typical prokaryotic domains. In those cases proteins were considered as potentially originating via horizontal transfer. In addition, HHblits search revealed that two domains of the same fungal protein, Glycoside hydrolase and Peptidase M15, have high similarity with proteins of two different prokaryotic species, hinting at independent horizontal gene transfer events.

Conclusions

Cysteine-rich repeats in eukaryotic proteins are usually accompanied by conserved domains typical for prokaryotes or bacteriophages. These proteins, containing both cysteine-rich repeats, and characteristic prokaryotic domains, might represent multiple independent horizontal gene transfer events from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. We believe that the presence of bacteriophage recombination site inside cysteine-rich repeat coding sequence may facilitate horizontal genes transfer. Thus computational approach, described in the present study, can help finding multiple sequences originated from horizontal transfer in eukaryotic genomes.

Interactions between Bacteriophages and Eukaryotic Cells

As the name implies, bacteriophage is a bacterium-specific virus. It infects and kills the bacterial host. Bacteriophages have gained attention as alternative antimicrobial entities in the science community in the western world since the alarming rise of antibiotic resistance among microbes. Although generally considered as prokaryote-specific viruses, recent studies indicate that bacteriophages can interact with eukaryotic organisms, including humans. In the current review, these interactions are divided into two categories, i.e., indirect and direct interactions, with the involvement of bacteriophages, bacteria, and eukaryotes. We discuss bacteriophage-related diseases, transcytosis of bacteriophages, bacteriophage interactions with cancer cells, collaboration of bacteriophages and eukaryotes against bacterial infections, and horizontal gene transfer between bacteriophages and eukaryotes. Such interactions are crucial for understanding and developing bacteriophages as the therapeutic agents and pharmaceutical delivery systems. With the advancement and combination of in silico, in vitro, and in vivo approaches and clinical trials, bacteriophages definitely serve as useful repertoire for biologic target-based drug development to manage many complex diseases in the future.

Phage Therapy in Poland - a Centennial Journey to the First Ethically Approved Treatment Facility in Europe

Although phage discovery is an unquestionable merit of the English bacteriologist Frederick W. Twort and the Canadian-French microbiologist Félix d'Hérelle, who both discovered phages over 100 years ago, the Polish history of phage studies also dates back to those years. In contrast to the Western world, developing phage treatment in Poland has never been abandoned despite the country's tense history marked by the Second World War (WWII) and the communism era. Today, Poland takes a prominent and remarkable place in the phage research area. Furthermore, established in 2005, the Phage Therapy Unit at the Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy in Wrocław, the first such center within European borders, has quickly become a model for other centers in the world facing the issue of widespread antibiotic resistance. This article constitutes an attempt to fill the gap in the scientific literature by providing a comprehensive summary of the long tradition of phage research in Poland.

Optimizing Anti-Viral Vaccine Responses: Input from a Non-Specialist

Recently, the research community has had a real-world look at reasons for improving vaccine responses to emerging RNA viruses. Here, a vaccine non-specialist suggests how this might be done. I propose two alternative options and compare the primary alternative option with current practice. The basis of comparison is feasibility in achieving what we need: a safe, mass-produced, emerging virus-targeted vaccine on 2–4 week notice. The primary option is the following. (1) Start with a platform based on live viruses that infect bacteria, but not humans (bacteriophages, or phages). (2) Isolate phages (to be called pathogen homologs) that resemble and provide antigenic context for membrane-covered, pathogenic RNA viruses; coronavirus-phage homologs will probably be found if the search is correctly done. (3) Upon isolating a viral pathogen, evolve its phage homolog to bind antibodies neutralizing for the viral pathogen. Vaccinate with the evolved phage homolog by generating a local, non-hazardous infection with the phage host and then curing the infection by propagating the phage in the artificially infecting bacterial host. I discuss how this alternative option has the potential to provide what is needed after appropriate platforms are built.

Rational identification and characterisation of peptide ligands for targeting polysialic acid

The alpha-2,8-linked form of the polysaccharide polysialic acid (PSA) has widespread implications in physiological and pathological processes, ranging from neurological development to disease progression. Though the high electronegativity and excluded volume of PSA often promotes interference of biomolecular interactions, PSA-binding ligands have important implications for both biological processes and biotechnological applications. As such, the design, identification, and characterisation of novel ligands towards PSA is critical for expanding knowledge of PSA interactions and achieving selective glycan targeting. Here, we report on a rational approach for the identification of alpha-2,8-PSA-binding peptides, involving design from the endogenous ligand Siglec-11 and multi-platform characterisation of peptide binding. Microarray-based examination of peptides revealed charge and sequence characteristics influencing peptide affinity to PSA, and carbohydrate-peptide binding was further quantified with a novel fluorescence anisotropy assay. PSA-binding peptides exhibited specific binding to polymeric SA, as well as different degrees of selective binding in various conditions, including competition with PSA of alternating 2,8/9-linkages and screening with PSA-expressing cells. A computational study of Siglec-11 and Siglec-11-derived peptides offered synergistic insight into ligand binding. These results demonstrate the potential of PSA-binding peptides for selective targeting and highlight the importance of the approaches described herein for the study of carbohydrate interactions.

Enteric Virome and Carcinogenesis in the Gut

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths in both the USA and the world. Recent research has demonstrated the involvement of the gut microbiota in CRC development and progression. Microbial biomarkers of disease have focused primarily on the bacterial component of the microbiome; however, the viral portion of the microbiome, consisting of both bacteriophages and eukaryotic viruses, together known as the virome, has been lesser studied. Here we review the recent advancements in high-throughput sequencing (HTS) technologies and bioinformatics, which have enabled scientists to better understand how viruses might influence the development of colorectal cancer. We discuss the contemporary findings revealing modulations in the virome and their correlation with CRC development and progression. While a variety of challenges still face viral HTS detection in clinical specimens, we consider herein numerous next steps for future basic and clinical research. Clinicians need to move away from a single infectious agent model for disease etiology by grasping new, more encompassing etiological paradigms, in which communities of various microbial components interact with each other and the host. The reporting and indexing of patient health information, socioeconomic data, and other relevant metadata will enable identification of predictive variables and covariates of viral presence and CRC development. Altogether, the virome has a more profound role in carcinogenesis and cancer progression than once thought, and viruses, specific for either human cells or bacteria, are clinically relevant in understanding CRC pathology, patient prognosis, and treatment development.

Pf Bacteriophage and Their Impact on Pseudomonas Virulence, Mammalian Immunity, and Chronic Infections

Pf bacteriophage are temperate phages that infect the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a major cause of chronic lung infections in cystic fibrosis (CF) and other settings. Pf and other temperate phages have evolved complex, mutualistic relationships with their bacterial hosts that impact both bacterial phenotypes and chronic infection. We and others have reported that Pf phages are a virulence factor that promote the pathogenesis of P. aeruginosa infections in animal models and are associated with worse skin and lung infections in humans. Here we review the biology of Pf phage and what is known about its contributions to pathogenesis and clinical disease. First, we review the structure, genetics, and epidemiology of Pf phage. Next, we address the diverse and surprising ways that Pf phages contribute to P. aeruginosa phenotypes including effects on biofilm formation, antibiotic resistance, and motility. Then, we cover data indicating that Pf phages suppress mammalian immunity at sites of bacterial infection. Finally, we discuss recent literature implicating Pf in chronic P. aeruginosa infections in CF and other settings. Together, these reports suggest that Pf bacteriophage have direct effects on P. aeruginosa infections and that temperate phages are an exciting frontier in microbiology, immunology, and human health.

Phage penetration of eukaryotic cells: practical implications

The inability to infect eukaryotic cells has been considered as the most undeniable feature of all bacterial viruses. Such specificity, limited only for bacterial hosts, raises questions about the paths and challenges phages should overcome when circulating through the human body. Recently, it has been shown that phages are able to continually penetrate human organs and tissues. Latest reports revealed that phages can cross eukaryotic cell barriers both para- and transcellularly and even reach the nucleus. Further, phages are capable of internalizing within cells through different endocytic mechanisms. Such phenomenon indicates that phages could shape human microbiome composition and affect all aspects of human health. Thus, herein, we summarize the current state of knowledge and describe this phenomenon with a particular emphasis on endocytic pathways.

Nanomechanical detection of Escherichia coli infection by bacteriophage T7 using cantilever sensors

Viruses that infect bacteria (bacteriophages) are a promising alternative treatment for bacterial diseases, especially in the case of antibiotic resistance. Due to a renewed interest in phage therapies, development of rapid and specific detection methods for bacteria/bacteriophage interaction are gaining attention for proper diagnosis and treatment. This paper describes a new method to detect the interaction between Escherichia coli and bacteriophage T7 in a sensitive and quantitative way, using the nanomechanical motion of bacteria adhered to a cantilever surface. Our approach combines both deflection and dynamic frequency-domain characterization. The device was able to determine the viability of a low amount of living bacteria attached to the cantilever, and was used to monitor T7 interaction with E. coli over a wide range of virus concentrations up to 109 PFU ml-1. The nanomechanical assay described here requires no protein labeling and can be performed in a single reaction without additional reagents. The system was able to detect the interaction between a few thousand particles through the fluctuation of mechanical energy over a broad range of frequencies. The presented data provides the basis for more detailed studies of the sequence of molecular events that contribute to the motion of the device.

Bacteriophages: Uncharacterized and Dynamic Regulators of the Immune System

The human gut is an extremely active immunological site interfacing with the densest microbial community known to colonize the human body, the gut microbiota. Despite tremendous advances in our comprehension of how the gut microbiota is involved in human health and interacts with the mammalian immune system, most studies are incomplete as they typically do not consider bacteriophages. These bacterial viruses are estimated to be as numerous as their bacterial hosts, with tremendous and mostly uncharacterized genetic diversity. In addition, bacteriophages are not passive members of the gut microbiota, as highlighted by the recent evidence for their active involvement in human health. Yet, how bacteriophages interact with their bacterial hosts and the immune system in the human gut remains poorly described. Here, we aim to fill this gap by providing an overview of bacteriophage communities in the gut during human development, detailing recent findings for their bacterial-mediated effects on the immune response and summarizing the latest evidence for direct interactions between them and the immune system. The dramatic increase in antibiotic-resistant bacterial pathogens has spurred a renewed interest in using bacteriophages for therapy, despite the many unknowns about bacteriophages in the human body. Going forward, more studies encompassing the communities of bacteria, bacteriophages, and the immune system in diverse health and disease settings will provide invaluable insight into this dynamic trio essential for human health.

Missing a Phage: Unraveling Tripartite Symbioses within the Human Gut

Tripartite symbioses between bacteriophages, the epithelial cell layers of the human gut, and bacterial symbionts may play an important and unrecognized role in the function of the gut microbiome. Traditionally, phages residing within the gut were considered to interact only with their bacterial hosts and thereby to facilitate indirect interactions with the epithelial cell layers, and yet a growing body of literature is demonstrating the surprising and diverse ways in which phages directly interact with the eukaryotic cells, organs, and systems of the body.

Tripartite symbioses between bacteriophages, the epithelial cell layers of the human gut, and bacterial symbionts may play an important and unrecognized role in the function of the gut microbiome. Traditionally, phages residing within the gut were considered to interact only with their bacterial hosts and thereby to facilitate indirect interactions with the epithelial cell layers, and yet a growing body of literature is demonstrating the surprising and diverse ways in which phages directly interact with the eukaryotic cells, organs, and systems of the body. Phages can adhere to mucosal surfaces, bind and transcytose epithelial cells, and deliver proteins and nucleic acids to eukaryotic cells directly. These interactions could establish positive-feedback loops leading to the selection of bacterial hosts and their phage symbionts in the gut. The members of my laboratory are working to expand our knowledge on the phage-eukaryote interactions and to redefine the concept of tripartite symbioses within the human body.

The dawn of phage therapy

Bacteriophages or phages, being the most abundant entities on earth, represent a potential solution to a diverse range of problems. Phages are successful antibacterial agents whose use in therapeutics was hindered by the discovery of antibiotics. Eventually, because of the development and spread of antibiotic resistance among most bacterial species, interest in phage as therapeutic entities has returned, because their noninfectious nature to humans should make them safe for human nanomedicine. This review highlights the most recent advances and progress in phage therapy and bacterial hosts against which phage research is currently being conducted with respect to food, human, and marine pathogens. Bacterial immunity against phages and tactics of phage revenge to defeat bacterial defense systems are also summarized. We have also discussed approved phage-based products (whole phage-based products and phage proteins) and shed light on their influence on the eukaryotic host with respect to host safety and induction of immune response against phage preparations. Moreover, creation of phages with desirable qualities and their uses in cancer treatment, vaccine production, and other therapies are also reviewed to bring together evidence from the scientific literature about the potentials and possible utility of phage and phage encoded proteins in the field of therapeutics and industrial biotechnology.

Bacteriophage interactions with mammalian tissue: Therapeutic applications

The human body is a large reservoir for bacterial viruses known as bacteriophages (phages), which participate in dynamic interactions with their bacterial and human hosts that ultimately affect human health. The current growing interest in human resident phages is paralleled by new uses of phages, including the design of engineered phages for therapeutic applications. Despite the increasing number of clinical trials being conducted, the understanding of the interaction of phages and mammalian cells and tissues is still largely unknown. The presence of phages in compartments within the body previously considered purely sterile, suggests that phages possess a unique capability of bypassing anatomical and physiological barriers characterized by varying degrees of selectivity and permeability. This review will discuss the direct evidence of the accumulation of bacteriophages in various tissues, focusing on the unique capability of phages to traverse relatively impermeable barriers in mammals and its relevance to its current applications in therapy.

Antibody-Mediated Endocytosis of Polysialic Acid Enables Intracellular Delivery and Cytotoxicity of a Glycan-Directed Antibody-Drug Conjugate

The specific targeting of differentially expressed glycans in malignant cells has emerged as an attractive anticancer strategy. One such target is the oncodevelopmental antigen polysialic acid (polySia), a polymer of α2,8-linked sialic acid residues that is largely absent during postnatal development but is re-expressed during progression of several malignant human tumors, including small-cell and non-small cell lung carcinomas, glioma, neuroblastoma, and pancreatic carcinoma. In these cancers, expression of polySia correlates with tumor progression and poor prognosis and appears to modulate cancer cell adhesion, invasiveness, and metastasis. To evaluate the potential of PolySia as a target for anticancer therapy, we developed a chimeric human polySia-specific mAb that retained low nanomolar (nmol/L) target affinity and exhibited exquisite selectivity for polySia structures. The engineered chimeric mAb recognized several polySia-positive tumor cell lines in vitro and induced rapid endocytosis of polySia antigens. To determine whether this internalization could be exploited for delivery of conjugated cytotoxic drugs, we generated an antibody-drug conjugate (ADC) by covalently linking the chimeric human mAb to the tubulin-binding maytansinoid DM1 using a bioorthogonal chemical reaction scheme. The resulting polySia-directed ADC demonstrated potent target-dependent cytotoxicity against polySia-positive tumor cells in vitro. Collectively, these results establish polySia as a valid cell-surface, cancer-specific target for glycan-directed ADC and contribute to a growing body of evidence that the tumor glycocalyx is a promising target for synthetic immunotherapies. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings describe a glycan-specific antibody-drug conjugate that establishes polySia as a viable cell surface target within the tumor glycocalyx.

Interactions between Bacteriophage, Bacteria, and the Mammalian Immune System

The human body is host to large numbers of bacteriophages (phages)⁻a diverse group of bacterial viruses that infect bacteria. Phage were previously regarded as bystanders that only impacted immunity indirectly via effects on the mammalian microbiome. However, it has become clear that phages also impact immunity directly, in ways that are typically anti-inflammatory. Phages can modulate innate immunity via phagocytosis and cytokine responses, but also impact adaptive immunity via effects on antibody production and effector polarization. Phages may thereby have profound effects on the outcome of bacterial infections by modulating the immune response. In this review we highlight the diverse ways in which phages interact with human cells. We present a computational model for predicting these complex and dynamic interactions. These models predict that the phageome may play important roles in shaping mammalian-bacterial interactions.

Engineered K1F bacteriophages kill intracellular Escherichia coli K1 in human epithelial cells

Bacterial infections can be treated with bacteriophages that show great specificity towards their bacterial host and can be genetically modified for different applications. However, whether and how bacteriophages can kill intracellular bacteria in human cells remains elusive. Here, using CRISPR/Cas selection, we have engineered a fluorescent bacteriophage specific for E. coli K1, a nosocomial pathogen responsible for urinary tract infections, neonatal meningitis and sepsis. By confocal and live microscopy, we show that engineered bacteriophages K1F-GFP and E. coli EV36-RFP bacteria displaying the K1 capsule, enter human cells via phagocytosis. Importantly, we show that bacteriophage K1F-GFP efficiently kills intracellular E. coli EV36-RFP in T24 human urinary bladder epithelial cells. Finally, we provide evidence that bacteria and bacteriophages are degraded by LC3-associated phagocytosis and xenophagy.

Close Encounters of Three Kinds: Bacteriophages, Commensal Bacteria, and Host Immunity

Recent years have witnessed an explosion of interest in the human microbiota. Although commensal bacteria have dominated research efforts to date, mounting evidence suggests that endogenous viral populations (the 'virome') play key roles in basic human physiology. The most numerous constituents of the human virome are not eukaryotic viruses but rather bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria. Here, we review phages' interactions with their immediate (prokaryotic) and extended (eukaryotic) hosts and with each other, with a particular emphasis on the temperate phages and prophages which dominate the human virome. We also discuss key outstanding questions in this emerging field and emphasize the urgent need for functional studies in animal models to complement previous in vitro work and current computational approaches.

Highly sensitive fluorescent bioassay of 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin based on abnormal expression of cytochrome P450 1A2 in human cells

Current in vitro bioassays of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD, a major threat carcinogen) are relied on murine cells and fluorescent probe 7-ethoxyresorufin (7-ER), in which TCDD mostly causes abnormal expression of cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1). However, for human cells, TCDD mainly leads to a distinct abnormal expression of cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2). The poor response of 7-ER to CYP1A2 limits the traditional bioassay for human cells. Herein, we report a fluorescent probe N-(3-hydroxybutyl)-4-methoxy-1,8-naphthalimide (HBMN) for in vitro bioassay of TCDD with human cells. HBMN had ca. 60 times higher affinity to CYP1A2 than 7-ER. As such, the sensing sensitivity increased by 10 times, and different expression of CYP1A2 by TCDD induction in different human cells was found. Besides, HBMN was also feasible in rapid screening of TCDD concentration by naked eye. It would open a new way to highly sensitive detect TCDD and understand the pathogenesis of TCDD in different human organs.

Alterations in Enteric Virome Are Associated With Colorectal Cancer and Survival Outcomes

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) have a different gut microbiome signature than individuals without CRC. Little is known about the viral component of CRC-associated microbiome. We aimed to identify and validate viral taxonomic markers of CRC that might be used in detection of the disease or predicting outcome.

METHODS

We performed shotgun metagenomic analyses of viromes of fecal samples from 74 patients with CRC (cases) and 92 individuals without CRC (controls) in Hong Kong (discovery cohort). Viral sequences were classified by taxonomic alignment against an integrated microbial reference genome database. Viral markers associated with CRC were validated using fecal samples from 3 separate cohorts: 111 patients with CRC and 112 controls in Hong Kong, 46 patients with CRC and 63 controls in Austria, and 91 patients with CRC and 66 controls in France and Germany. Using abundance profiles of CRC-associated virome genera, we constructed random survival forest models to identify those associated with patient survival times.

RESULTS

The diversity of the gut bacteriophage community was significantly increased in patients with CRC compared with controls. Twenty-two viral taxa discriminated cases from controls with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.802 in the discovery cohort. The viral markers were validated in 3 cohorts, with area under the receiver operating characteristic curves of 0.763, 0.736, and 0.715, respectively. Clinical subgroup analysis showed that dysbiosis of the gut virome was associated with early- and late-stage CRC. A combination of 4 taxonomic markers associated with reduced survival of patients with CRC (log-rank test, P = 8.1 × 10^-6) independently of tumor stage, lymph node metastases, or clinical parameters. We found altered interactions between bacteriophages and oral bacterial commensals in fecal samples from patients with CRC compared with controls.

CONCLUSIONS

In a metagenomic analysis of fecal samples from patients and controls, we identified virome signatures associated with CRC. These data might be used to develop tools to identify individuals with CRC or predict outcomes.

Phage Therapy in Prostatitis: Recent Prospects

Prostatitis has various etiology including bacterial infection and dysregulated immunity; some of its forms remain a serious therapeutic challenge. Inflammation occurs in all forms of this disorder and is proposed to predispose to the development of prostate cancer (PC). There are reports that phage therapy is effective in chronic bacterial prostatitis. Recent findings suggest that phages not only eliminate bacteria, but also mediate immunomodulating (for example, anti-inflammatory) functions. The immunomodulating effects of phages could be beneficial in treating all forms of prostatitis and play some role in the prevention of the development of PC. As the etiological factors contributing to the majority of prostatitis cases remains largely unknown, and management options are often likewise limited, phage therapy merits further research as an attractive therapeutic option given its immunomodulating effects irrespective of the underlying causative factor(s).

Beyond Bacteria: Bacteriophage-Eukaryotic Host Interactions Reveal Emerging Paradigms of Health and Disease

For decades, a wealth of information has been acquired to define how host associated microbial communities contribute to health and disease. Within the human microbiota this has largely focused on bacteria, yet there is a myriad of viruses that occupy various tissue sites, the most abundant being bacteriophages that infect bacteria. Animal hosts are colonized with niche specific microbial communities where bacteria are continuously co-evolving with phages. Bacterial growth, metabolic activity, pathogenicity, antibiotic resistance, interspecies competition and evolution can all be influenced by phage infection and the beneficial nature of such interactions suggests that to an extent phages are tolerated by their hosts. With the understanding that phage-specific host–microbe interactions likely contribute to bacterial interactions with their mammalian hosts, phages and their communities may also impact aspects of mammalian health and disease that have gone unrecognized. Here, we review recent progress in understanding how bacteria acquire and tolerate phage in both pure culture and within complex communities. We apply these findings to discuss how intra-body phages interact with bacteria to influence their eukaryotic hosts through potential contributions to microbial homeostasis, mucosal immunity, immune tolerance and autoimmunity.

Phage Therapy: What Have We Learned?

In this article we explain how current events in the field of phage therapy may positively influence its future development. We discuss the shift in position of the authorities, academia, media, non-governmental organizations, regulatory agencies, patients, and doctors which could enable further advances in the research and application of the therapy. In addition, we discuss methods to obtain optimal phage preparations and suggest the potential of novel applications of phage therapy extending beyond its anti-bacterial action.

Phage Therapy: Beyond Antibacterial Action

Until recently, phages were considered as mere “bacteria eaters” with potential for use in combating antimicrobial resistance. The real value of phage therapy assessed according to the standards of evidence-based medicine awaits confirmation by clinical trials. However, the progress in research on phage biology has shed more light on the significance of phages. Accumulating data indicate that phages may also interact with eukaryotic cells. How such interactions could be translated into advances in medicine (especially novel means of therapy) is discussed herein.

"Phage Transplantation in Allotransplantation": Possible Treatment in Graft-Versus-Host Disease?

Graft-versus-host disease, both acute and chronic (aGvHD, cGvHD) remains a major complication in patients undergoing hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) and a significant therapeutic challenge, as many patients do not respond adequately to presently available therapy. Increasing antimicrobial resistance has greatly revived interest in using bacterial viruses (phages) to combat antibiotic-resistant bacteria. In recent years, evidence has accumulated indicating that phages also have anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities. This article suggests how these anti-bacterial and immunomodulatory activities of phages may be translated into a novel treatment of acute GvHD.

Perspectives of Phage-Eukaryotic Cell Interactions to Control Epstein-Barr Virus Infections

Recently, leading medical journals emphasized the importance of further studies on the potential application of bacterial viruses (phages) for the treatment of antibiotics-resistant infections outlining the present status of the therapy and perspectives for the future. Furthermore, a leading scientific journal pointed to the recent progress in research on phage interactions with eukaryotic cells (especially cells of the immune system) and potential implications of their results for our broader understanding of the role of phages – not only as “bacteria eaters” – but also as an important part of our body defense protecting against external and internal pathogenic invaders (as suggested previously). This illustrates how our understanding of the actual role and potential of phages is expanding and how worldwide interest in their use in medicine is growing. In this article we envision how this advancement of our knowledge about phages could be translated into the progress in combating herpesvirus infections especially those caused by Epstein–Barr virus (EBV).