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Napoli I, Blusztajn JK, Mellott TJ. Prenatal choline supplementation in rats increases the expression of IGF2 and its receptor IGF2R and enhances IGF2-induced acetylcholine release in hippocampus and frontal cortex. Brain Res 2008; 1237:124-35. [PMID: 18786520 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.08.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2008] [Revised: 08/15/2008] [Accepted: 08/19/2008] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Choline is an essential nutrient whose availability during the second half of gestation produces long-lasting cognitive effects. Rats that obtain supplemental choline during embryonic day (E) 11-17 have enhanced depolarization-evoked acetylcholine (ACh) release from hippocampal slices, whereas choline deficiency during this time reduces this release. Previously we reported that rats whose mothers consumed a choline-supplemented diet during E11-17 have higher levels of insulin-like growth factor II (IGF2) mRNA and protein in the frontal cortex compared to control and prenatally choline-deficient animals. Since IGF2 has been shown to stimulate endogenous ACh release, we measured the release of ACh from hippocampal and frontal cortical slices from rats on postnatal day (P) 18, P24, P34 and P80 in response to a depolarizing concentration of potassium (45 mM or 25 mM) or to IGF2 treatment in the absence or presence of a depolarizing concentration of potassium (25 mM). On P18, IGF2/depolarization-evoked ACh release from hippocampal slices was enhanced by prenatal choline supplementation. In the frontal cortex on P80, prenatal choline supplementation dramatically potentiated ACh release induced by depolarization, IGF2 or the combination of the two. On P18 and P90 and in both brain regions, IGF2 mRNA and protein levels, as well as protein levels of the IGF2 receptor (IGF2R), were higher in prenatally choline-supplemented rats. Choline supplementation also increased IGF2R mRNA levels in the septum. In summary, prenatal choline supplementation produced alterations in IGF2 signaling, via increased levels of IGF2 and IGF2R, which may enhance cholinergic neurotransmission and confer neuroprotection against insult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Napoli
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA
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52
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Glenn MJ, Kirby ED, Gibson EM, Wong-Goodrich SJ, Mellott TJ, Blusztajn JK, Williams CL. Age-related declines in exploratory behavior and markers of hippocampal plasticity are attenuated by prenatal choline supplementation in rats. Brain Res 2008; 1237:110-23. [PMID: 18786518 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.08.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2008] [Accepted: 08/25/2008] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Supplemental choline in the maternal diet produces a lasting enhancement in memory in offspring that resists age-related decline and is accompanied by neuroanatomical, neurophysiological and neurochemical changes in the hippocampus. The present study was designed to examine: 1) if prenatal choline supplementation alters behaviors that contribute to risk or resilience in cognitive aging, and 2) whether, at old age (25 months), prenatally choline-supplemented rats show evidence of preserved hippocampal plasticity. A longitudinal design was used to look at exploration of an open field, with and without objects, at 1 and 24 months of age in male and female rats whose mothers were fed a diet supplemented with choline (SUP; 5 mg/kg choline chloride) or not supplemented (CON; 1.1 mg/kg choline chloride) on embryonic days 12-17. Aging caused a significant decline in open field exploration that was more pronounced in males but interest in novel objects was maintained in both sexes. Prenatal choline supplementation attenuated, but did not prevent age-related decline in exploration in males and increased object exploration in young females. Following behavioral assessment, rats were euthanized to assess markers of hippocampal plasticity. Aged SUP males and females had more newly proliferated cells in the hippocampal dentate gyrus and protein levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) were significantly elevated in female SUP rats in comparison to all other groups. Taken together, these findings provide the first evidence that prenatal choline supplementation causes changes in exploratory behaviors over the lifespan and preserves some features of hippocampal plasticity that can be seen even at 2 years of age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa J Glenn
- Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.
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53
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Ryan SH, Williams JK, Thomas JD. Choline supplementation attenuates learning deficits associated with neonatal alcohol exposure in the rat: effects of varying the timing of choline administration. Brain Res 2008; 1237:91-100. [PMID: 18786517 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.08.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2008] [Revised: 08/14/2008] [Accepted: 08/15/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Despite the harmful effects of fetal alcohol exposure, some pregnant women continue to drink alcohol. Thus, it is imperative to pursue safe, effective treatments for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Using an animal model, our laboratory has demonstrated that choline, an essential nutrient, effectively reduces the severity of some fetal alcohol effects, even when administered after the ethanol insult is complete. The present study investigated whether there is a critical developmental period when choline is most effective in attenuating ethanol's teratogenic effects. Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to 5.25 g/kg/day ethanol during the third trimester equivalent brain growth spurt (postnatal days (PD) 4-9) via intubation. A non-intubation control group and a sham intubation control group were included. Following ethanol exposure, pups received subcutaneous injections of saline vehicle or choline chloride (100 mg/kg/day) from PD 11-20, PD 21-30, or PD 11-30. Beginning on PD 45, subjects were tested on a Morris water maze spatial learning task. Performance of both the ethanol-exposed group that did not receive choline and the ethanol-exposed group treated with choline from PD 21-30 was significantly impaired compared to controls during acquisition of the Morris water maze task. Performance of ethanol-exposed groups treated with choline from PD 11-20 or PD 11-30 was intermediate, not differing significantly from any other groups. However, during the probe trial, ethanol exposure produced significant deficits in spatial memory which were mitigated by all choline treatments, regardless of the timing of administration. These findings suggest that choline's therapeutic window may be very large, or spans across the two developmental periods examined in this study. Importantly, these findings indicate that choline supplementation may effectively reduce some alcohol-related learning impairments, even when administered in later childhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Hunter Ryan
- Department of Psychology, Center for Behavioral Teratology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92120, USA
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54
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Stevens KE, Adams CE, Yonchek J, Hickel C, Danielson J, Kisley MA. Permanent improvement in deficient sensory inhibition in DBA/2 mice with increased perinatal choline. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 198:413-20. [PMID: 18446322 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-008-1170-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2007] [Accepted: 04/01/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Schizophrenia patients and certain inbred mouse strains (i.e., DBA/2) show deficient sensory inhibition which has been linked to reduced numbers of hippocampal alpha7 nicotinic receptors and to underlying polymorphisms in the promoter region for the alpha7 gene. Increasing maternal dietary choline, a selective alpha7 agonist, during gestation has been shown to produce long-term changes in adult offspring behavior (i.e., improved learning and memory in rats). OBJECTIVES The objective of this study is to improve sensory inhibition in DBA/2 mice through maternal choline supplementation. MATERIALS AND METHODS DBA/2 dams were placed on normal (1.1 g/kg) or supplemented (5 g/kg) choline diet throughout gestation and lactation. Offspring were placed on normal diet at weaning and were assessed for sensory inhibition parameters at adulthood. Evoked EEG responses to identical paired auditory stimuli were compared. At the end of the study, the brains were collected for autoradiographic assessment of hippocampal levels of alpha-bungarotoxin binding to visualize alpha7 nicotinic receptors. RESULTS Offspring mice which were choline supplemented during gestation showed significantly improved sensory inhibition compared to mice gestated on the normal choline diet. The improvement was produced by a significant reduction in the response to the second stimulus, demonstrating improved inhibition to that stimulus. There was a concurrent increase in alpha7 receptor numbers in both the CA1 and dentate gyrus regions of the hippocampus suggesting that this increase may be responsible for the improved inhibition. CONCLUSIONS These data show that gestational choline supplementation produces permanent improvement in a deficit associated with schizophrenia and may have implications for human prenatal nutrition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen E Stevens
- Medical Research, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 1055 Clermont Avenue, Denver, CO 80220, USA.
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55
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Meck WH, Williams CL, Cermak JM, Blusztajn JK. Developmental periods of choline sensitivity provide an ontogenetic mechanism for regulating memory capacity and age-related dementia. Front Integr Neurosci 2008; 1:7. [PMID: 18958235 PMCID: PMC2526009 DOI: 10.3389/neuro.07.007.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2007] [Accepted: 04/17/2008] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to determine brain and behavioral sensitivity of nutrients that may serve as inductive signals during early development, we altered choline availability to rats during 7 time frames spanning embryonic day (ED) 6 through postnatal day (PD) 75 and examined spatial memory ability in the perinatally-treated adults. Two sensitive periods were identified, ED 12–17 and PD 16–30, during which choline supplementation facilitated spatial memory and produced increases in dendritic spine density in CA1 and dentate gyrus (DG) regions of the hippocampus while also changing the dendritic fields of DG granule cells. Moreover, choline supplementation during ED 12–17 only, prevented the memory decline normally observed in aged rats. These behavioral changes were strongly correlated with the acetylcholine (ACh) content of hippocampal slices following stimulated release. Our data demonstrate that the availability of choline during critical periods of brain development influences cognitive performance in adulthood and old age, and emphasize the importance of perinatal nutrition for successful cognitive aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warren H Meck
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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56
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Nag N, Ward B, Berger-Sweeney JE. Nutritional factors in a mouse model of Rett syndrome. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2008; 33:586-92. [PMID: 18479749 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2007] [Revised: 03/07/2008] [Accepted: 03/19/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Environmental factors such as nutrition and housing can influence behavioral and anatomical characteristics of several neurological disorders, including Rett syndrome (RTT). RTT is associated with mutations in the X-linked gene encoding MeCP2, a transcriptional repressor that binds methylated DNA. While direct genetic intervention in humans is impossible at this time, motor and cognitive deficits in RTT may be ameliorated through manipulations of epigenetic/environmental factors. For example, studies in rodents suggest that choline nutrient supplementation during critical periods of brain development enhances cholinergic neurotransmission, alters neuronal size and distribution, and facilitates performance of memory and motoric tasks. Recent work in a mouse model of RTT shows that enhancing maternal nutrition through choline supplementation improves both anatomical and behavioral symptoms in the mutant offspring. We describe here cellular and molecular mechanisms that may underlie this specific enhancement and may provide more general insights into mechanisms underlying gene-environment interactions in neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nupur Nag
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wellesley College, 106 Central Street, Wellesley, MA 02481, United States
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57
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Glenn MJ, Gibson EM, Kirby ED, Mellott TJ, Blusztajn JK, Williams CL. Prenatal choline availability modulates hippocampal neurogenesis and neurogenic responses to enriching experiences in adult female rats. Eur J Neurosci 2007; 25:2473-82. [PMID: 17445242 PMCID: PMC2435208 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05505.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Increased dietary intake of choline early in life improves performance of adult rats on memory tasks and prevents their age-related memory decline. Because neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus also declines with age, we investigated whether prenatal choline availability affects hippocampal neurogenesis in adult Sprague-Dawley rats and modifies their neurogenic response to environmental stimulation. On embryonic days (ED) 12-17, pregnant rats ate a choline-supplemented (SUP-5 g/kg), choline sufficient (SFF-1.1 g/kg), or choline-free (DEF) semisynthetic diet. Adult offspring either remained in standard housing or were given 21 daily visits to explore a maze. On the last ten exploration days, all rats received daily injections of 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU, 100 mg/kg). The number of BrdU+ cells was significantly greater in the dentate gyrus in SUP rats compared to SFF or DEF rats. While maze experience increased the number of BrdU+ cells in SFF rats to the level seen in the SUP rats, this enriching experience did not alter cell proliferation in DEF rats. Similar patterns of cell proliferation were obtained with immunohistochemical staining for neuronal marker doublecortin, confirming that diet and exploration affected hippocampal neurogenesis. Moreover, hippocampal levels of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were increased in SUP rats as compared to SFF and DEF animals. We conclude that prenatal choline intake has enduring effects on adult hippocampal neurogenesis, possibly via up-regulation of BDNF levels, and suggest that these alterations of neurogenesis may contribute to the mechanism of life-long changes in cognitive function governed by the availability of choline during gestation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa J Glenn
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, 572 Research Drive, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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58
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Mellott TJ, Kowall NW, Lopez-Coviella I, Blusztajn JK. Prenatal choline deficiency increases choline transporter expression in the septum and hippocampus during postnatal development and in adulthood in rats. Brain Res 2007; 1151:1-11. [PMID: 17399691 PMCID: PMC1952662 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2006] [Revised: 02/16/2007] [Accepted: 03/02/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Supplementation of maternal diet with the essential nutrient, choline, during the second half of pregnancy in rats causes long-lasting improvements in spatial memory in the offspring and protects them from the memory decline characteristic of old age. In contrast, prenatal choline deficiency is associated with poor performance in certain cognitive tasks. The mechanism by which choline influences learning and memory remains unclear; however, it may involve changes to the hippocampal cholinergic system. Previously, we showed that the hippocampi of prenatally [embryonic days (E) 11-17] choline-deficient animals have increased synthesis of acetylcholine (ACh) from choline transported by the high-affinity choline transporter (CHT) and reduced ACh content relative to the control and to the E11-17 choline-supplemented rats. In the current study, we found that, during postnatal period [postnatal days (P) 18-480], prenatal choline deficiency increased the expression of CHT mRNA in the septum and CHT mRNA and protein levels in the hippocampus and altered the pattern of CHT immunoreactivity in the dentate gyrus. CHT immunoreactivity was more prominent in the inner molecular layer in prenatally choline-deficient rats compared to controls and prenatally choline-supplemented animals. In addition, in all groups, we observed a population of hilar interneurons that were CHT-immunoreactive. These neurons are the likely source of the hippocampal CHT mRNA as their number correlated with the levels of this mRNA. The abundance of hippocampal CHT mRNA rose between P1 and P24 and then declined reaching 60% of the P1 value by P90. These data show that prenatal availability of choline alters its own metabolism (i.e., CHT expression). While the upregulated CHT expression during the period of prenatal choline deficiency may be considered as a compensatory mechanism that could enhance ACh synthesis when choline supply is low, the persistent upregulation of CHT expression subsequent to the brief period of prenatal deprivation of choline in utero might be beneficial during choline deficiency in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany J. Mellott
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Neil W. Kowall
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
- Geriatric Research Education Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Bedford, MA 01730, USA
| | - Ignacio Lopez-Coviella
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Jan Krzysztof Blusztajn
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
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59
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Plyusnina IZ, Os'kina IN, Shchepina OA, Prasolova LA, Trut LN. A maternal methyl-containing diet alters learning ability in the Morris swimming test in adult rats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 37:425-8. [PMID: 17505790 DOI: 10.1007/s11055-007-0030-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2005] [Accepted: 02/27/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Maternal choline diet is known to affect the processes of spatial learning. We report here our studies of learning ability in the Morris swimming test in the adult offspring of maternal rats given a methyl-containing supplement enriched with choline and betaine during pregnancy and lactation. Increases in the time taken to find the invisible platform and the duration of swimming close to the vessel walls were seen, these demonstrating worsening of learning ability in response to the maternal diet. Changes in the platform search strategy were not associated with increases in anxiety in male rats. The possible role of a maternal methyl-containing diet in altering the expression of genes controlling the development of the nervous system is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Z Plyusnina
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Division, Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia.
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60
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Mellott TJ, Follettie MT, Diesl V, Hill AA, Lopez-Coviella I, Blusztajn JK. Prenatal choline availability modulates hippocampal and cerebral cortical gene expression. FASEB J 2007; 21:1311-23. [PMID: 17264169 DOI: 10.1096/fj.06-6597com] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
An increased supply of the essential nutrient choline during fetal development [embryonic day (E) 11-17] in rats causes life-long improvements in memory performance, whereas choline deficiency during this time impairs certain aspects of memory. We analyzed mRNA expression in brains of prenatally choline-deficient, choline-supplemented, or control rats of various ages [postnatal days (P) 1 to 34 for hippocampus and E16 to P34 for cortex] using oligonucleotide microarrays and found alterations in gene expression levels evoked by prenatal choline intake that were, in most cases, transient occurring during the P15-P34 period. We selected a subset of genes, encoding signaling proteins, and verified the microarray data by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analyses. Prenatally choline-supplemented rats had the highest expression of calcium/calmodulin (CaM)-dependent protein kinase (CaMK) I and insulin-like growth factor (IGF) II (Igf2) in the cortex and of the transcription factor Zif268/EGR1 in the cortex and hippocampus. Prenatally choline deficient rats had the highest expression of CaMKIIbeta, protein kinase Cbeta2, and GABA(B) receptor 1 isoforms c and d in the hippocampus. Similar changes in the expression of the proteins encoded by these genes were observed using immunoblot analyses. These data show that the prenatal supply of choline causes multiple modifications in the developmental patterns of expression of genes known to influence learning and memory and provide molecular correlates for the cognitive changes evoked by altered availability of choline in utero.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany J Mellott
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany St., Boston, MA 02118, USA
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61
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Liapi C, Feskou I, Zarros A, Galanopoulou P, Tsakiris S. Effects of gestational and lactational choline deprivation on brain antioxidant status, acetylcholinesterase, (Na+,K+)- and Mg2+-ATPase activities in offspring rats. Clin Chem Lab Med 2007; 45:651-6. [PMID: 17484629 DOI: 10.1515/cclm.2007.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Choline plays an important role in brain development. Choline-deficient diet (CDD) is known to produce (among other effects) a decrease in acetylcholine in rat brains. The aim of our study was to investigate how CDD administration during gestation and lactation could affect total antioxidant status (TAS) and activities of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), (Na(+),K(+))- and Mg(2+)-ATPase in the brains of both male and female newborn and suckling (21-day-old) rats. METHODS Three different experiments were performed. Whole brains were obtained from: (a) newborn rats following gestational CDD (experiment I); (b) 21-day-old rats following gestational but not lactational CDD (experiment II); and (c) 21-day-old rats following gestational and lactational CDD (experiment III). Enzyme activities and TAS were measured spectrophotometrically. RESULTS In choline-deprived (CD) newborn rats, TAS and AChE and Na(+),K(+)-ATPase activities were significantly reduced by 23%, 24% and 50%, respectively, in the brains of both sexes. Gestational CDD caused only a decrease in TAS (-27%, p<0.001) in suckling rat brains in both sexes. No changes were observed for the other enzyme activities. Moreover, gestational and lactational CDD also led only to a decrease in TAS (-24%, p<0.001) in the suckling rat brains of both sexes. Mg(2+)-ATPase activities showed no changes after any of the experimental procedures. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that the lower enzyme activities in newborn CD brains were restored to normal after 21 days of either normal or CDD lactation, possibly due to novel synaptogenesis, endogenous neuroregulation, and/or to other substances acquired by lactation. The increase in homocysteine concentration due to choline deficiency reported in the literature may be the cause of the low antioxidant capacity observed in offspring rat brains. Brain Na(+),K(+)-ATPase inhibition (induced by CDD) could result in modulations of neural excitability, metabolic energy production and neurotransmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charis Liapi
- Department of Experimental Pharmacology, Medical School, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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62
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Wagner AF, Hunt PS. Impaired trace fear conditioning following neonatal ethanol: reversal by choline. Behav Neurosci 2006; 120:482-7. [PMID: 16719711 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7044.120.2.482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Neonatal ethanol exposure in animals results in performance deficits on tests of hippocampus-dependent spatial memory, and recent studies have shown that extra dietary choline can ameliorate some of these impairments. In this experiment, rats were administered 5.25 g/kg ig ethanol per day or sham intubations on Postnatal Days (PD) 4-9 and choline (0.1 ml of an 18.8 mg/ml solution) or saline subcutaneously on PD 4-20. On PD 30, rats were given delay or trace fear conditioning trials and were tested for conditioned stimulus-elicited freezing 24 hr later. Neonatal ethanol produced a profound impairment in trace conditioning that was reversed by choline. Groups did not differ in delay conditioned responding, indicating that neonatal ethanol produces a relatively selective cognitive deficit that can be alleviated with supplemental choline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison F Wagner
- Department of Psychology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA 23187-8795, USA
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63
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Alkondon M, Albuquerque EX. Subtype-Specific Inhibition of Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors by Choline: A Regulatory Pathway. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2006; 318:268-75. [PMID: 16565162 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.106.103135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Choline is an essential nutrient and a precursor of neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) and is produced at synapses during depolarization, upon hydrolysis of ACh via acetylcholinesterase, and under conditions of injury and trauma. Animal studies have shown that supplementation with choline during early development results in long-lasting improvement in memory in adults; however, the mechanisms underlying this effect are poorly defined. Previous studies revealed that choline interacts with type IA (alpha7*) nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) as a full agonist and as a desensitizing agent and is a weak agonist of type III (alpha3beta4*) nAChRs. Because nAChRs play a role in learning and memory and are generally inhibited by agonists at low concentrations, we investigated in this study the inhibitory effects of choline on non-alpha7 nAChRs such as type II (alpha4beta2*) and type III nAChRs. Using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from neurons of rat hippocampal and dorsal striatal slices, we demonstrate that choline inhibited type III nAChR-mediated glutamate excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs). Choline inhibited ACh-induced N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) EPSCs in CA1 stratum radiatum (SR) interneurons of rat hippocampal slices with an IC50 of approximately 15 microM. Choline did not inhibit NMDA or alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors in CA1 SR interneurons. Choline inhibited type II nAChRs in CA1 SR interneurons with an IC50 of approximately 370 microM. The present results reveal an order of inhibitory potency for choline type III>type IA>type II nAChRs. It is concluded that brain nAChRs, but not glutamate receptors, are the primary targets for the regulatory actions of choline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manickavasagom Alkondon
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 655 W. Baltimore St., Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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64
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Cheng RK, Meck WH, Williams CL. alpha7 Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and temporal memory: synergistic effects of combining prenatal choline and nicotine on reinforcement-induced resetting of an interval clock. Learn Mem 2006; 13:127-34. [PMID: 16547161 PMCID: PMC1409834 DOI: 10.1101/lm.31506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2005] [Accepted: 12/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We previously showed that prenatal choline supplementation could increase the precision of timing and temporal memory and facilitate simultaneous temporal processing in mature and aged rats. In the present study, we investigated the ability of adult rats to selectively control the reinforcement-induced resetting of an internal clock as a function of prenatal drug treatments designed to affect the alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (alpha7 nAChR). Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to prenatal choline (CHO), nicotine (NIC), methyllycaconitine (MLA), choline + nicotine (CHO + NIC), choline + nicotine + methyllycaconitine (CHO + NIC + MLA), or a control treatment (CON). Beginning at 4-mo-of-age, rats were trained on a peak-interval timing procedure in which food was available at 10-, 30-, and 90-sec criterion durations. At steady-state performance there were no differences in timing accuracy, precision, or resetting among the CON, MLA, and CHO + NIC + MLA treatments. It was observed that the CHO and NIC treatments produced a small, but significant increase in timing precision, but no change in accuracy or resetting. In contrast, the CHO + NIC prenatal treatment produced a dramatic increase in timing precision and selective control of the resetting mechanism with no change in overall timing accuracy. The synergistic effect of combining prenatal CHO and NIC treatments suggests an organizational change in alpha7 nAChR function that is dependent upon a combination of selective and nonselective nAChR stimulation during early development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruey-Kuang Cheng
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
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65
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McCann JC, Hudes M, Ames BN. An overview of evidence for a causal relationship between dietary availability of choline during development and cognitive function in offspring. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2006; 30:696-712. [PMID: 16504295 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2005] [Revised: 11/01/2005] [Accepted: 12/29/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This review is part of a series intended for non-specialists that will provide an overview of evidence for causal relationships between micronutrient deficiencies and brain function. Here, we review 34 studies in rodents linking the availability of choline during gestation and perinatal development to neurological function or performance of offspring in cognitive and behavioral tests. Experimental designs, major results, and statistical criteria are summarized in Tables 1-4. Based on our reading of the literature, the evidence suggests that choline supplementation during development results in improved performance of offspring in cognitive or behavioral tests, and in changes in a variety of neurological functional indicators: (1) enhanced performance was observed, particularly on more difficult tasks; (2) increases (choline supplementation) or decreases (choline deficiency) were observed in electrophysiological responsiveness and size of neurons in offspring; and (3) supplementation resulted in some protection against adverse effects of several neurotoxic agents (including alcohol) in offspring. Discussion topics include methodological issues, such as the importance of independent replication, causal criteria, and uncertainties in interpreting test results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joyce C McCann
- Nutrition and Metabolism Center, Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, 5700 Martin Luther King Jr. Way, Oakland, CA 94609-1673, USA.
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66
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Nováková J, Mikasová L, Machová E, Lisá V, Dolezal V. Chronic treatment with amyloid β1–42 inhibits non-cholinergic high-affinity choline transport in NG108-15 cells through protein kinase C signaling. Brain Res 2005; 1062:101-10. [PMID: 16256077 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2005.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2005] [Revised: 09/17/2005] [Accepted: 09/25/2005] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the influence of the amyloid-beta-peptide(1-42) on hemicholinum-3-sensitive high-affinity choline uptake in NG108-15 cells. RT-PCR analysis revealed the presence of mRNA for a choline transporter-like protein but not for cholinergic high-affinity choline transporter. Differentiation of cells increased both hemicholinum-3-sensitive choline uptake and high-affinity hemicholinium-3 binding. This transport was not influenced by tenfold excess of carnitine. Continuous presence of submicromolar concentrations of amyloid-beta-peptide(1-42) during differentiation resulted in a decrease of both choline uptake and hemicholinium-3 binding. These effects were not present when amyloid-beta-peptide(1-42) was added 5 min prior to measurements. Neither differentiation nor amyloid-beta-peptide(1-42) treatment changed levels of choline transporter-like protein mRNA. Protein kinase C inhibition by staurosporine or its inactivation by continuous presence of tetradecanoyl phorbol acetate prevented the inhibitory effect of amyloid-beta-peptide(1-42) treatment on choline uptake. Activation of protein kinase C by tetradecanoyl phorbol acetate during measurement had inhibitory effect on choline uptake in control but not amyloid-beta-peptide(1-42)-treated cells. The concentration of amyloid-beta-peptide(1-42) maximally effective on hemicholinium-3-sensitive choline uptake had no effect on cell growth, oxidative activity, membrane integrity, number of surface muscarinic receptors, caspase-3 and -8 activities, or uptake of deoxyglucose. Results demonstrate that long-term treatment with non-toxic concentrations of amyloid-beta-peptide(1-42) downregulates choline uptake presumably mediated by a choline transporter-like protein through activation of protein kinase C signaling. The decrease of choline uptake may have relevance to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Nováková
- Institute of Physiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Department of Neurochemistry, Vídenská 1083, 14220 Prague 4, Czech Republic
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67
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Molloy AM, Mills JL, Cox C, Daly SF, Conley M, Brody LC, Kirke PN, Scott JM, Ueland PM. Choline and homocysteine interrelations in umbilical cord and maternal plasma at delivery. Am J Clin Nutr 2005; 82:836-42. [PMID: 16210714 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/82.4.836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Little is known about the interactions between choline and folate and homocysteine metabolism during pregnancy despite the facts that pregnancy places considerable stress on maternal folate and choline stores and that choline is a critical nutrient for the fetus. Choline, via betaine, is an important folate-independent source of methyl groups for remethylating homocysteine in liver. OBJECTIVES Our aims were to examine the intermediates of choline oxidation in maternal and umbilical cord plasma and to determine the relations between this pathway and folate-dependent homocysteine remethylation. DESIGN Blood samples were taken from 201 pregnant women and, at delivery, from the umbilical cord veins of their healthy, full-term infants. The blood samples were analyzed for plasma free choline, betaine, dimethylglycine, folate, vitamin B-12, total homocysteine (tHcy), and creatinine concentrations. RESULTS Choline concentrations in umbilical cord plasma were approximately 3 times those in maternal plasma (geometric x: 36.6 and 12.3 micromol/L, respectively; P < 0.0001). Betaine and dimethylglycine concentrations were also significantly higher in umbilical cord than in maternal plasma. Choline was positively associated with tHcy (r = 0.34, P < 0.0001), betaine (r = 0.58, P < 0.0001), and dimethylglycine (r = 0.30, P < 0.0001) in maternal blood. Much weaker relations were seen in the fetal circulation. In a multiple regression model, choline was a positive predictor of maternal tHcy, whereas vitamin B-12 and betaine were negative predictors. CONCLUSIONS The positive association between maternal choline and tHcy during pregnancy suggests that the high fetal demand for choline stimulates de novo synthesis of choline in maternal liver, with a resultant increase in tHcy concentrations. If this is confirmed, it may be appropriate to provide choline supplements during pregnancy to prevent elevated tHcy concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne M Molloy
- Department of Clinical Medicine and the National Human Genome Research Institute, the National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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68
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Katz-Brull R, Koudinov AR, Degani H. Direct detection of brain acetylcholine synthesis by magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Brain Res 2005; 1048:202-10. [PMID: 15921662 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2005.04.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2004] [Revised: 04/24/2005] [Accepted: 04/26/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The cholinergic system is an important modulatory neurotransmitter system in the brain. Changes in acetylcholine concentration have been previously determined directly in animal models and human brain biopsy specimens, and indirectly, by the effects of drugs, in living humans. Here, we developed a method for direct determination of acetylcholine synthesis in living brain tissue. The method is based on administration of choline, enriched with carbon-13 (stable isotope) in the two methylene positions, and detection of labeled acetylcholine and all other metabolic fates of choline, by carbon-13 magnetic resonance spectroscopy. We tested this method in rat brain slices and found it to be specific for acetylcholine synthesis in both the cortex and hippocampus. This method is potentially useful as a research tool for exploring the cholinergic system role in cognitive processes and memory storage as well as in diseases in which the malfunction of the cholinergic system has been implicated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Katz-Brull
- Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.
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69
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Koh S, Santos TC, Cole AJ. Susceptibility to seizure-induced injury and acquired microencephaly following intraventricular injection of saporin-conjugated 192 IgG in developing rat brain. Exp Neurol 2005; 194:457-66. [PMID: 16022871 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2005.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2004] [Revised: 03/09/2005] [Accepted: 03/09/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
To study the role of neurotrophin-responsive neurons in brain growth and developmental resistance to seizure-induced injury, we infused saporin-conjugated 192-IgG (192 IgG-saporin), a monoclonal antibody directed at the P75 neurotrophin receptors (p75(NTR)), into the ventricles of postnatal day 8 (P8) rat pups. 7-10 days after immunotoxin treatment, loss of p75(NTR) immunoreactivity was associated with depletion of basal forebrain cholinergic projection to the neocortex and hippocampus. Kainic acid (KA)-induced seizures on P15 resulted in hippocampal neuronal injury in the majority of toxin-treated animals (13/16), but only rarely in saline-injected controls (2/25) (P < 0.001). In addition, widespread cerebral atrophy and a significant decrease in brain weight with preserved body weight were observed. Volumetric analysis of the hippocampal hilar region revealed a 2-fold reduction in perikaryal size and a 1.7-fold increase in cell packing density after 192 IgG-saporin injection. These observations indicate that neurotrophin-responsive neurons including basal forebrain magnocellular cholinergic neurons may be critical for normal brain growth and play a protective role in preventing excitotoxic neuronal injury during development.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Animals, Newborn
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/pharmacology
- Atrophy/chemically induced
- Atrophy/pathology
- Atrophy/physiopathology
- Basal Nucleus of Meynert/drug effects
- Basal Nucleus of Meynert/pathology
- Basal Nucleus of Meynert/physiopathology
- Brain Damage, Chronic/chemically induced
- Brain Damage, Chronic/pathology
- Brain Damage, Chronic/physiopathology
- Cholinergic Agents/pharmacology
- Convulsants/pharmacology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Disease Susceptibility/physiopathology
- Epilepsy/chemically induced
- Epilepsy/complications
- Epilepsy/physiopathology
- Excitatory Amino Acid Agonists/pharmacology
- Female
- Immunotoxins/pharmacology
- Injections, Intraventricular
- Kainic Acid/pharmacology
- Male
- N-Glycosyl Hydrolases
- Nerve Degeneration/chemically induced
- Nerve Degeneration/pathology
- Nerve Degeneration/physiopathology
- Nerve Growth Factors/metabolism
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Receptor, Nerve Growth Factor/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptor, Nerve Growth Factor/metabolism
- Ribosome Inactivating Proteins, Type 1
- Saporins
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Affiliation(s)
- Sookyong Koh
- MGH Epilepsy Service, Epilepsy Research Laboratory, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, VBK 830, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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70
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Ferguson SM, Bazalakova M, Savchenko V, Tapia JC, Wright J, Blakely RD. Lethal impairment of cholinergic neurotransmission in hemicholinium-3-sensitive choline transporter knockout mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:8762-7. [PMID: 15173594 PMCID: PMC423269 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0401667101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Presynaptic acetylcholine (ACh) synthesis and release is thought to be sustained by a hemicholinium-3-sensitive choline transporter (CHT). We disrupted the murine CHT gene and examined CHT-/- and +/- animals for evidence of impaired cholinergic neurotransmission. Although morphologically normal at birth, CHT-/- mice become immobile, breathe irregularly, appear cyanotic, and die within an hour. Hemicholinium-3-sensitive choline uptake and subsequent ACh synthesis are specifically lost in CHT-/- mouse brains. Moreover, we observe a time-dependent loss of spontaneous and evoked responses at CHT-/- neuromuscular junctions. Consistent with deficits in synaptic ACh availability, we also observe developmental alterations in neuromuscular junction morphology reminiscent of changes in mutants lacking ACh synthesis. Adult CHT+/- mice overcome reductions in CHT protein levels and sustain choline uptake activity at wild-type levels through posttranslational mechanisms. Our results demonstrate that CHT is an essential and regulated presynaptic component of cholinergic signaling and indicate that CHT warrants consideration as a candidate gene for disorders characterized by cholinergic hypofunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn M Ferguson
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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71
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Thomas JD, O'Neill TM, Dominguez HD. Perinatal choline supplementation does not mitigate motor coordination deficits associated with neonatal alcohol exposure in rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2004; 26:223-9. [PMID: 15019955 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2003.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2003] [Revised: 10/02/2003] [Accepted: 10/03/2003] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal alcohol exposure can disrupt brain development, leading to a variety of behavioral alterations including learning deficits, hyperactivity, and motor dysfunction. We have been investigating the possibility that perinatal choline supplementation may effectively reduce the severity of alcohol's adverse effects on behavioral development. We previously reported that perinatal choline supplementation can ameliorate alcohol-induced learning deficits and hyperactivity in rats exposed to alcohol during development. The present study examined whether perinatal choline supplementation could also reduce the severity of motor deficits induced by alcohol exposure during the third trimester equivalent brain growth spurt. Male neonatal rats were assigned to one of three treatment groups. One group was exposed to alcohol (6.6 g/kg/day) from postnatal days (PD) 4 to 9 via an artificial rearing procedure. Artificially and normally reared control groups were included. One half of subjects from each treatment received daily subcutaneous injections of a choline chloride solution from PD 4 to 30, whereas the other half received saline vehicle injections. On PD 35-37, subjects were tested on a parallel bar motor task, which requires both balance and fine motor coordination. Ethanol-exposed subjects exhibited significant motor impairments compared to both control groups whose performance did not differ significantly from one another. Perinatal choline treatment did not affect motor performance in either ethanol or control subjects. These data indicate that the beneficial effects of perinatal choline supplementation in ethanol-treated subjects are task specific and suggest that choline is more effective in mitigating cognitive deficits compared to motor deficits associated with developmental alcohol exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer D Thomas
- Center for Behavioral Teratology, Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, 6363 Alvarado Ct. Ste 209, San Diego, CA 92120, USA.
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72
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Mellott TJ, Williams CL, Meck WH, Blusztajn JK. Prenatal choline supplementation advances hippocampal development and enhances MAPK and CREB activation. FASEB J 2004; 18:545-7. [PMID: 14715695 DOI: 10.1096/fj.03-0877fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Choline is an essential nutrient for animals and humans. Previous studies showed that supplementing the maternal diet with choline during the second half of gestation in rats permanently enhances memory performance of the adult offspring. Here we show that prenatal choline supplementation causes a 3-day advancement in the ability of juvenile rats to use relational cues in a water maze task, indicating that the treatment accelerates hippocampal maturation. Moreover, phosphorylation and therefore activation of hippocampal mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) in response to stimulation by glutamate, N-methyl-D-aspartate, or depolarizing concentrations of K+ were increased by prenatal choline supplementation and reduced by prenatal choline deficiency. These data provide the first evidence that developmental plasticity of the hippocampal MAPK and CREB signaling pathways is controlled by the supply of a single essential nutrient, choline, during fetal development and point to these pathways as candidate mechanisms for the developmental and long-term cognitive enhancement induced by prenatal choline supplementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany J Mellott
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
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73
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Meck WH, Williams CL. Metabolic imprinting of choline by its availability during gestation: implications for memory and attentional processing across the lifespan. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2003; 27:385-99. [PMID: 12946691 DOI: 10.1016/s0149-7634(03)00069-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of research supports the view that choline is an essential nutrient during early development that has long-lasting effects on memory and attentional processes throughout the lifespan. This review describes the known effects of alterations in dietary choline availability both in adulthood and during early development. Although modest effects of choline on cognitive processes have been reported when choline is administered to adult animals, we have found that the perinatal period is a critical time for cholinergic organization of brain function. Choline supplementation during this period increases memory capacity and precision of the young adult and appears to prevent age-related memory and attentional decline. Deprivation of choline during early development leads to compromised cognitive function and increased decline with age. We propose that this organizational effect of choline availability may be due to relatively permanent alterations in the functioning of the cholinergic synapse, which we have called 'metabolic imprinting'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warren H Meck
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Duke University, 9 Flowers Drive, Box 90086, Durham, NC 27708-0086, USA.
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74
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Albright CD, Siwek DF, Craciunescu CN, Mar MH, Kowall NW, Williams CL, Zeisel SH. Choline availability during embryonic development alters the localization of calretinin in developing and aging mouse hippocampus. Nutr Neurosci 2003; 6:129-34. [PMID: 12722989 DOI: 10.1080/1028415031000084418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Choline availability in the diet during pregnancy alters fetal brain biochemistry with resulting behavioral changes that persist throughout the lifetime of the offspring. In the present study, the effects of dietary choline on the onset of GABAergic neuronal differentiation in developing fetal brain, as demarcated by the expression of calcium binding protein calretinin, are described. In these studies, timed-pregnant mice were fed choline supplemented, control or choline deficient AIN-76 diet from day 12-17 of pregnancy and the brains of their fetuses were studied on day 17 of gestation. In the primordial dentate gyrus, we found that pups from choline deficient-dams had more calretinin protein (330% increase), and pups from choline supplemented-dams had less calretinin protein (70% decrease), than did pups from control-dams. Importantly, decreased calretinin protein was still detectable in hippocampus in aged, 24-month-old mice, born of choline supplemented-dams and maintained since birth on a control diet. Thus, alterations in the level of calretinin protein in fetal brain hippocampus could underlie the known, life long effects of maternal dietary choline availability on brain development and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig D Albright
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health and School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7400, USA
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75
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Ozarda Ilcol Y, Uncu G, Ulus IH. Free and phospholipid-bound choline concentrations in serum during pregnancy, after delivery and in newborns. Arch Physiol Biochem 2002; 110:393-9. [PMID: 12530624 DOI: 10.1076/apab.110.5.393.11832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The aims of this study were to determine whether serum free choline and phospholipid-bound choline concentrations change during the pregnancy or after childbirth and to determine if the serum choline concentrations of the mother and newborn are correlated. Serum free and bound choline concentrations were 10.7 +/- 0.5 microM and 2780 +/- 95 microM in control, non-pregnant women, and rose significantly (p < 0.001) to 14.5 +/- 0.6 microM and 3370 +/- 50 microM or to 16.5 +/- 0.7 microM and 3520 +/- 150 microM after 16-20 weeks or 36-40 weeks of pregnancy, respectively. Serum free and phospholipid-bound choline fell by 14-22% (p < 0.05-01) after either vaginal delivery or caesarian section, and remained low (by 15-42%; p < 0.05-0.001) for 12 h and then rose toward the baseline within 24 h. In amniotic fluid, free choline and phospholipid-bound choline concentrations were 22.8 +/- 1.0 and 19.6 +/- 0.8 microM or 24.0 +/- 1.5 and 516 +/- 43 microM at 16-20 weeks of gestational age or at term, respectively. In newborns, serum free choline concentrations were higher (p < 0.001) and phospholipid-bound choline concentrations were lower (p < 0.001) than in their mothers. These results show that serum free choline and phospholipid-bound choline concentrations are elevated during the pregnancy, which may be required for an adequate maternal supply of choline to the fetus. These observations are clinically important to determine the ideal dietary intake of choline during the pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Ozarda Ilcol
- Department of Biochemistry, Uludag University Medical School, Bursa, Turkey.
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76
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Abstract
Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy has been increasingly utilized in brain research to monitor non-invasively metabolites such as N-acetyl aspartate (NAA), creatine (Cr) and choline (Cho). We present here studies of the effect of aging on the ratios of these metabolites measured in the rat brain in vivo and on choline transport and lipid synthesis in rat brain slices, in vitro. The in vivo studies indicated that the ratios of Cho/NAA and Cho/Cr increased in the aged hippocampus, whereas the ratio of Cr/NAA was similar in the aged and adult hippocampus. These three ratios remained similar in the cortex of adult and aged rats. The in vitro studies revealed that in the aged cortex and the aged hippocampus the activity of the low-affinity choline uptake increased, possibly compensating for a decrease in the high-affinity uptake activity and the rate of choline diffusion. The incorporation of choline into phospholipids exhibited high and low affinity kinetics which were not modified by aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Katz-Brull
- Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.
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77
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Sandstrom NJ, Loy R, Williams CL. Prenatal choline supplementation increases NGF levels in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of young and adult rats. Brain Res 2002; 947:9-16. [PMID: 12144847 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(02)02900-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Female Sprague-Dawley rats received approximately 300 mg/kg per day of choline chloride through their drinking water on days 11 of pregnancy through birth and the level of nerve growth factor (NGF) in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of their male offspring was measured at 20 and 90 days of age. Prenatal choline supplementation caused significant increases in hippocampal NGF levels at 20 and 90 days of age, while levels of NGF in the frontal cortex were elevated in choline-supplemented rats at 20 days of age, but not 90 days of age. These results suggest that increases in NGF levels during development or adulthood may be one mechanism underlying improvements in spatial and temporal memory of adult rats exposed to elevated levels of choline chloride perinatally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah J Sandstrom
- Bronfman Science Center, Department of Psychology, Williams College, 18 Hoxsey Street, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA.
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78
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Brandner C. Perinatal choline treatment modifies the effects of a visuo-spatial attractive cue upon spatial memory in naive adult rats. Brain Res 2002; 928:85-95. [PMID: 11844475 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(01)03363-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The improvement in memory functions by choline supplementation is hypothesized to be due to increased synthesis and release of acetylcholine in the brain. We have found previously that combined pre- and postnatal choline supplementation results in long-lasting facilitation of spatial memory in juvenile rats when training was conducted in presence of a local salient cue. The present work aims to analyze the effects of peri- and postnatal choline supplementation on spatial abilities of naive adult rats. Treated rats were trained in various cued procedures of the Morris navigation task of 5 months of age. The treatment had a specific effect of reducing the escape latency of the rats when the platform was at a fixed location in space and indicated by a suspended cue. This effect was associated with an improved spatial memory when the cue and the platform were removed. In this condition, the control rats showed impaired spatial discrimination following the removal of the target cue, most likely due to an overshadowing of the distant environmental cues. This impairment was not observed in the treated rats. Further training with the suspended cue at unpredictable places in the pool revealed longer escape latencies in the control than in the treated rats suggesting that this procedure induced a selective perturbation of the normal but not of the treated rats. A special probe trial with the cue at an irrelevant location and no escape platform revealed a significant bias of the control rats towards the cue, but in treated rats towards the uncued spatial escape position. This behavioral dissociation suggests that a salient cue associated with the target induces an alternative "non spatial" guidance strategy in normal rats, with the risk of overshadowing attention towards more distant spatial cues. As a consequence, the improved escape in the presence of the cue in the treated rats is associated with a stronger memory of the spatial position following disappearance of the cue. This and previous observations suggest that a specific spatial attentional process relies on the buffering of highly salient visual cues to facilitate integration of their relative position in the environment.
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Nakamura A, Suzuki Y, Umegaki H, Ikari H, Tajima T, Endo H, Iguchi A. Dietary restriction of choline reduces hippocampal acetylcholine release in rats: in vivo microdialysis study. Brain Res Bull 2001; 56:593-7. [PMID: 11786247 DOI: 10.1016/s0361-9230(01)00732-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
We fed rats with a diet deficient in choline for 12 weeks and studied how dietary choline deficiency affected their behavior and their ability to release acetylcholine in discrete regions of rat brain using step-through passive avoidance task and in vivo microdialysis. In comparison with the control, rats fed the choline-deficient diet showed poorer retention of nociceptive memory in the passive avoidance task. Average choline level in cerebrospinal fluid in the choline-deficient group was significantly less (33.1%) than that of control rats. In vivo microdialysis showed no difference in the pattern of acetylcholine release enhanced by intraperitoneal administration of scopolamine hydrochloride (2 mg/kg) in the striatum between the two groups, whereas in the hippocampus, the maximum and subsequent increase of acetylcholine from the baseline by scopolamine injection was significantly lower in the choline-deficient group than in the control. From the results of our study, we speculate that long-term dietary restriction of choline can affect extra- and intracellular sources of substrates required for acetylcholine synthesis, and eventually limit the ability to release acetylcholine in the hippocampus. Reduced capacity to release acetylcholine in the hippocampus implies that the mechanism, maintaining acetylcholine synthesis on increased neuronal demand, may vary in discrete regions of the brain in response to dietary manipulation. The vulnerability of the mechanism in the hippocampus to dietary choline restriction is indicated by impaired mnemonic performance we observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Nakamura
- Department of Geriatrics, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan.
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Atluri P, Fleck MW, Shen Q, Mah SJ, Stadfelt D, Barnes W, Goderie SK, Temple S, Schneider AS. Functional nicotinic acetylcholine receptor expression in stem and progenitor cells of the early embryonic mouse cerebral cortex. Dev Biol 2001; 240:143-56. [PMID: 11784052 DOI: 10.1006/dbio.2001.0453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The adult cerebral cortex contains nicotinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptors vital to cortical function. However, little is known about the assembly of embryonic nicotinic receptor subunits into functional receptors or whether they play an active role in cortical development. We now report evidence of functional nicotinic acetylcholine receptor channels in fetal mouse cerebral cortex as early as embryonic day 10 (E10), when the cortex consists of dividing stem and progenitor cells. Patch-clamp electrophysiological measurements indicate that nicotine and ACh evoke sizable inward currents characteristic of nicotinic receptors, that are strongly rectifying with a reversal potential near 0 mV. Three different nicotinic agonists, ACh, nicotine, and dimethylphenylpiperazinium, evoked cytosolic Ca(2+) signals. Agonist-evoked Ca(2+) signals and electrophysiological responses were found in greater than 70% of all E10-E11 cells tested and were blocked by nicotinic receptor antagonists. The Ca(2+) response to nicotinic agonists was markedly prolonged in cells from early embryonic stages relative to later stages of development. alpha3, alpha4, and alpha7 receptor subunit proteins were detected immunocytochemically in cortical cells from E10 to birth. The incidence of each subunit declined with embryonic age, suggesting a role in early development. We discuss the possible function of nicotinic receptors in early cortical development and their role as a target for nicotine in the developmental pathologies associated with the fetal tobacco syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Atluri
- Center for Neuropharmacology and Neuroscience, Albany Medical College, Albany, New York 12208, USA
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81
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Fisher MC, Zeisel SH, Mar MH, Sadler TW. Inhibitors of choline uptake and metabolism cause developmental abnormalities in neurulating mouse embryos. TERATOLOGY 2001; 64:114-22. [PMID: 11460263 DOI: 10.1002/tera.1053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Choline is an essential nutrient in methylation, acetylcholine and phospholipid biosynthesis, and in cell signaling. The demand by an embryo or fetus for choline may place a pregnant woman and, subsequently, the developing conceptus at risk for choline deficiency. METHODS To determine whether a disruption in choline uptake and metabolism results in developmental abnormalities, early somite staged mouse embryos were exposed in vitro to either an inhibitor of choline uptake and metabolism, 2-dimethylaminoethanol (DMAE), or an inhibitor of phosphatidylcholine synthesis, 1-O-octadecyl-2-O-methyl-rac-glycero-3-phosphocholine (ET-18-OCH(3)). Cell death following inhibitor exposure was investigated with LysoTracker Red and histology. RESULTS Embryos exposed to 250-750 microM DMAE for 26 hr developed craniofacial hypoplasia and open neural tube defects in the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain regions. Embryos exposed to 125-275 microM ET-18-OCH(3) exhibited similar defects or expansion of the brain vesicles. ET-18-OCH(3)-affected embryos also had a distended neural tube at the posterior neuropore. Embryonic growth was reduced in embryos treated with either DMAE (375, 500, and 750 microM) or ET-18-OCH(3) (200 and 275 microM). Whole mount staining with LysoTracker Red and histological sections showed increased areas of cell death in embryos treated with 275 microM ET-18-OCH(3) for 6 hr, but there was no evidence of cell death in DMAE-exposed embryos. CONCLUSIONS Inhibition of choline uptake and metabolism during neurulation results in growth retardation and developmental defects that affect the neural tube and face.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Fisher
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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82
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Katz-Brull R, Margalit R, Degani H. Differential routing of choline in implanted breast cancer and normal organs. Magn Reson Med 2001; 46:31-8. [PMID: 11443708 DOI: 10.1002/mrm.1157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Choline is an essential nutrient participating as the initial substrate in major metabolic pathways. The differential metabolic routing of choline was investigated in MCF7 human breast cancer implanted in nude mice and in the kidney, liver, and brain of these mice. The distribution of metabolites following infusion of [1,2-(13)C]-choline was monitored by (13)C magnetic resonance spectroscopy. This infusion led to an 18-fold increase in plasma choline and to concomitant changes in the content and distribution of choline metabolites. In vivo kinetic studies of the tumor during the infusion demonstrated accumulation of choline in the interstitium and intracellular synthesis of phosphocholine. The amount of unlabeled choline metabolites was 7.1, 4.1, 3.5, and 1.4 micromol/g in the kidney, liver, tumor, and brain, respectively. The variations in the labeled metabolites were more pronounced with high amounts in the kidney and liver (8.0 and 4.3 micromol/g, respectively) and very low amounts in the tumor and brain (0.33 and 0.12 micromol/g, respectively). In the kidney and liver, betaine (unlabeled and labeled) was the predominant choline metabolite. The dominant unlabeled metabolite in breast cancer was phosphocholine and in the brain glycerophosphocholine. Magn Reson Med 46:31-38, 2001.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Katz-Brull
- Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 76100, Israel
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83
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Abstract
Na(+)-dependent, high-affinity choline uptake in cholinergic neurons is the rate-limiting step in acetylcholine synthesis. Here we report the molecular cloning and functional characterization of the human high-affinity choline transporter (hCHT1). The hCHT1 exhibits significant homology with known members of the Na(+)-dependent glucose transporter family, but not with members of the neurotransmitter transporter family. The human CHT1 gene is 25 kb in length with 9 exons and was assigned to chromosome II at position IIq11-12. Northern blot analysis showed that a 5.4 kb hCHT1 transcript was expressed exclusively in tissues containing cholinergic neurons. When expressed in Xenopus oocytes, the human clone induced Na(+)- and Cl(-)-dependent, high-affinity choline uptake, which was sensitive to the specific inhibitor hemicholinium-3, with a K(i) of 1.3 nM. The hCHT1-mediated choline uptake increased with increasing concentrations of choline, Na(+) and Cl(-), with EC(50) values of 2.0 microM, 76 mM, and 48 mM, and with apparent Hill coefficients of 1, 2.5 and 2.3, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Okuda
- Department of Neurochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, 113-0033, Tokyo, Japan.
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84
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Abstract
Choline is a dietary component essential for normal function of all cells. It, or its metabolites, assures the structural integrity and signaling functions of cell membranes; it is the major source of methyl-groups in the diet (one of choline's metabolites, betaine, participates in the methylation of homocysteine to form methionine); and it directly affects nerve signaling, cell signaling and lipid transport/metabolism. In 1998, the National Academy of Sciences, USA, issued a report identifying choline as a required nutrient for humans and recommended daily intake amounts. Eggs are an excellent dietary source of choline. Pregnancy and lactation are periods when maternal reserves of choline are depleted. At the same time, the availability of choline for normal development of the brain is critical. When rat pups received choline supplements (in utero or during the second week of life), their brain function changed, resulting in the lifelong memory enhancement. This change in memory function appears to be due to changes in the development of the memory center (hippocampus) in the brain. The mother's dietary choline during a critical period in brain development of her infant influences the rate of birth and death of nerve cells in this center. These changes are so important that we can pick out the groups of animals whose mothers had extra choline even when these animals are elderly. Thus, memory function in the aged rat is, in part, determined by what the mother ate. This is not the first example of a critical nutrient that must be present at a specific time in brain development. If folate isn't available in the first few weeks of pregnancy, the brain does not form normally. Thus, we suggest that pregnancy is a period when special attention has to be paid to dietary intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Zeisel
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 27599-7400, USA.
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85
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Montoya DA, White AM, Williams CL, Blusztajn JK, Meck WH, Swartzwelder HS. Prenatal choline exposure alters hippocampal responsiveness to cholinergic stimulation in adulthood. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 2000; 123:25-32. [PMID: 11020547 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-3806(00)00075-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Manipulation of dietary choline levels during gestation results in enduring neurobehavioral changes in offspring that last into adulthood. Alterations of hippocampal function and memory are among the most striking changes. Depending upon the measures assessed, prenatal choline supplementation tends to promote excitatory synaptic efficacy in hippocampal circuits while prenatal choline deficiency diminishes it. However, the mechanisms underlying these changes remain unclear. Transverse hippocampal slices were prepared from adult offspring of dams fed choline supplemented, choline deficient, or control diets. We assessed paired-pulse inhibition, and excitatory synaptic responsiveness before and after activation of cholinergic receptors with Carbachol. Prenatally choline deficient animals yielded significantly fewer electrophysiological viable hippocampal slices than did animals from either of the other two treatment groups. Among the slices tested, there were no differences in paired pulse inhibition between the treatment groups. However, transient cholinergic activation resulted in a prolonged enhancement of the amplitude of the population EPSP (pEPSP) response in slices from prenatally choline supplemented animals. These results suggest that GABA receptor-mediated inhibition remains intact after prenatal choline manipulations, and that enhancement of the excitatory responsiveness of hippocampal circuits in slices from prenatally choline supplemented rats may be related in part to an increase in cholinergic tone within the CA1 circuit.
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Affiliation(s)
- D A Montoya
- Neurobiology Research Laboratory, Bldg. 16, Rm. 24, VA Medical Center, Durham, NC 27705, USA
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86
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Thomas JD, La Fiette MH, Quinn VR, Riley EP. Neonatal choline supplementation ameliorates the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on a discrimination learning task in rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2000; 22:703-11. [PMID: 11106863 DOI: 10.1016/s0892-0362(00)00097-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal alcohol exposure can disrupt brain development and lead to a myriad of behavioral alterations, including motor coordination deficits, hyperactivity, and learning deficits. There remains a need, however, to identify treatments and interventions for reducing the severity of alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorders. Some of the alcohol-induced deficits in learning may be related to alterations in cholinergic functioning. Interestingly, there is a growing literature demonstrating that pre- and/or early postnatal choline supplementation can lead to long-term enhancement in learning and memory and cholinergic activity in rats. The present study examined whether such early choline supplementation might counter the effects of prenatal alcohol treatment on a visuospatial discrimination task. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to one of three prenatal treatment groups. One group received a liquid diet containing 35% ethanol-derived calories (EDC) from gestational day (GD) 6-20. A second group served as a pair-fed (PF) control group and the third group served as an ad lib lab chow (LC) control. On postnatal day (PD) 2, pups were assigned within-litter to one of three postnatal treatments: choline, saline vehicle, or no treatment. Choline and vehicle pups were intubated with a choline chloride solution or vehicle daily from PD 2 to 21, whereas the non-treated pups were handled daily but not intubated. On PD 45, subjects were tested on a visuospatial discrimination task. Ethanol-exposed subjects who were not treated neonatally with choline committed a significantly greater number of errors both during acquisition and during delayed discrimination training compared to both PF and LC controls. Neonatal choline treatment significantly improved performance on the discrimination task in all groups; however, the beneficial effects of choline were significantly larger in ethanol-exposed subjects. Indeed, the performance of ethanol-exposed pups treated with neonatal choline did not differ from any of the PF or LC groups on any measure. Thus, early postnatal choline supplementation significantly attenuated the effects of prenatal alcohol on this learning task. Importantly, these effects were not due to the acute effects of choline, but rather to long-term changes in brain and behavioral development. These data suggest that early dietary interventions may reduce the severity of fetal alcohol effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Thomas
- Center for Behavioral Teratology, San Diego State University, Suite 209, 6363 Alvarado Ct., San Diego, CA 92120, USA.
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87
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Zeisel
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 27599-7400, USA.
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88
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Jones JP, Meck WH, Williams CL, Wilson WA, Swartzwelder HS. Choline availability to the developing rat fetus alters adult hippocampal long-term potentiation. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 1999; 118:159-67. [PMID: 10611515 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-3806(99)00103-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Supplementation with choline during pregnancy in rats causes a long-lasting improvement of visuospatial memory of the offspring. To determine if the behavioral effects of choline are related to physiological changes in hippocampus, the effect of perinatal choline supplementation or deficiency on long-term potentiation (LTP) was examined in hippocampal slices of 6-8 and 12-14 month old rats born to dams consuming a control, choline-supplemented, or a choline-free diet during pregnancy. Stimulating and recording electrodes were placed in stratum radiatum of area CA1 to record extracellular population excitatory postsynaptic potentials (pEPSPs). To induce LTP, a theta-like stimulus train was generated. The amplitude of the stimulus pulses was set at either 10% or 50% of the stimulus intensity which had induced the maximal pEPSP slope on the input/output curve. We found that at both ages, a significantly smaller percentage of slices from perinatally choline-deficient rats displayed LTP after 10% stimulus intensity (compared with control and choline-supplemented rats), and a significantly larger percentage of slices from choline-supplemented rats displayed LTP at 50% stimulus intensity (compared with control and choline-deficient rats). Results reveal that alterations in the availability of dietary choline during discrete periods of development lead to changes in hippocampal electrophysiology that last well into adulthood. These changes in LTP threshold may underlie the observed enhancement of visuospatial memory seen after prenatal choline supplementation and point to the importance of choline intake during pregnancy for development of brain and memory function.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Jones
- Department of Genetics, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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89
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Meck WH, Williams CL. Choline supplementation during prenatal development reduces proactive interference in spatial memory. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 1999; 118:51-9. [PMID: 10611503 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-3806(99)00105-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Previous research has demonstrated that increasing dietary choline during early development can have long-lasting effects on cholinergic (Ch) function that are correlated with improvement of spatial memory ability in rats. The present study is designed to further our understanding of these organizational changes in brain and behavior by examining the effects of spaced vs. massed trials. A third of the rats (n=10) were supplemented with choline chloride prenatally by adding it to the drinking water of their dams. Another third were made deficient of choline during early development by removing choline from the dams diet. The remaining rats served as untreated controls. Postnatally, the offspring were maintained on a choline-sufficient diet and at 120 days of age they began 12-arm radial maze training. The maze data revealed two major effects of early choline availability: (1) Both choline-supplemented and choline-deficient rats performed more accurately than control littermates when trials were spaced. These differences in spatial ability did not appear to be a function of differential response or cue-use strategies. (2) Choline-supplemented rats showed little proactive interference when trials were massed; whereas control rats demonstrated moderate levels and choline-deficient rats exhibited high levels of proactive interference as a function of massed trials. These data suggest that the behavioral consequences of early dietary availability of choline may involve the modification of the discriminative abilities used to attend to stimuli that demarcate the end of one trial and the start of another as well as the capacity for remembering the locations that have been visited during a trial.
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Affiliation(s)
- W H Meck
- Department of Psychology: Experimental, Duke University, 9 Flowers Drive, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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90
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Tees RC, Mohammadi E. The effects of neonatal choline dietary supplementation on adult spatial and configural learning and memory in rats. Dev Psychobiol 1999. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1098-2302(199911)35:3<226::aid-dev7>3.0.co;2-h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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91
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Albright CD, Friedrich CB, Brown EC, Mar MH, Zeisel SH. Maternal dietary choline availability alters mitosis, apoptosis and the localization of TOAD-64 protein in the developing fetal rat septum. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 1999; 115:123-9. [PMID: 10407130 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-3806(99)00057-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Maternal changes in dietary choline availability alter brain biochemistry and hippocampal development in the offspring resulting in lifelong behavioral changes in the offspring. In order to better understand the relationship between maternal diet, brain cytoarchitecture and behavior, we investigated the effects of choline availability on cell proliferation, apoptosis and differentiation in the fetal rat brain septum. Timed-pregnant rats on day E12 were fed AIN-76 diet with varying levels of dietary choline for 6 days. We found that choline deficiency (CD) significantly decreased the rate of mitosis in the progenitor neuroepithelium adjacent to the septum. In addition, we found an increased number of apoptotic cells in the septum of CD animals compared to controls (3.5+/-0.5 vs. 1.7+/-0.5 apoptotic cells per section; p<0.05). However, CD had no effect on apoptosis in the indusium griseum (IG), a region of cortex dorsal to the septum. Using an unbiased image analysis method and a monoclonal antibody we found a decreased expression of the TOAD-64 kDa protein, a marker of commitment to neuronal differentiation during fetal development, in the dorsal lateral septum of CD animals. CD also decreased the expression of TOAD-64 kDa protein in the IG and cortical plate adjacent to the septum. These results show that dietary choline availability during pregnancy alters the timing of mitosis, apoptosis and the early commitment to neuronal differentiation by progenitor cells in regions of the fetal brain septum, as well as hippocampus, two brain regions known to be associated with learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- C D Albright
- Department of Nutrition, CB #7400, McGavran-Greenberg Hall, School of Public Health and School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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92
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Albright CD, Tsai AY, Friedrich CB, Mar MH, Zeisel SH. Choline availability alters embryonic development of the hippocampus and septum in the rat. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 1999; 113:13-20. [PMID: 10064869 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-3806(98)00183-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Choline availability in the diet during pregnancy alters fetal brain biochemistry with resulting behavioral changes that persist throughout the lifetime of the offspring. In the present study, the effects of dietary choline on cell proliferation, migration, and apoptosis in neuronal progenitor cells in the hippocampus and septum were analyzed in fetal brains at different stages of embryonic development. Timed-pregnant rats on day E12 were fed AIN-76 diet with varying levels of dietary choline for 6 days, and, on days E18 or E20, fetal brain sections were collected. We found that choline deficiency (CD) significantly decreased the rate of mitosis in the neuroepithelium adjacent to the hippocampus. An increased number of apoptotic cells were found in the region of the dentate gyrus of CD hippocampus compared to controls (5.5+/-0.7 vs. 1.9+/-0.3 apoptotic cells per section; p<0.01). Using a combination of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) labeling and an unbiased computer-assisted image analysis method, we found that modulation of dietary choline availability changed the distribution and migration of precursor cells born on E16 in the fimbria, primordial dentate gyrus, and Ammon's horn of the fetal hippocampus. CD also decreased the migration of newly born cells from the neuroepithelium into the lateral septum, thus indicating that the sensitivity of fetal brain to choline availability is not restricted to the hippocampus. We found an increase in the expression of TOAD-64 protein, an early neuronal differentiation marker, in the hippocampus of CD day E18 fetal brains compared to controls. These results show that dietary choline availability alters the timing of the genesis, migration, and commitment to differentiation of progenitor neuronal-type cells in fetal brain hippocampal regions known to be associated with learning and memory processes in adult brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- C D Albright
- Department of Nutrition, CB #7400, McGavran-Greenberg Building, School of Public Health and School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7400, USA
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93
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Blusztajn
- Department of Pathology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA.
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94
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Blusztajn JK, Cermak JM, Holler T, Jackson DA. Imprinting of hippocampal metabolism of choline by its availability during gestation: implications for cholinergic neurotransmission. JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY, PARIS 1998; 92:199-203. [PMID: 9789808 DOI: 10.1016/s0928-4257(98)80010-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Choline supplementation during the second half of the gestational period in rats permanently improves visuospatial memory. Choline availability during this period also alters the turnover of choline and acetylcholine in the hippocampus in 3-4 week-old animals in a complex pattern consistent with the notion that cholinergic neurotransmission is enhanced by prenatal choline supplementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Blusztajn
- Department of Pathology, Boston University School of Medicine, MA 02118, USA
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95
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Williams CL, Meck WH, Heyer DD, Loy R. Hypertrophy of basal forebrain neurons and enhanced visuospatial memory in perinatally choline-supplemented rats. Brain Res 1998; 794:225-38. [PMID: 9622639 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(98)00229-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The effects of choline supplementation during two time-frames of early development on radial-arm maze performance and the morphology of basal forebrain neurons immunoreactive for the P75 neurotrophin receptor (NTR) in male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were examined. In the first experiment, rats were supplemented with choline chloride from conception until weaning. At 80 days of age, subjects were trained once a day on a 12-arm radial maze for 30 days. Compared to control littermates, supplemented rats made fewer working and reference memory errors; however, the memory enhancing effects of choline supplementation were greater in males than females. A morphometric analysis of NTR-immunoreactive cell bodies at three levels through the medial septum/diagonal band (MS/DBv) of these rats revealed that perinatal choline supplementation caused the somata of cells in the MS/DBv to be larger by 8-15%. In a second experiment, choline supplementation was restricted to embryonic days 12-17. A developmental profile of NTR immunoreactive cell bodies in the MS/DBv of 0-, 8-, 16-, 30- and 90-day old male and female rats again revealed that cell bodies were larger in choline-supplemented rats than controls. As in the behavioral studies, the effect of choline supplementation was greater in male than female rats. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that supplementation with choline chloride during early development leads to an increase in the size of cell bodies of NTR-immunoreactive cells in the basal forebrain and that this change may contribute to long-term improvement in spatial memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Williams
- Department of Psychology: Experimental, Duke University, Box 90086, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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