The inheritance of chemical phenotype in Cannabis sativa L

Identification of a new cannabidiol n-hexyl homolog in a medicinal cannabis variety with an antinociceptive activity in mice: cannabidihexol

The two most important and studied phytocannabinoids present in Cannabis sativa L. are undoubtedly cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychotropic compound, but with other pharmacological properties, and Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), which instead possesses psychotropic activity and is responsible for the recreative use of hemp. Recently, the homolog series of both CBDs and THCs has been expanded by the isolation in a medicinal cannabis variety of four new phytocannabinoids possessing on the resorcinyl moiety a butyl-(in CBDB and Δ⁹-THCB) and a heptyl-(in CBDP and Δ⁹-THCP) aliphatic chain. In this work we report a new series of phytocannabinoids that fills the gap between the pentyl and heptyl homologs of CBD and Δ⁹-THC, bearing a n-hexyl side chain on the resorcinyl moiety that we named cannabidihexol (CBDH) and Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabihexol (Δ⁹-THCH), respectively. However, some cannabinoids with the same molecular formula and molecular weight of CBDH and Δ⁹-THCH have been already identified and reported as monomethyl ether derivatives of the canonical phytocannabinoids, namely cannabigerol monomethyl ether (CBGM), cannabidiol monomethyl ether (CBDM) and Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol monomethyl ether (Δ9-THCM). The unambiguously identification in cannabis extract of the n-hexyl homologues of CBD and Δ⁹-THC different from the corresponding methylated isomers (CBDM, CBGM and Δ⁹-THCM) was achieved by comparison of the retention time, molecular ion, and fragmentation spectra with those of the authentic standards obtained via stereoselective synthesis, and a semi-quantification of these cannabinoids in the FM2 medical cannabis variety was provided. Conversely, no trace of Δ⁹-THCM was detected. Moreover, CBDH was isolated by semipreparative HPLC and its identity was confirmed by comparison with the spectroscopic data of the corresponding synthetic standard. Thus, the proper recognition of CBDH, CBDM and Δ⁹-THCH closes the loop and might serve in the future for researchers to distinguish between these phytocannabinoids isomers that show a very similar analytical behaviour. Lastly, CBDH was assessed for biological tests in vivo showing interesting analgesic activity at low doses in mice.

The neuropharmacology of cannabinoid receptor ligands in central signaling pathways

The endocannabinoid system is a complex neuronal system involved in a number of biological functions, like attention, anxiety, mood, memory, appetite, reward, and immune responses. It is at the centre of scientific interest, which is driven by therapeutic promise of certain cannabinoid ligands and the changing legalization of herbal cannabis in many countries. The endocannabinoid system is a modulatory system, with endocannabinoids as retrograde neurotransmitters rather than direct neurotransmitters. Neuropharmacology of cannabinoid ligands in the brain can therefore be understood in terms of their modulatory actions through other neurotransmitter systems. The CB₁ receptor is chiefly responsible for effects of endocannabinoids and analogous ligands in the brain. An overview of the neuropharmacology of several cannabinoid receptor ligands, including endocannabinoids, herbal cannabis and synthetic cannabinoid receptor ligands is given in this review. Their mechanism of action at the endocannabinoid system is described, mainly in the brain. In addition, effects of cannabinoid ligands on other neurotransmitter systems will also be described, such as dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, noradrenaline, opioid, and GABA. In light of this, therapeutic potential and adverse effects of cannabinoid receptor ligands will also be discussed.

Validating a predictive model of cannabinoid inheritance with feral, clinical, and industrial Cannabis sativa

PREMISE

How genetic variation within a species affects phytochemical composition is a fundamental question in botany. The ratio of two specialized metabolites in Cannabis sativa, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), can be grouped into three main classes (THC-type, CBD-type, and intermediate type). We tested a genetic model associating these three groups with functional and nonfunctional alleles of the cannabidiolic acid synthase gene (CBDAS).

METHODS

We characterized cannabinoid content and assayed CBDAS genotypes of >300 feral C. sativa plants in Minnesota, United States. We performed a test cross to assess CBDAS inheritance. Twenty clinical cultivars obtained blindly from the National Institute on Drug Abuse and 12 Canadian-certified grain cultivars were also examined.

RESULTS

Frequencies of CBD-type, intermediate-type, and THC-type feral plants were 0.88, 0.11, and 0.01, respectively. Although total cannabinoid content varied substantially, the three groupings were perfectly correlated with CBDAS genotypes. Genotype frequencies observed in the test cross were consistent with codominant Mendelian inheritance of the THC:CBD ratio. Despite significant mean differences in total cannabinoid content, CBDAS genotypes blindly predicted the THC:CBD ratio among clinical cultivars, and the same was true for industrial grain cultivars when plants exhibited >0.5% total cannabinoid content.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results extend the generality of the inheritance model for THC:CBD to diverse C. sativa accessions and demonstrate that CBDAS genotyping can predict the ratio in a variety of practical applications. Cannabinoid profiles and associated CBDAS segregation patterns suggest that feral C. sativa populations are potentially valuable experimental systems and sources of germplasm.

It Is Our Turn to Get Cannabis High: Put Cannabinoids in Food and Health Baskets

Cannabis is an annual plant with a long history of use as food, feed, fiber, oil, medicine, and narcotics. Despite realizing its true value, it has not yet found its true place. Cannabis has had a long history with many ups and downs, and now it is our turn to promote it. Cannabis contains approximately 600 identified and many yet unidentified potentially useful compounds. Cannabinoids, phenolic compounds, terpenoids, and alkaloids are some of the secondary metabolites present in cannabis. However, among a plethora of unique chemical compounds found in this plant, the most important ones are phytocannabinoids (PCs). Over hundreds of 21-22-carbon compounds exclusively produce in cannabis glandular hairs through either polyketide and or deoxyxylulose phosphate/methylerythritol phosphate (DOXP/MEP) pathways. Trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are those that first come to mind while talking about cannabis. Nevertheless, despite the low concentration, cannabinol (CBN), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabichromene (CBC), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), cannabidivarin (CBDV), cannabinodiol (CBND), and cannabinidiol (CBDL) may have potentially some medical effects. PCs and endocannabinoids (ECs) mediate their effects mainly through CB1 and CB2 receptors. Despite all concerns regarding cannabis, nobody can ignore the use of cannabinoids as promising tonic, analgesic, antipyretic, antiemetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-epileptic, anticancer agents, which are effective for pain relief, depression, anxiety, sleep disorders, nausea and vomiting, multiple sclerosis, cardiovascular disorders, and appetite stimulation. The scientific community and public society have now increasingly accepted cannabis specifically hemp as much more than a recreational drug. There are growing demands for cannabinoids, mainly CBD, with many diverse therapeutic and nutritional properties in veterinary or human medicine. The main objective of this review article is to historically summarize findings concerning cannabinoids, mainly THC and CBD, towards putting these valuable compounds into food, feed and health baskets and current and future trends in the consumption of products derived from cannabis.

Cannabis Chemovar Nomenclature Misrepresents Chemical and Genetic Diversity; Survey of Variations in Chemical Profiles and Genetic Markers in Nevada Medical Cannabis Samples

Introduction: Medical cannabis patients receive clinical benefits from the secondary metabolites of the plant, which contain a variety of cannabinoids and terpenoids in combinations that can be used to classify the chemovars. State-regulated medical cannabis programs rely on breeder-reported “strain” names both within diversion control systems and to describe the medical cannabis products that are sold to patients in medical cannabis dispensaries. In state-regulated medical cannabis programs, there is no conventional nomenclature system that correlates the breeder-reported names with their profiles of active ingredients, and these “strain” names are invalid as they refer to chemical differences properly referred to as to chemovars.

Materials and Methods: To determine the actual levels of chemical diversity represented in 2662 samples of Cannabis flower collected between January 2016 and June of 2017 in Nevada, chemical profile data were measured from these samples by a state-qualified third-party testing laboratory. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to define clusters in data sets representing both cannabinoids and terpenoids, cannabinoids only, or terpenoids only.

Results: The PCA of the terpenoid only data set revealed three well-defined clusters. All three terpenoids only data clusters had high tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase, but the terpene profiles listed in reverse-order of abundance best defined these chemovars. The three chemovars in Nevada were labeled with 396 breeder-reported sample names, which overestimate the diversity and do not inform patients regarding chemical properties. Representative DNA samples were taken from each chemovar to determine whether the genetic diversity was greater than the chemical diversity. The limited genotyping experiment was based on DNA sequence polymorphisms. The genetic analysis revealed twelve distinct genetic clades, which still does not account for the entirety of the 396 reported sample names. The finite genotypes did not correlate with the chemotypes determined for the samples. This suggests that either the DNA-markers used were too narrowly restricted for factual separation or that environmental factors contributed more significantly to the chemical profiles of cannabis than genetics.

Conclusion: The three chemovars and twelve genotypes reflect low medical diversity on the market in Nevada during its “medical use only” phase. Furthermore, the 396 breeder-reported sample names within this set imply a false sense of diversity of products in Nevada dispensaries.

Terpene Synthases and Terpene Variation in Cannabis sativa

Cannabis (Cannabis sativa) resin is the foundation of a multibillion dollar medicinal and recreational plant bioproducts industry. Major components of the cannabis resin are the cannabinoids and terpenes. Variations of cannabis terpene profiles contribute much to the different flavor and fragrance phenotypes that affect consumer preferences. A major problem in the cannabis industry is the lack of proper metabolic characterization of many of the existing cultivars, combined with sometimes incorrect cultivar labeling. We characterized foliar terpene profiles of plants grown from 32 seed sources and found large variation both within and between sets of plants labeled as the same cultivar. We selected five plants representing different cultivars with contrasting terpene profiles for clonal propagation, floral metabolite profiling, and trichome-specific transcriptome sequencing. Sequence analysis of these five cultivars and the reference genome of cv Purple Kush revealed a total of 33 different cannabis terpene synthase (CsTPS) genes, as well as variations of the CsTPS gene family and differential expression of terpenoid and cannabinoid pathway genes between cultivars. Our annotation of the cv Purple Kush reference genome identified 19 complete CsTPS gene models, and tandem arrays of isoprenoid and cannabinoid biosynthetic genes. An updated phylogeny of the CsTPS gene family showed three cannabis-specific clades, including a clade of sesquiterpene synthases within the TPS-b subfamily that typically contains mostly monoterpene synthases. The CsTPSs described and functionally characterized here include 13 that had not been previously characterized and that collectively explain a diverse range of cannabis terpenes.

Modeling cannabinoids from a large-scale sample of Cannabis sativa chemotypes

The widespread legalization of Cannabis has opened the industry to using contemporary analytical techniques for chemotype analysis. Chemotypic data has been collected on a large variety of oil profiles inherent to the cultivars that are commercially available. The unknown gene regulation and pharmacokinetics of dozens of cannabinoids offer opportunities of high interest in pharmacology research. Retailers in many medical and recreational jurisdictions are typically required to report chemical concentrations of at least some cannabinoids. Commercial cannabis laboratories have collected large chemotype datasets of diverse Cannabis cultivars. In this work a data set of 17,600 cultivars tested by Steep Hill Inc., is examined using machine learning techniques to interpolate missing chemotype observations and cluster cultivars into groups based on chemotype similarity. The results indicate cultivars cluster based on their chemotypes, and that some imputation methods work better than others at grouping these cultivars based on chemotypic identity. Due to the missing data and to the low signal to noise ratio for some less common cannabinoids, their behavior could not be accurately predicted. These findings have implications for characterizing complex interactions in cannabinoid biosynthesis and improving phenotypical classification of Cannabis cultivars.

Comprehending and improving cannabis specialized metabolism in the systems biology era

Cannabis sativa is a source of food, fiber and specialized metabolites such as cannabinoids, with psychoactive and pharmacological effects. Due to its expanding and increasingly-accepted use in medicine, cannabis cultivation is acquiring more importance and less social stigma. Humans initiated different domestication episodes whose later spread gave rise to a plethora of landrace cultivars. At present, breeders cross germplasms from different gene pools depending on their specific use. The fiber (hemp) and drug (marijuana) types of C. sativa differ in their cannabinoid chemical composition phenotype (chemotype) and also in the accumulation of terpenoid compounds that constitute a strain's particular flavor and scent. Cannabinoids are isoprenylated polyketides among which cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) and (-)-trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol acid (THCA) have been well-documented for their many effects on humans. Here, we review the most studied specialized metabolic pathways in C. sativa, showing how terpenes and cannabinoids share both part of the isoprenoid pathway and the same biosynthetic compartmentalization (i.e. glandular trichomes of leaves and flowers). We enlist the several studies that have deciphered these pathways in this species including physical and genetic maps, QTL analyses and localization and enzymatic studies of cannabinoid and terpene synthases. In addition, new comparative modeling of cannabinoid synthases and phylogenetic trees are presented. We describe the genome sequencing initiatives of several accessions with the concomitant generation of next-generation genome maps and transcriptomic data. Very recently, proteomic characterizations and systems biology approaches such as those applying network theory or the integration of multi-omics data have increased the knowledge on gene function, enzyme diversity and metabolite content in C. sativa. In this revision we drift through the history, present and future of cannabis research and on how second- and third-generation sequencing technologies are bringing light to the field of cannabis specialized metabolism. We also discuss different biotechnological approaches for producing cannabinoids in engineered microorganisms.

The seed of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.): Nutritional Quality and Potential Functionality for Human Health and Nutrition

Hempseeds, the edible fruits of the Cannabis sativa L. plant, were initially considered a by-product of the hemp technical fibre industry. Nowadays, following the restorationing of the cultivation of C. sativa L. plants containing an amount of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) <0.3% or 0.2% (industrial hemp) there is a growing interest for the hempseeds production due to their high nutritional value and functional features. The goal of this review is to examine the scientific literature concerning the nutritional and functional properties of hempseeds. Furthermore, we revised the scientific literature regarding the potential use of hempseeds and their derivatives as a dietary supplement for the prevention and treatment of inflammatory and chronic-degenerative diseases on animal models and humans too. In the first part of the work, we provide information regarding the genetic, biochemical, and legislative aspects of this plant that are, in our opinion essential to understand the difference between “industrial” and “drug-type” hemp. In the final part of the review, the employment of hempseeds by the food industry as livestock feed supplement and as ingredient to enrich or fortify daily foods has also revised. Overall, this review intends to encourage further and comprehensive investigations about the adoption of hempseeds in the functional foods field.

Development of Cannabinoids in Flowers of Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.): A Pilot Study

A field study was performed to investigate the development of cannabinoids in flowers of industrial hemp using three day-length-sensitive and two day-length-neutral varieties. Flower samples were analyzed for cannabinoids on a weekly basis from 2 to 4 weeks postanthesis to plant senescence. Results indicate that total THC, CBD, and CBG significantly increased as flowers matured, reaching the greatest concentration during 6 to 7 weeks postanthesis. After a plateau stage of varied length for different varieties, the peak concentrations declined as plants senesced. Total THC was above the 0.3% threshold from 4 weeks postanthesis to the end of the growing season for day-length-sensitive varieties, but this only occurred during 6 to 7 weeks postanthesis for day-length-neutral varieties. The CBD/THC ratio in flowers dynamically changed during the entire reproductive stage for all of the evaluated varieties. The current study provides vital information for successful cultivation of industrial hemp.

A classification of endangered high-THC cannabis (Cannabis sativa subsp. indica) domesticates and their wild relatives

Two kinds of drug-type Cannabis gained layman's terms in the 1980s. "Sativa" had origins in South Asia (India), with early historical dissemination to Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Americas. "Indica" had origins in Central Asia (Afghanistan, Pakistan, Turkestan). We have assigned unambiguous taxonomic names to these varieties, after examining morphological characters in 1100 herbarium specimens, and analyzing phytochemical and genetic data from the literature in a meta-analysis. "Sativa" and "Indica" are recognized as C. sativa subsp. indica var. indica and C. sativa subsp. indica var. afghanica, respectively. Their wild-growing relatives are C. sativa subsp. indica var. himalayensis (in South Asia), and C. sativa subsp. indica var. asperrima (in Central Asia). Natural selection initiated divergence, driven by climatic conditions in South and Central Asia. Subsequent domestication drove further phytochemical divergence. South and Central Asian domesticates can be distinguished by tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol content (THC/CBD ratios, ≥7 or <7, respectively), terpenoid profiles (absence or presence of sesquiterpene alcohols), and a suite of morphological characters. The two domesticates have undergone widespread introgressive hybridization in the past 50 years. This has obliterated differences between hybridized "Sativa" and "Indica" currently available. "Strains" alleged to represent "Sativa" and "Indica" are usually based on THC/CBD ratios of plants with undocumented hybrid backgrounds (with so-called "Indicas" often delimited simply on possession of more CBD than "Sativas"). The classification presented here circumscribes and names four taxa of Cannabis that represent critically endangered reservoirs of germplasm from which modern cannabinoid strains originated, and which are in urgent need of conservation.

The molecular mechanisms that underpin the biological benefits of full-spectrum cannabis extract in the treatment of neuropathic pain and inflammation

Cannabis has been shown to be beneficial in the treatment of pain and inflammatory diseases. The biological effect of cannabis is mainly attributed to two major cannabinoids, tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol. In the majority of studies to-date, a purified tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol alone or in combination have been extensively examined in many studies for the treatment of numerous disorders including pain and inflammation. However, few studies have investigated the biological benefits of full-spectrum cannabis plant extract. Given that cannabis is known to generate a large number of cannabinoids along with numerous other biologically relevant products including terpenes, studies involving purified tetrahydrocannabinol and/or cannabidiol do not consider the potential biological benefits of the full-spectrum cannabis extracts. This may be especially true in the case of cannabis as a potential treatment of pain and inflammation. Herein, we review the pre-clinical physiological and molecular mechanisms in biological systems that are affected by cannabis.

Hairy Root Cultures-A Versatile Tool With Multiple Applications

Hairy roots derived from the infection of a plant by Rhizobium rhizogenes (previously referred to as Agrobacterium rhizogenes) bacteria, can be obtained from a wide variety of plants and allow the production of highly diverse molecules. Hairy roots are able to produce and secrete complex active glycoproteins from a large spectrum of organisms. They are also adequate to express plant natural biosynthesis pathways required to produce specialized metabolites and can benefit from the new genetic tools available to facilitate an optimized production of tailor-made molecules. This adaptability has positioned hairy root platforms as major biotechnological tools. Researchers and industries have contributed to their advancement, which represents new alternatives from classical systems to produce complex molecules. Now these expression systems are ready to be used by different industries like pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and food sectors due to the development of fully controlled large-scale bioreactors. This review aims to describe the evolution of hairy root generation and culture methods and to highlight the possibilities offered by hairy roots in terms of feasibility and perspectives.

Cannabinoid Inheritance Relies on Complex Genetic Architecture

Introduction: Understanding the inheritance of cannabinoid compounds in Cannabis sativa will facilitate effective crop breeding and careful regulation of controlled substances. The production of two key cannabinoids, Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), is partially controlled by two additive loci. Here, we present the first study to search for evidence of alternate genetic models describing the inheritance and expression of cannabinoids. Materials and Methods: Using an information-theoretic approach, we estimated composite genetic effects (CGEs) of four cultivars with pure CBD or pure THC chemotypes, their F1 and F2 hybrid progeny, to identify genetic models that explain cannabinoid inheritance patterns. We also estimated the effective number of genetic factors that control differences in cannabinoid concentration (THC, CBD, and cannabichromene [CBC]). Results: Unlike previous research, we note nonadditive components of cannabinoid inheritance. Concentration of THC is a polygenic trait (three to four genetic factors). Both additive and dominance CGEs best explained THC expression patterns. In contrast, cytoplasmic genomes and additive genes may influence CBD concentration. Maternal additive effects and additive genetic effects apparently influence CBC expression. Conclusions: Cannabinoid inheritance is more complex than previously appreciated; among other genetic effects, cytogenetic and maternal contributions may be undervalued influences on cannabinoid ratios and concentrations. Further research on the environmental sensitivity of cannabinoid production is advised.

Gene copy number is associated with phytochemistry in Cannabis sativa

Gene copy number (CN) variation is known to be important in nearly every species where it has been examined. Alterations in gene CN may provide a fast way of acquiring diversity, allowing rapid adaptation under strong selective pressures, and may also be a key component of standing genetic variation within species. Cannabis sativa plants produce a distinguishing set of secondary metabolites, the cannabinoids, many of which have medicinal utility. Two major cannabinoids-THCA (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid) and CBDA (cannabidiolic acid)-are products of a three-step biochemical pathway. Using whole-genome shotgun sequence data for 69 Cannabis cultivars from diverse lineages within the species, we found that genes encoding the synthases in this pathway vary in CN. Transcriptome sequence data show that the cannabinoid paralogs are differentially expressed among lineages within the species. We also found that CN partially explains variation in cannabinoid content levels among Cannabis plants. Our results demonstrate that biosynthetic genes found at multiple points in the pathway could be useful for breeding purposes, and suggest that natural and artificial selection have shaped CN variation. Truncations in specific paralogs are associated with lack of production of particular cannabinoids, showing how phytochemical diversity can evolve through a complex combination of processes.

Highly Predictive Genetic Markers Distinguish Drug-Type from Fiber-Type Cannabis sativa L

Genetic markers can be used in seeds and in plants to distinguish drug-type from fiber-type Cannabis Sativa L. varieties even at early stages, including pre-germination when cannabinoids are not accumulated yet. With this aim, this paper reports sequencing results for tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase (THCAS) and cannabidiolic acid synthase (CBDAS) genes from 21 C. sativa L. varieties. Taking into account that THCAS- and CBDAS-derived enzymes compete for the same substrate, the novelty of this work relies in the identification of markers based on both THCAS and CBDAS rather than THCAS alone. Notably, in our panel, we achieved an adequate degree of discrimination (AUC 100%) between drug-type and fiber-type cannabis samples. Our sequencing approach allowed identifying multiple genetic markers (single-nucleotide polymorphisms-SNPs-and a deletion/insertion) that effectively discriminate between the two subgroups of cannabis, namely fiber type vs. drug type. We identified four functional SNPs that are likely to induce decreased THCAS activity in the fiber-type cannabis plants. We also report the finding on a deletion in the CBDAS gene sequence that produces a truncated protein, possibly resulting in loss of function of the enzyme in the drug-type varieties. Chemical analyses for the actual concentration of cannabinoids confirmed the identification of drug-type rather than fiber-type genotypes. Genetic markers permit an early identification process for forensic applications while simplifying the procedures related to detection of therapeutic or industrial hemp.

Terpenoids and Phytocannabinoids Co-Produced in Cannabis Sativa Strains Show Specific Interaction for Cell Cytotoxic Activity

Mixtures of different Cannabis sativa phytocannabinoids are more active biologically than single phytocannabinoids. However, cannabis terpenoids as potential instigators of phytocannabinoid activity have not yet been explored in detail. Terpenoid groups were statistically co-related to certain cannabis strains rich in Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) or cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), and their ability to enhance the activity of decarboxylase phytocannabinoids (i.e., THC or CBD) was determined. Analytical HPLC and GC/MS were used to identify and quantify the secondary metabolites in 17 strains of C. sativa, and correlations between cannabinoids and terpenoids in each strain were determined. Column separation was used to separate and collect the compounds, and cell viability assay was used to assess biological activity. We found that in "high THC" or "high CBD" strains, phytocannabinoids are produced alongside certain sets of terpenoids. Only co-related terpenoids enhanced the cytotoxic activity of phytocannabinoids on MDA-MB-231 and HCT-116 cell lines. This was found to be most effective in natural ratios found in extracts of cannabis inflorescence. The correlation in a particular strain between THCA or CBDA and a certain set of terpenoids, and the partial specificity in interaction may have influenced the cultivation of cannabis and may have implications for therapeutic treatments.

Complex Patterns of Cannabinoid Alkyl Side-Chain Inheritance in Cannabis

The cannabinoid alkyl side-chain represents an important pharmacophore, where genetic targeting of alkyl homologs has the potential to provide enhanced forms of Cannabis for biopharmaceutical manufacture. Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) synthase genes govern dicyclic (CBDA) and tricyclic (THCA) cannabinoid composition. However, the inheritance of alkyl side-chain length has not been resolved, and few studies have investigated the contributions and interactions between cannabinoid synthesis pathway loci. To examine the inheritance of chemical phenotype (chemotype), THCAS and CBDAS genotypes were scored and alkyl cannabinoid segregation analysed in 210 F₂ progeny derived from a cross between two Cannabis chemotypes divergent for alkyl and cyclic cannabinoids. Inheritance patterns of F₂ progeny were non-Gaussian and deviated from Mendelian expectations. However, discrete alkyl cannabinoid segregation patterns consistent with digenic as well as epistatic modes of inheritance were observed among F₂ THCAS and CBDAS genotypes. These results suggest linkage between cannabinoid pathway loci and highlight the need for further detailed characterisation of cannabinoid inheritance to facilitate metabolic engineering of chemically elite germplasm.

Distribution of cannabinoid synthase genes in non-Cannabis organisms

The discovery of phytocannabinoid synthesizing enzymes, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase (THCAs) and cannabidiolic acid synthase (CBDAs) was a breakthrough in Cannabis research. However, their evolutionary aspects and distribution across organisms has not been adequately studied. We searched for THCAs and CBDAs genes in organisms other than Cannabis plants using the database available in NCBI. Both cannabinoid synthases seem to be widely distributed in the plant kingdom. Of several complete or partial sequences of cannabinoid synthases-likes, CBDAs-like from Morus notabilis matched closely to CsCBDAs and CsTHCAs. When amino acid sequences of CsTHCAs, CsCBDAs and MnCBDAs-like were compared to each other, and to the motif database stored in Expasy, all three proteins contained the FAD_PCMH (PCMH-type FAD-binding) domain indicating the conservation of this domain in cannabinoid synthases. Apart from FAD binding, Berberine Bridge Enzyme (BBE-likes), which catalyzes the synthesis of isoquinoline alkaloids in many plants such as mulberry, poplas and citrus, were the other most closely related enzymes to CsTHCAs and CsCBDAs. We also searched for THCAs and CBDAs in fungal and bacterial kingdom but could not find any notably similar sequence. However, partial mRNA from FAD binding enzyme from Trametes versicolor and 6-hydroxy D nicotine oxidase from Aspergillus saccharolyticus matched the CsTHCA sequence and a partial mRNA from a hypothetical protein in Pneumocystis carinii was the most closely matched fungal enzyme to the CsCBDA. Our database search showed that Morus notabilis from mulberry family could be the candidate plant for further studies. Comparative transcriptomic and metabolomic studies for mulberry and Cannabis plants could provide a much clear concepts on the co-evolution of these syanthases. Moreover, the understanding of cannabinoid synthesis pathway is still evolving, in-depth bioinformatics and functional analysis of the enzymes involved are required for pharmaceutical research and industrial advancement.

Cannabinoid synthases and osmoprotective metabolites accumulate in the exudates of Cannabis sativa L. glandular trichomes

Cannabinoids are terpenophenolic compounds produced by Cannabis sativa L., which accumulate in storage cavities of glandular trichomes as a part of the exudates. We investigated if tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase and cannabidiolic acid synthase, which are involved in the last step of cannabinoid biosynthesis, are also secreted into Cannabis trichome exudates. The exudates were collected by microsuction from storage cavities of Cannabis glandular trichomes and were subjected for proteomic and metabolomic analyses. The catalytic activity of the exudates was documented by cannabigerolic acid biotransformation studies under hydrophobic conditions. Electrophoretic separations revealed protein bands at ˜65 kDa, which were further identified as tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase and cannabidiolic acid synthase. The accumulation of the enzymes in trichome exudates increased substantially during the flowering period in the drug-type Cannabis plants. The content of cannabinoids increased significantly after incubating hexane-diluted trichome exudates with cannabigerolic acid. In this study, we showed that Cannabis glandular trichomes secrete and accumulate cannabinoid synthases in storage cavities, and the enzymes able to convert cannabigerolic acid under hydrophobic trichome-mimicking conditions. Metabolite profiling of the exudates revealed compounds with hydrophilic, osmoprotective and amphiphilic properties, which may play a role in providing a necessary aqueous microenvironment, which enables enzyme solubility and biocatalysis under hydrophobic conditions of glandular trichomes.

The origins of cannabis smoking: Chemical residue evidence from the first millennium BCE in the Pamirs

Cannabis is one of the oldest cultivated plants in East Asia, grown for grain and fiber as well as for recreational, medical, and ritual purposes. It is one of the most widely used psychoactive drugs in the world today, but little is known about its early psychoactive use or when plants under cultivation evolved the phenotypical trait of increased specialized compound production. The archaeological evidence for ritualized consumption of cannabis is limited and contentious. Here, we present some of the earliest directly dated and scientifically verified evidence for ritual cannabis smoking. This phytochemical analysis indicates that cannabis plants were burned in wooden braziers during mortuary ceremonies at the Jirzankal Cemetery (ca. 500 BCE) in the eastern Pamirs region. This suggests cannabis was smoked as part of ritual and/or religious activities in western China by at least 2500 years ago and that the cannabis plants produced high levels of psychoactive compounds.

Increasing potency and price of cannabis in Europe, 2006-16

AIMS

To quantify changes in (i) potency (concentration of Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol; %THC), (ii) price (euros/g of cannabis) and (iii) value (mg THC/euro) of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in Europe.

DESIGN

Repeated cross-sectional study.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

Data collected from 28 European Union (EU) member states, Norway and Turkey by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction.

MEASUREMENTS

Outcome variables were potency, price and value for cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in Europe, 2006-16. Inflation was estimated using the Harmonised Indices of Consumer Prices. Mixed-effects linear regression models were used to estimate linear and quadratic time trends, with a random intercept and slope fitted to account for variation across countries.

FINDINGS

Resin potency increased from a mean [95% confidence interval (CI)] of 8.14% THC (6.89, 9.49) in 2006 to 17.22 (15.23, 19.25) in 2016. Resin price increased from 8.21 euros/g (7.54, 8.97) to 12.27 (10.62, 14.16). Resin increased in value, from 11.00 mg THC per euro (8.60, 13.62) to 16.39 (13.68, 19.05). Quadratic time trends for resin potency and value indicated minimal change from 2006 to 2011, followed by marked increases from 2011 to 2016. Herbal cannabis potency increased from 5.00% THC (3.91, 6.23) to 10.22 (9.01, 11.47). Herbal price increased from 7.36 euros/g (6.22, 8.53) to 12.22 (10.59, 14.03). The value of herbal cannabis did not change from 12.65 mg of THC per euro (10.18, 15.34) to 12.72 (10.73, 14.73). All price trends persisted after adjusting for inflation.

CONCLUSIONS

European cannabis resin and herbal cannabis increased in potency and price from 2006 to 2016. Cannabis resin (but not herbal cannabis) increased in the quantity of Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol per euro spent. Marked increases in resin potency and value from 2011 to 2016 are consistent with the emergence of new resin production techniques in European and neighbouring drug markets.

Analysis of the Leaf Essential Oil of Stauranthus perforatus from Monteverde, Costa Rica

The leaf essential oil of Stauranthus perforatus Leibm. (Rutaceae) from Monteverde, Costa Rica, was isolated by hydrodistillation and the chemical composition determined by GC–MS. The most abundant essential oil components were α-pinene, germacrene D, and α-cadinol.

Closing the Yield Gap for Cannabis: A Meta-Analysis of Factors Determining Cannabis Yield

Until recently, the commercial production of Cannabis sativa was restricted to varieties that yielded high-quality fiber while producing low levels of the psychoactive cannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). In the last few years, a number of jurisdictions have legalized the production of medical and/or recreational cannabis with higher levels of THC, and other jurisdictions seem poised to follow suit. Consequently, demand for industrial-scale production of high yield cannabis with consistent cannabinoid profiles is expected to increase. In this paper we highlight that currently, projected annual production of cannabis is based largely on facility size, not yield per square meter. This meta-analysis of cannabis yields reported in scientific literature aimed to identify the main factors contributing to cannabis yield per plant, per square meter, and per W of lighting electricity. In line with previous research we found that variety, plant density, light intensity and fertilization influence cannabis yield and cannabinoid content; we also identified pot size, light type and duration of the flowering period as predictors of yield and THC accumulation. We provide insight into the critical role of light intensity, quality, and photoperiod in determining cannabis yields, with particular focus on the potential for light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to improve growth and reduce energy requirements. We propose that the vast amount of genomics data currently available for cannabis can be used to better understand the effect of genotype on yield. Finally, we describe diversification that is likely to emerge in cannabis growing systems and examine the potential role of plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) for growth promotion, regulation of cannabinoid biosynthesis, and biocontrol.

A physical and genetic map of Cannabis sativa identifies extensive rearrangements at the THC/CBD acid synthase loci

Cannabis sativa is widely cultivated for medicinal, food, industrial, and recreational use, but much remains unknown regarding its genetics, including the molecular determinants of cannabinoid content. Here, we describe a combined physical and genetic map derived from a cross between the drug-type strain Purple Kush and the hemp variety "Finola." The map reveals that cannabinoid biosynthesis genes are generally unlinked but that aromatic prenyltransferase (AP), which produces the substrate for THCA and CBDA synthases (THCAS and CBDAS), is tightly linked to a known marker for total cannabinoid content. We further identify the gene encoding CBCA synthase (CBCAS) and characterize its catalytic activity, providing insight into how cannabinoid diversity arises in cannabis. THCAS and CBDAS (which determine the drug vs. hemp chemotype) are contained within large (>250 kb) retrotransposon-rich regions that are highly nonhomologous between drug- and hemp-type alleles and are furthermore embedded within ∼40 Mb of minimally recombining repetitive DNA. The chromosome structures are similar to those in grains such as wheat, with recombination focused in gene-rich, repeat-depleted regions near chromosome ends. The physical and genetic map should facilitate further dissection of genetic and molecular mechanisms in this commercially and medically important plant.

A physical and genetic map of Cannabis sativa identifies extensive rearrangements at the THC/CBD acid synthase loci

Cannabis sativa is widely cultivated for medicinal, food, industrial, and recreational use, but much remains unknown regarding its genetics, including the molecular determinants of cannabinoid content. Here, we describe a combined physical and genetic map derived from a cross between the drug-type strain Purple Kush and the hemp variety “Finola.” The map reveals that cannabinoid biosynthesis genes are generally unlinked but that aromatic prenyltransferase (AP), which produces the substrate for THCA and CBDA synthases (THCAS and CBDAS), is tightly linked to a known marker for total cannabinoid content. We further identify the gene encoding CBCA synthase (CBCAS) and characterize its catalytic activity, providing insight into how cannabinoid diversity arises in cannabis. THCAS and CBDAS (which determine the drug vs. hemp chemotype) are contained within large (>250 kb) retrotransposon-rich regions that are highly nonhomologous between drug- and hemp-type alleles and are furthermore embedded within ∼40 Mb of minimally recombining repetitive DNA. The chromosome structures are similar to those in grains such as wheat, with recombination focused in gene-rich, repeat-depleted regions near chromosome ends. The physical and genetic map should facilitate further dissection of genetic and molecular mechanisms in this commercially and medically important plant.

Chemometric Analysis of Cannabinoids: Chemotaxonomy and Domestication Syndrome

Cannabis is an interesting domesticated crop with a long history of cultivation and use. Strains have been selected through informal breeding programs with undisclosed parentage and criteria. The term "strain" refers to minor morphological differences and grower branding rather than distinct cultivated varieties. We hypothesized that strains sold by different licensed producers are chemotaxonomically indistinguishable and that the commercial practice of identifying strains by the ratio of total THC and CBD is insufficient to account for the reported human health outcomes. We used targeted metabolomics to analyze 11 known cannabinoids and an untargeted metabolomics approach to identify 21 unknown cannabinoids. Five clusters of chemotaxonomically indistinguishable strains were identified from the 33 commercial products. Only 3 of the clusters produce CBDA in significant quantities while the other 2 clusters redirect metabolic resources toward the THCA production pathways. Six unknown metabolites were unique to CBD-rich strains and/or correlated to CBDA and 3 unknowns were found only in THC-rich strains. Together, these data indicate the domestication of the cannabis germplasm has resulted in a loss of the CBDA pathway in some strains and reallocation of resources between CBDA and THCA pathways in others. The impact of domestication is a lack of chemical diversity and loss of biodiversity in modern cannabis strains.

Accumulation of bioactive metabolites in cultivated medical Cannabis

There has been an increased use of medical Cannabis in the United States of America as more states legalize its use. Complete chemical analyses of this material can vary considerably between producers and is often not fully provided to consumers. As phytochemists in a state with legal medical Cannabis we sought to characterize the accumulation of phytochemicals in material grown by licensed commercial producers. We report the development of a simple extraction and analysis method, amenable to use by commercial laboratories for the detection and quantification of both cannabinoids and terpenoids. Through analysis of developing flowers on plants, we can identify sources of variability of floral metabolites due to flower maturity and position on the plant. The terpenoid composition varied by accession and was used to cluster cannabis strains into specific types. Inclusion of terpenoids with cannabinoids in the analysis of medical cannabis should be encouraged, as both of these classes of compounds could play a role in the beneficial medical effects of different cannabis strains.

Therapeutic applications of cannabinoids

The psychoactive property of cannabinoids is well known and there has been a continuous controversy regarding the usage of these compounds for therapeutic purposes all over the world. Their use for medical and research purposes are restricted in various countries. However, their utility as medications should not be overshadowed by its negative physiological activities. This review article is focused on the therapeutic potential and applications of phytocannabinoids and endocannabinoids. We further highlights their mode of action, overall effects on physiology, various in vitro and in vivo studies that have been done so far and the extent to which these compounds can be useful in different disease conditions such as cancer, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, pain, inflammation, glaucoma and many others. Thus, this work is an attempt to make the readers understand the positive implications of these compounds and indicates the significant developments of utilizing cannabinoids as therapeutic agents.

Cannabis, from plant to pill

The therapeutic application of cannabis is attracting substantial public and clinical interest. The cannabis plant has been described as a veritable 'treasure trove', producing more than 100 different cannabinoids, although the focus to date has been on the psychoactive molecule delta-9-tetraydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). Other numerous secondary metabolites of cannabis, the terpenes, some of which share the common intermediary geranyl diphosphate (GPP) with the cannabinoids, are hypothesized to contribute synergistically to their therapeutic benefits, an attribute that has been described as the 'entourage effect'. The effective delivery of such a complex multicomponent pharmaceutical relies upon the stable genetic background and standardized growth of the plant material, particularly if the raw botanical product in the form of the dried pistillate inflorescence (flos) is the source. Following supercritical CO₂ extraction of the inflorescence (and possibly bracts), the secondary metabolites can be blended to provide a specific ratio of major cannabinoids (THC : CBD) or individual cannabinoids can be isolated, purified and supplied as the pharmaceutical. Intensive breeding strategies will provide novel cultivars of cannabis possessing elevated levels of specific cannabinoids or other secondary metabolites.

Designing microorganisms for heterologous biosynthesis of cannabinoids

During the last decade, the use of medical Cannabis has expanded globally and legislation is getting more liberal in many countries, facilitating the research on cannabinoids. The unique interaction of cannabinoids with the human endocannabinoid system makes these compounds an interesting target to be studied as therapeutic agents for the treatment of several medical conditions. However, currently there are important limitations in the study, production and use of cannabinoids as pharmaceutical drugs. Besides the main constituent tetrahydrocannabinolic acid, the structurally related compound cannabidiol is of high interest as drug candidate. From the more than 100 known cannabinoids reported, most can only be extracted in very low amounts and their pharmacological profile has not been determined. Today, cannabinoids are isolated from the strictly regulated Cannabis plant, and the supply of compounds with sufficient quality is a major problem. Biotechnological production could be an attractive alternative mode of production. Herein, we explore the potential use of synthetic biology as an alternative strategy for synthesis of cannabinoids in heterologous hosts. We summarize the current knowledge surrounding cannabinoids biosynthesis and present a comprehensive description of the key steps of the genuine and artificial pathway, systems biotechnology needs and platform optimization.

The Cannabinoid Content of Legal Cannabis in Washington State Varies Systematically Across Testing Facilities and Popular Consumer Products

The majority of adults in the U.S. now have state-legal access to medical or recreational cannabis products, despite their federal prohibition. Given the wide array of pharmacologically active compounds in these products, it is essential that their biochemical profile is measured and reported to consumers, which requires accurate laboratory testing. However, no universal standards for laboratory testing protocols currently exist, and there is controversy as to whether all reported results are legitimate. To investigate these concerns, we analyzed a publicly available seed-to-sale traceability dataset from Washington state containing measurements of the cannabinoid content of legal cannabis products from state-certified laboratories. Consistent with previous work, we found that commercial Cannabis strains fall into three broad chemotypes defined by the THC:CBD ratio. Moreover, we documented systematic differences in the cannabinoid content reported by different laboratories, relative stability in cannabinoid levels of commercial flower and concentrates over time, and differences between popular commercial strains. Importantly, interlab differences in cannabinoid reporting persisted even after controlling for plausible confounds. Our results underscore the need for standardized laboratory methodologies in the legal cannabis industry and provide a framework for quantitatively assessing laboratory quality.

Potency of Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids in cannabis in England in 2016: Implications for public health and pharmacology

In 2005 and 2008, studies reported that cannabis in England had become dominated by the sinsemilla (unseeded female) form. The average potency (Δ⁹ -tetrahydrocannabinol [THC] content) of this material had doubled over the previous decade. Cannabis resin then circulating contained approximately equal ratios of THC and cannabidiol (CBD), whereas sinsemilla was almost devoid of CBD. Despite raised health concerns regarding sinsemilla use and the development of psychotic disorders, no update on street cannabis potency has been published since 2008. A total of 995 seized cannabis samples were acquired from the same 5 constabulary areas included in the 2005 study. The differing forms were segregated, and a representative 460 samples analyzed to assess their cannabinoid content using gas chromatography. The resultant median sinsemilla potency of 14.2% THC was similar to that observed in 2005 (13.9%). In each case, sinsemilla contained minimal CBD. Compared with 2005, resin had significantly higher mean THC (6.3%) and lower CBD (2.3%) contents (p < 0.0001). Although the average THC concentration in sinsemilla samples across the 5 constabularies has remained stable since 2005, the availability of this potent form of cannabis has further increased. Moreover, the now rarer resin samples show significantly decreased CBD contents and CBD:THC ratios, leaving the United Kingdom's cannabis street market populated by high-potency varieties of cannabis, which may have concerning implications for public health.

Developmental Plasticity of the Major Alkyl Cannabinoid Chemotypes in a Diverse Cannabis Genetic Resource Collection

Cannabis is a chemically diverse domesticated plant genus which produces a unique class of biologically active secondary metabolites referred to as cannabinoids. The affinity and selectivity of cannabinoids to targets of the human endocannabinoid system depend on alkyl side chain length, and these structural-activity relationships can be utilized for the development of novel therapeutics. Accurate early screening of germplasm has the potential to accelerate selection of chemical phenotypes (chemotypes) for pharmacological exploitation. However, limited attempts have been made to characterize the plasticity of alkyl cannabinoid composition in different plant tissues and throughout development. A chemotypic diversity panel comprised of 99 individuals from 20 Cannabis populations sourced from the Ecofibre Global Germplasm Collection (ecofibre.com.au and anandahemp.com) was used to examine alkyl cannabinoid variation across vegetative, flowering and maturation stages. A wide range of di-/tri-cyclic as well as C₃-/C₅-alkyl cannabinoid composition was observed between plants. Chemotype at the vegetative and flowering stages was found to be predictive of chemotype at maturation, indicating a low level of plasticity in cannabinoid composition. Chemometric cluster analysis based on composition data from all three developmental stages categorized alkyl cannabinoid chemotypes into three classes. Our results suggest that more extensive chemical and genetic characterization of the Cannabis genepool could facilitate the metabolic engineering of alkyl cannabinoid chemotypes.

The Case for the Entourage Effect and Conventional Breeding of Clinical Cannabis: No "Strain," No Gain

The topic of Cannabis curries controversy in every sphere of influence, whether politics, pharmacology, applied therapeutics or even botanical taxonomy. Debate as to the speciation of Cannabis, or a lack thereof, has swirled for more than 250 years. Because all Cannabis types are eminently capable of cross-breeding to produce fertile progeny, it is unlikely that any clear winner will emerge between the "lumpers" vs. "splitters" in this taxonomical debate. This is compounded by the profusion of Cannabis varieties available through the black market and even the developing legal market. While labeled "strains" in common parlance, this term is acceptable with respect to bacteria and viruses, but not among Plantae. Given that such factors as plant height and leaflet width do not distinguish one Cannabis plant from another and similar difficulties in defining terms in Cannabis, the only reasonable solution is to characterize them by their biochemical/pharmacological characteristics. Thus, it is best to refer to Cannabis types as chemical varieties, or "chemovars." The current wave of excitement in Cannabis commerce has translated into a flurry of research on alternative sources, particularly yeasts, and complex systems for laboratory production have emerged, but these presuppose that single compounds are a desirable goal. Rather, the case for Cannabis synergy via the "entourage effect" is currently sufficiently strong as to suggest that one molecule is unlikely to match the therapeutic and even industrial potential of Cannabis itself as a phytochemical factory. The astounding plasticity of the Cannabis genome additionally obviates the need for genetic modification techniques.

Transcriptome analysis of terpene chemotypes of Melaleuca alternifolia across different tissues

Plant chemotypes or chemical polymorphisms are defined by discrete variation in secondary metabolites within a species. This variation can have consequences for ecological interactions or the human use of plants. Understanding the molecular basis of chemotypic variation can help to explain how variation of plant secondary metabolites is controlled. We explored the transcriptomes of the 3 cardinal terpene chemotypes of Melaleuca alternifolia in young leaves, mature leaves, and stem and compared transcript abundance to variation in the constitutive profile of terpenes. Leaves from chemotype 1 plants (dominated by terpinen-4-ol) show a similar pattern of gene expression when compared to chemotype 5 plants (dominated by 1,8-cineole). Only terpene synthases in young leaves were differentially expressed between these chemotypes, supporting the idea that terpenes are mainly synthetized in young tissue. Chemotype 2 plants (dominated by terpinolene) show a greater degree of differential gene expression compared to the other chemotypes, which might be related to the isolation of plant populations that exhibit this chemotype and the possibility that the terpinolene synthase gene in M. alternifolia was derived by introgression from a closely related species, Melaleuca trichostachya. By using multivariate analyses, we were able to associate terpenes with candidate terpene synthases.

Phytochemistry of Cannabis sativa L

Cannabis (Cannabis sativa, or hemp) and its constituents-in particular the cannabinoids-have been the focus of extensive chemical and biological research for almost half a century since the discovery of the chemical structure of its major active constituent, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC). The plant's behavioral and psychotropic effects are attributed to its content of this class of compounds, the cannabinoids, primarily Δ9-THC, which is produced mainly in the leaves and flower buds of the plant. Besides Δ9-THC, there are also non-psychoactive cannabinoids with several medicinal functions, such as cannabidiol (CBD), cannabichromene (CBC), and cannabigerol (CBG), along with other non-cannabinoid constituents belonging to diverse classes of natural products. Today, more than 560 constituents have been identified in cannabis. The recent discoveries of the medicinal properties of cannabis and the cannabinoids in addition to their potential applications in the treatment of a number of serious illnesses, such as glaucoma, depression, neuralgia, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's, and alleviation of symptoms of HIV/AIDS and cancer, have given momentum to the quest for further understanding the chemistry, biology, and medicinal properties of this plant.This contribution presents an overview of the botany, cultivation aspects, and the phytochemistry of cannabis and its chemical constituents. Particular emphasis is placed on the newly-identified/isolated compounds. In addition, techniques for isolation of cannabis constituents and analytical methods used for qualitative and quantitative analysis of cannabis and its products are also reviewed.

Molecular Pharmacology of Phytocannabinoids

Cannabis sativa has been used for recreational, therapeutic and other uses for thousands of years. The plant contains more than 120 C₂₁ terpenophenolic constituents named phytocannabinoids. The Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol type class of phytocannabinoids comprises the largest proportion of the phytocannabinoid content. Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol was first discovered in 1971. This led to the discovery of the endocannabinoid system in mammals, including the cannabinoid receptors CB₁ and CB₂. Δ⁹-Tetrahydrocannabinol exerts its well-known psychotropic effects through the CB₁ receptor but this effect of Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol has limited the use of cannabis medicinally, despite the therapeutic benefits of this phytocannabinoid. This has driven research into other targets outside the endocannabinoid system and has also driven research into the other non-psychotropic phytocannabinoids present in cannabis. This chapter presents an overview of the molecular pharmacology of the seven most thoroughly investigated phytocannabinoids, namely Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol, Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabivarin, cannabinol, cannabidiol, cannabidivarin, cannabigerol, and cannabichromene. The targets of these phytocannabinoids are defined both within the endocannabinoid system and beyond. The pharmacological effect of each individual phytocannabinoid is important in the overall therapeutic and recreational effect of cannabis and slight structural differences can elicit diverse and competing physiological effects. The proportion of each phytocannabinoid can be influenced by various factors such as growing conditions and extraction methods. It is therefore important to investigate the pharmacology of these seven phytocannabinoids further, and characterise the large number of other phytocannabinoids in order to better understand their contributions to the therapeutic and recreational effects claimed for the whole cannabis plant and its extracts.

Cannabis Pharmacology: The Usual Suspects and a Few Promising Leads

The golden age of cannabis pharmacology began in the 1960s as Raphael Mechoulam and his colleagues in Israel isolated and synthesized cannabidiol, tetrahydrocannabinol, and other phytocannabinoids. Initially, THC garnered most research interest with sporadic attention to cannabidiol, which has only rekindled in the last 15 years through a demonstration of its remarkably versatile pharmacology and synergy with THC. Gradually a cognizance of the potential of other phytocannabinoids has developed. Contemporaneous assessment of cannabis pharmacology must be even far more inclusive. Medical and recreational consumers alike have long believed in unique attributes of certain cannabis chemovars despite their similarity in cannabinoid profiles. This has focused additional research on the pharmacological contributions of mono- and sesquiterpenoids to the effects of cannabis flower preparations. Investigation reveals these aromatic compounds to contribute modulatory and therapeutic roles in the cannabis entourage far beyond expectations considering their modest concentrations in the plant. Synergistic relationships of the terpenoids to cannabinoids will be highlighted and include many complementary roles to boost therapeutic efficacy in treatment of pain, psychiatric disorders, cancer, and numerous other areas. Additional parts of the cannabis plant provide a wide and distinct variety of other compounds of pharmacological interest, including the triterpenoid friedelin from the roots, canniprene from the fan leaves, cannabisin from seed coats, and cannflavin A from seed sprouts. This chapter will explore the unique attributes of these agents and demonstrate how cannabis may yet fulfil its potential as Mechoulam's professed "pharmacological treasure trove."

Cannabis cultivation: Methodological issues for obtaining medical-grade product

As studies continue to reveal favorable findings for the use of cannabidiol in the management of childhood epilepsy syndromes and other disorders, best practices for the large-scale production of Cannabis are needed for timely product development and research purposes. The processes of two institutions with extensive experience in producing large-scale cannabidiol chemotype Cannabis crops-GW Pharmaceuticals and the University of Mississippi-are described, including breeding, indoor and outdoor growing, harvesting, and extraction methods. Such practices have yielded desirable outcomes in Cannabis breeding and production: GW Pharmaceuticals has a collection of chemotypes dominant in any one of eight cannabinoids, two of which-cannabidiol and cannabidivarin-are supporting epilepsy clinical trial research, whereas in addition to a germplasm bank of high-THC, high-CBD, and intermediate type cannabis varieties, the team at University of Mississippi has established an in vitro propagation protocol for cannabis with no detectable variations in morphologic, physiologic, biochemical, and genetic profiles as compared to the mother plants. Improvements in phytocannabinoid yields and growing efficiency are expected as research continues at these institutions. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Cannabinoids and Epilepsy".

Broad-Scale Genetic Diversity of Cannabis for Forensic Applications

Cannabis (hemp and marijuana) is an iconic yet controversial crop. On the one hand, it represents a growing market for pharmaceutical and agricultural sectors. On the other hand, plants synthesizing the psychoactive THC produce the most widespread illicit drug in the world. Yet, the difficulty to reliably distinguish between Cannabis varieties based on morphological or biochemical criteria impedes the development of promising industrial programs and hinders the fight against narcotrafficking. Genetics offers an appropriate alternative to characterize drug vs. non-drug Cannabis. However, forensic applications require rapid and affordable genotyping of informative and reliable molecular markers for which a broad-scale reference database, representing both intra- and inter-variety variation, is available. Here we provide such a resource for Cannabis, by genotyping 13 microsatellite loci (STRs) in 1 324 samples selected specifically for fibre (24 hemp varieties) and drug (15 marijuana varieties) production. We showed that these loci are sufficient to capture most of the genome-wide diversity patterns recently revealed by NGS data. We recovered strong genetic structure between marijuana and hemp and demonstrated that anonymous samples can be confidently assigned to either plant types. Fibres appear genetically homogeneous whereas drugs show low (often clonal) diversity within varieties, but very high genetic differentiation between them, likely resulting from breeding practices. Based on an additional test dataset including samples from 41 local police seizures, we showed that the genetic signature of marijuana cultivars could be used to trace crime scene evidence. To date, our study provides the most comprehensive genetic resource for Cannabis forensics worldwide.

An Orally Active Cannabis Extract with High Content in Cannabidiol attenuates Chemically-induced Intestinal Inflammation and Hypermotility in the Mouse

Anecdotal and scientific evidence suggests that Cannabis use may be beneficial in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients. Here, we have investigated the effect of a standardized Cannabis sativa extract with high content of cannabidiol (CBD), here named CBD BDS for "CBD botanical drug substance," on mucosal inflammation and hypermotility in mouse models of intestinal inflammation. Colitis was induced in mice by intracolonic administration of dinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (DNBS). Motility was evaluated in the experimental model of intestinal hypermotility induced by irritant croton oil. CBD BDS or pure CBD were given - either intraperitoneally or by oral gavage - after the inflammatory insult (curative protocol). The amounts of CBD in the colon, brain, and liver after the oral treatments were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to ion trap-time of flight mass spectrometry. CBD BDS, both when given intraperitoneally and by oral gavage, decreased the extent of the damage (as revealed by the decrease in the colon weight/length ratio and myeloperoxidase activity) in the DNBS model of colitis. It also reduced intestinal hypermotility (at doses lower than those required to affect transit in healthy mice) in the croton oil model of intestinal hypermotility. Under the same experimental conditions, pure CBD did not ameliorate colitis while it normalized croton oil-induced hypermotility when given intraperitoneally (in a dose-related fashion) or orally (only at one dose). In conclusion, CBD BDS, given after the inflammatory insult, attenuates injury and motility in intestinal models of inflammation. These findings sustain the rationale of combining CBD with other minor Cannabis constituents and support the clinical development of CBD BDS for IBD treatment.

Rapid identification of drug-type strains in Cannabis sativa using loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay

In Cannabis sativa L., tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary psychoactive compound and exists as the carboxylated form, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA). C. sativa is divided into two strains based on THCA content-THCA-rich (drug-type) strains and THCA-poor (fiber-type) strains. Both strains are prohibited by law in many countries including Japan, whereas the drug-type strains are regulated in Canada and some European countries. As the two strains cannot be discriminated by morphological analysis, a simple method for identifying the drug-type strains is required for quality control in legal cultivation and forensic investigation. We have developed a novel loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for identifying the drug-type strains of C. sativa. We designed two selective LAMP primer sets for on-site or laboratory use, which target the drug-type THCA synthase gene. The LAMP assay was accomplished within approximately 40 min. The assay showed high specificity for the drug-type strains and its sensitivity was the same as or higher than that of conventional polymerase chain reaction. We also showed the effectiveness of melting curve analysis that was conducted after the LAMP assay. The melting temperature values of the drug-type strains corresponded to those of the cloned drug-type THCA synthase gene, and were clearly different from those of the cloned fiber-type THCA synthase gene. Moreover, the LAMP assay with simple sample preparation could be accomplished within 1 h from sample treatment to identification without the need for special devices or techniques. Our rapid, sensitive, specific, and simple assay is expected to be applicable to laboratory and on-site detection.

Pure Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin and a Cannabis sativa extract with high content in Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin inhibit nitrite production in murine peritoneal macrophages

Historical and scientific evidence suggests that Cannabis use has immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects. We have here investigated the effect of the non-psychotropic phytocannabinoid Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV) and of a Cannabis sativa extract with high (64.8%) content in THCV (THCV-BDS) on nitric oxide (NO) production, and on cannabinoid and transient receptor potential (TRP) channel expression in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine peritoneal macrophages. THCV-BDS and THCV exhibited similar affinity in radioligand binding assays for CB₁ and CB₂ receptors, and inhibited, via CB₂ but not CB₁ cannabinoid receptors, nitrite production evoked by LPS in peritoneal macrophages. THCV down-regulated the over-expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and interleukin 1β (IL-1β) proteins induced by LPS. Furthermore, THCV counteracted LPS-induced up-regulation of CB₁ receptors, without affecting the changes in CB₂, TRPV2 or TRPV4 mRNA expression caused by LPS. Other TRP channels, namely, TRPA1, TRPV1, TRPV3 and TRPM8 were poorly expressed or undetectable in both unstimulated and LPS-challenged macrophages. It is concluded that THCV - via CB₂ receptor activation - inhibits nitrite production in macrophages. The effect of this phytocannabinoid was associated with a down-regulation of CB₁, but not CB₂ or TRP channel mRNA expression.

Evolution of the Cannabinoid and Terpene Content during the Growth of Cannabis sativa Plants from Different Chemotypes

The evolution of major cannabinoids and terpenes during the growth of Cannabis sativa plants was studied. In this work, seven different plants were selected: three each from chemotypes I and III and one from chemotype II. Fifty clones of each mother plant were grown indoors under controlled conditions. Every week, three plants from each variety were cut and dried, and the leaves and flowers were analyzed separately. Eight major cannabinoids were analyzed via HPLC-DAD, and 28 terpenes were quantified using GC-FID and verified via GC-MS. The chemotypes of the plants, as defined by the tetrahydrocannabinolic acid/cannabidiolic acid (THCA/CBDA) ratio, were clear from the beginning and stable during growth. The concentrations of the major cannabinoids and terpenes were determined, and different patterns were found among the chemotypes. In particular, the plants from chemotypes II and III needed more time to reach peak production of THCA, CBDA, and monoterpenes. Differences in the cannabigerolic acid development among the different chemotypes and between monoterpene and sesquiterpene evolution patterns were also observed. Plants of different chemotypes were clearly differentiated by their terpene content, and characteristic terpenes of each chemotype were identified.

Beyond the CB1 Receptor: Is Cannabidiol the Answer for Disorders of Motivation?

The Cannabis sativa plant has been used to treat various physiological and psychiatric conditions for millennia. Current research is focused on isolating potentially therapeutic chemical constituents from the plant for use in the treatment of many central nervous system disorders. Of particular interest is the primary nonpsychoactive constituent cannabidiol (CBD). Unlike Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), CBD does not act through the cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor but has many other receptor targets that may play a role in psychiatric disorders. Here we review preclinical and clinical data outlining the therapeutic efficacy of CBD for the treatment of motivational disorders such as drug addiction, anxiety, and depression. Across studies, findings suggest promising treatment effects and potentially overlapping mechanisms of action for CBD in these disorders and indicate the need for further systematic investigation of the viability of CBD as a psychiatric pharmacotherapy.