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Ito F, Vardam TD, Appenheimer MM, Eng KH, Gollnick SO, Muhitch JB, Evans SS. In situ thermal ablation augments antitumor efficacy of adoptive T cell therapy. Int J Hyperthermia 2020; 36:22-36. [PMID: 31795828 DOI: 10.1080/02656736.2019.1653500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: The aim of this study is to investigate whether radiofrequency ablation (RFA) improves the efficacy of adoptive T cell immunotherapy in preclinical mouse cancer models.Method: Mice implanted subcutaneously (sc) with syngeneic colon adenocarcinoma or melanoma were treated with sub-curative in situ RFA (90 °C, 1 min). Trafficking of T cells to lymph nodes (LN) or tumors was quantified by homing assays and intravital microscopy (IVM) after sham procedure or RFA. Expression of trafficking molecules (CCL21 and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 [ICAM-1]) on high endothelial venules (HEV) in LN and tumor vessels was evaluated by immunofluorescence microscopy. Tumor-bearing mice were pretreated with RFA to investigate the therapeutic benefit when combined with adoptive transfer of in vitro-activated tumor-specific CD8+ T cells.Results: RFA increased trafficking of naïve CD8+ T cells to tumor-draining LN (TdLN). A corresponding increase in expression of ICAM-1 and CCL21 was detected on HEV in TdLN but not in contralateral (c)LN. IVM revealed that RFA substantially enhanced secondary firm arrest of lymphocytes selectively in HEV in TdLN. Furthermore, strong induction of ICAM-1 in tumor vessels was associated with significantly augmented trafficking of adoptively transferred in vitro-activated CD8+ T cells to tumors after RFA. Finally, preconditioning tumors with RFA augmented CD8+ T cell-mediated apoptosis of tumor targets and delayed growth of established tumors when combined with adoptive T cell transfer immunotherapy.Conclusions: These studies suggest that in addition to its role as a palliative therapeutic modality, RFA may have clinical potential as an immune-adjuvant therapy by augmenting the efficacy of adoptive T cell therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumito Ito
- Center for Immunotherapy, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA.,Department of Surgical Oncology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA.,Department of Surgery, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Trupti D Vardam
- Department of Immunology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA.,Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, AZ, USA
| | | | - Kevin H Eng
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Department of Cancer Genetics and Genomics, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Sandra O Gollnick
- Department of Immunology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA.,Department of Cell Stress Biology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Jason B Muhitch
- Department of Immunology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA.,Department of Urology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Sharon S Evans
- Department of Immunology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA
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52
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Solomon BJ, Beavis PA, Darcy PK. Promising Immuno-Oncology Options for the Future: Cellular Therapies and Personalized Cancer Vaccines. Am Soc Clin Oncol Educ Book 2020; 40:1-6. [PMID: 32412805 DOI: 10.1200/edbk_281101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
A common pathway for an effective immune anticancer response involves recognition of tumor neoantigens and subsequent targeting of cancer cells by T cells. In this article, we provide an overview of the current status of two approaches to directly enhance this interaction using either adoptive cell therapy or personalized cancer vaccines with focus on recent advances in solid tumors, including lung cancer.
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53
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Poschke IC, Hassel JC, Rodriguez-Ehrenfried A, Lindner KAM, Heras-Murillo I, Appel LM, Lehmann J, Lövgren T, Wickström SL, Lauenstein C, Roth J, König AK, Haanen JBAG, van den Berg J, Kiessling R, Bergmann F, Flossdorf M, Strobel O, Offringa R. The Outcome of Ex Vivo TIL Expansion Is Highly Influenced by Spatial Heterogeneity of the Tumor T-Cell Repertoire and Differences in Intrinsic In Vitro Growth Capacity between T-Cell Clones. Clin Cancer Res 2020; 26:4289-4301. [PMID: 32303540 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-19-3845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2019] [Revised: 03/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE During our efforts to develop tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) therapy to counter the devastating recurrence rate in patients with primary resectable pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA), we found that PDA TILs can readily be expanded in vitro and that the majority of resulting TIL cultures show reactivity against the autologous tumor. However, the fraction of tumor-reactive T cells is low. We investigated to which extent this was related to the in vitro expansion. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We compared the clonal composition of TIL preparations before and after in vitro expansion using T-cell receptor (TCR) deep sequencing. Our findings for PDA were benchmarked to experiments with melanoma TILs. RESULTS We found that the TIL TCR repertoire changes dramatically during in vitro expansion, leading to loss of tumor- dominant T-cell clones and overgrowth by newly emerging T-cell clones that are barely detectable in the tumor. These changes are primarily driven by differences in the intrinsic in vitro expansion capacity of T-cell clones. Single-cell experiments showed an association between poor proliferative capacity and expression of markers related to antigen experience and dysfunction. Furthermore, we found that spatial heterogeneity of the TIL repertoire resulted in TCR repertoires that are greatly divergent between TIL cultures derived from distant tumor samples of the same patient. CONCLUSIONS Culture-induced changes in clonal composition are likely to affect tumor reactivity of TIL preparations. TCR deep sequencing provides important insights into the factors that govern the outcome of in vitro TIL expansion and thereby a path toward optimization of the production of TIL preparations with high therapeutic efficacy.See related commentary by Lozano-Rabella and Gros, p. 4177.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel C Poschke
- Department of General Surgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany. .,Division of Molecular Oncology of Gastrointestinal Tumors, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jessica C Hassel
- Department of Dermatology and National Center for Tumor Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Aaron Rodriguez-Ehrenfried
- Department of General Surgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany.,Division of Molecular Oncology of Gastrointestinal Tumors, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Katharina A M Lindner
- Department of General Surgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany.,Division of Molecular Oncology of Gastrointestinal Tumors, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ignacio Heras-Murillo
- Department of General Surgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany.,Division of Molecular Oncology of Gastrointestinal Tumors, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Lena M Appel
- Division of Theoretical Systems Biology, German Cancer Research Center and BioQuant Center, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.,Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Munich, Germany
| | - Johanna Lehmann
- Department of General Surgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany.,Division of Molecular Oncology of Gastrointestinal Tumors, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tanja Lövgren
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Stina L Wickström
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Claudia Lauenstein
- Department of General Surgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany.,Division of Molecular Oncology of Gastrointestinal Tumors, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jasmin Roth
- Department of Dermatology and National Center for Tumor Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Anna-Katharina König
- Department of General Surgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - John B A G Haanen
- Department of Molecular Oncology and Immunology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Joost van den Berg
- Department of Molecular Oncology and Immunology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Rolf Kiessling
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Frank Bergmann
- Department of Pathology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Michael Flossdorf
- Division of Theoretical Systems Biology, German Cancer Research Center and BioQuant Center, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.,Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Munich, Germany
| | - Oliver Strobel
- Division of Molecular Oncology of Gastrointestinal Tumors, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rienk Offringa
- Department of General Surgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany.,Division of Molecular Oncology of Gastrointestinal Tumors, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
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De Mattos-Arruda L, Blanco-Heredia J, Aguilar-Gurrieri C, Carrillo J, Blanco J. New emerging targets in cancer immunotherapy: the role of neoantigens. ESMO Open 2020; 4:e000684. [PMID: 32269031 PMCID: PMC7326255 DOI: 10.1136/esmoopen-2020-000684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The success of cancer therapies with immune checkpoint inhibitors is transforming the treatment of patients with cancer and fostering cancer research. Therapies that target immune checkpoint inhibitors have shown unprecedented rates of durable long-lasting responses in patients with various cancer types, but only in a fraction of patients. Thus, novel approaches are needed to make immunotherapy more precise and also less toxic. The advances of next-generation sequencing technologies have allowed fast detection of somatic mutations in genes present in the exome of an individual tumour. Targeting neoantigens, the mutated peptides expressed only by tumour cells, may enable antitumour T-cell responses and tumour destruction without causing harm to healthy tissues. Currently, neoantigens can be identified in tumour clinical samples by using genomic-based computational tools. The two main treatment modalities targeting neoantigens that have been investigated in clinical trials are personalised vaccines and tumour infiltrating lymphocytes-based adoptive T-cell therapy. In this mini review, we discuss the promises and challenges for using neoantigens as emergent targets to personalise and guide cancer immunotherapy in a broader set of cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leticia De Mattos-Arruda
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Badalona, Spain; Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), Badalona, Spain.
| | - Juan Blanco-Heredia
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Badalona, Spain; Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
| | - Carmen Aguilar-Gurrieri
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Badalona, Spain
| | - Jorge Carrillo
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Badalona, Spain; Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
| | - Julià Blanco
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Badalona, Spain; Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), Badalona, Spain; Universitat de Vic-Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC), Vic, Spain
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55
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Driscoll CB, Schuelke MR, Kottke T, Thompson JM, Wongthida P, Tonne JM, Huff AL, Miller A, Shim KG, Molan A, Wetmore C, Selby P, Samson A, Harrington K, Pandha H, Melcher A, Pulido JS, Harris R, Evgin L, Vile RG. APOBEC3B-mediated corruption of the tumor cell immunopeptidome induces heteroclitic neoepitopes for cancer immunotherapy. Nat Commun 2020; 11:790. [PMID: 32034147 PMCID: PMC7005822 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-14568-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
APOBEC3B, an anti-viral cytidine deaminase which induces DNA mutations, has been implicated as a mediator of cancer evolution and therapeutic resistance. Mutational plasticity also drives generation of neoepitopes, which prime anti-tumor T cells. Here, we show that overexpression of APOBEC3B in tumors increases resistance to chemotherapy, but simultaneously heightens sensitivity to immune checkpoint blockade in a murine model of melanoma. However, in the vaccine setting, APOBEC3B-mediated mutations reproducibly generate heteroclitic neoepitopes in vaccine cells which activate de novo T cell responses. These cross react against parental, unmodified tumors and lead to a high rate of cures in both subcutaneous and intra-cranial tumor models. Heteroclitic Epitope Activated Therapy (HEAT) dispenses with the need to identify patient specific neoepitopes and tumor reactive T cells ex vivo. Thus, actively driving a high mutational load in tumor cell vaccines increases their immunogenicity to drive anti-tumor therapy in combination with immune checkpoint blockade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher B Driscoll
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
- Virology and Gene Therapy Track, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Matthew R Schuelke
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Timothy Kottke
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Jill M Thompson
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | | | - Jason M Tonne
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Amanda L Huff
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
- Virology and Gene Therapy Track, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Amber Miller
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Kevin G Shim
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Amy Molan
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology & Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Cynthia Wetmore
- Center for Cancer and Blood Disorders, Phoenix Children's, Phoenix, AZ, 85016, USA
| | - Peter Selby
- Leeds Institute of Cancer and Pathology (LICAP), Faculty of Medicine and Health, St James' University Hospital, University of Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK
| | - Adel Samson
- Leeds Institute of Cancer and Pathology (LICAP), Faculty of Medicine and Health, St James' University Hospital, University of Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK
| | - Kevin Harrington
- Targeted Therapy Team, Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, SW3 6JB, UK
| | - Hardev Pandha
- Postgraduate Medical School, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Alan Melcher
- Translational Immunotherapy Team, Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, SW3 6JB, UK
| | - Jose S Pulido
- Department of Ophthalmology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Reuben Harris
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology & Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Laura Evgin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Richard G Vile
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA.
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA.
- Leeds Cancer Research UK Clinical Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health, St James' University Hospital, University of Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK.
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56
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Wickström SL, Lövgren T, Volkmar M, Reinhold B, Duke-Cohan JS, Hartmann L, Rebmann J, Mueller A, Melief J, Maas R, Ligtenberg M, Hansson J, Offringa R, Seliger B, Poschke I, Reinherz EL, Kiessling R. Cancer Neoepitopes for Immunotherapy: Discordance Between Tumor-Infiltrating T Cell Reactivity and Tumor MHC Peptidome Display. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2766. [PMID: 31921104 PMCID: PMC6918724 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) are considered enriched for T cells recognizing shared tumor antigens or mutation-derived neoepitopes. We performed exome sequencing and HLA-A*02:01 epitope prediction from tumor cell lines from two HLA-A2-positive melanoma patients whose TIL displayed strong tumor reactivity. The potential neoepitopes were screened for recognition using autologous TIL by immunological assays and presentation on tumor major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecules by Poisson detection mass spectrometry (MS). TIL from the patients recognized 5/181 and 3/49 of the predicted neoepitopes, respectively. MS screening detected 3/181 neoepitopes on tumor MHC-I from the first patient but only one was also among those recognized by TIL. Consequently, TIL enriched for neoepitope specificity failed to recognize tumor cells, despite being activated by peptides. For the second patient, only after IFN-γ treatment of the tumor cells was one of 49 predicted neoepitopes detected by MS, and this coincided with recognition by TIL sorted for the same specificity. Importantly, specific T cells could be expanded from patient and donor peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) for all neoepitopes recognized by TIL and/or detected on tumor MHC-I. In summary, stimulating the appropriate inflammatory environment within tumors may promote neoepitope MHC presentation while expanding T cells in blood may circumvent lack of specific TIL. The discordance in detection between physical and functional methods revealed here can be rationalized and used to improve neoantigen-targeted T cell immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stina L Wickström
- Department of Oncology and Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Tanja Lövgren
- Department of Oncology and Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Michael Volkmar
- Division of Molecular Oncology of Gastrointestinal Tumors, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Bruce Reinhold
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, United States.,Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Jonathan S Duke-Cohan
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, United States.,Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Laura Hartmann
- Department of Oncology and Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Janina Rebmann
- Division of Molecular Oncology of Gastrointestinal Tumors, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Anja Mueller
- Institute of Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Jeroen Melief
- Department of Oncology and Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Roeltje Maas
- Department of Oncology and Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maarten Ligtenberg
- Department of Oncology and Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Johan Hansson
- Department of Oncology and Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Rienk Offringa
- Division of Molecular Oncology of Gastrointestinal Tumors, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Barbara Seliger
- Institute of Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Isabel Poschke
- Division of Molecular Oncology of Gastrointestinal Tumors, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,DKTK Immune Monitoring Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ellis L Reinherz
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, United States.,Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Rolf Kiessling
- Department of Oncology and Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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57
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Benvenuto M, Focaccetti C, Izzi V, Masuelli L, Modesti A, Bei R. Tumor antigens heterogeneity and immune response-targeting neoantigens in breast cancer. Semin Cancer Biol 2019; 72:65-75. [PMID: 31698088 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2019.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer is both the most common type of cancer and the most frequent cause of cancer mortality in women, mainly because of its heterogeneity and limited immunogenicity. The aim of specific active cancer immunotherapy is to stimulate the host's immune response against cancer cells directly using a vaccine platform carrying one or more tumor antigens. In particular, the ideal tumor antigen should be able to elicit T cell and B cell responses, be specific for the tumor and be expressed at high levels on cancer cells. Neoantigens are ideal targets for immunotherapy because they are exclusive to individual patient's tumors, are absent in healthy tissues and are not subject to immune tolerance mechanisms. Thus, neoantigens should generate a specific reaction towards tumors since they constitute the largest fraction of targets of tumor-infiltrating T cells. In this review, we describe the technologies used for neoantigen discovery, the heterogeneity of neoantigens in breast cancer and recent studies of breast cancer immunotherapy targeting neoantigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Benvenuto
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Translational Medicine, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Via Montpellier 1, 00133, Rome, Italy; Saint Camillus International University of Health and Medical Sciences, via di Sant'Alessandro 8, 00131, Rome, Italy.
| | - Chiara Focaccetti
- Department of Human Science and Promotion of the Quality of Life, University San Raffaele Rome, Via di Val Cannuta 247, 00166, Rome, Italy.
| | - Valerio Izzi
- Center for Cell-Matrix Research, Biocenter Oulu, Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Aapistie 7C, FI-90230, Oulu, Finland.
| | - Laura Masuelli
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Rome "Sapienza", Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Andrea Modesti
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Translational Medicine, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Via Montpellier 1, 00133, Rome, Italy.
| | - Roberto Bei
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Translational Medicine, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Via Montpellier 1, 00133, Rome, Italy.
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58
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Flores C, Wildes T, Dean BD, Moore G, Drake J, Abraham R, Gil J, Yegorov O, Yang C, Dean J, Moneypenny C, Shin D, Pham C, Krauser J, King J, Grant G, Driscoll T, Kurtzberg J, McLendon R, Gururangan S, Mitchell D. Massive clonal expansion of medulloblastoma-specific T cells during adoptive cellular therapy. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2019; 5:eaav9879. [PMID: 31807694 PMCID: PMC6881165 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aav9879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
In both human and murine systems, we have developed an adoptive cellular therapy platform against medulloblastoma and glioblastoma that uses dendritic cells pulsed with a tumor RNA transcriptome to expand polyclonal tumor-reactive T cells against a plurality of antigens within heterogeneous brain tumors. We demonstrate that peripheral TCR Vβ repertoire analysis after adoptive cellular therapy reveals that effective response to adoptive cellular therapy is concordant with massive in vivo expansion and persistence of tumor-specific T cell clones within the peripheral blood. In preclinical models of medulloblastoma and glioblastoma, and in a patient with relapsed medulloblastoma receiving adoptive cellular therapy, an early and massive expansion of tumor-reactive lymphocytes, coupled with prolonged persistence in the peripheral blood, is observed during effective therapeutic response to immunotherapy treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Flores
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - T. Wildes
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - B. DiVita Dean
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - G. Moore
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - J. Drake
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - R. Abraham
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - J. Gil
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - O. Yegorov
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - C. Yang
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - J. Dean
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - C. Moneypenny
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - D. Shin
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- U.S. Army, 1600 Spearhead Division Ave., Fort Knox, KY, USA
| | - C. Pham
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - J. Krauser
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - J. King
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - G. Grant
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University Medical Center, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - T. Driscoll
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - J. Kurtzberg
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - R. McLendon
- Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - S. Gururangan
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - D. Mitchell
- University of Florida Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Gorabi AM, Hajighasemi S, Sathyapalan T, Sahebkar A. Cell transfer-based immunotherapies in cancer: A review. IUBMB Life 2019; 72:790-800. [PMID: 31633881 DOI: 10.1002/iub.2180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In cell transfer therapy (CTT), immune cells such as innate immune-derived natural killer cells and dendritic cells as well as acquired immune-related T lymphocytes such as tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and cytokine-activated or genetically modified peripheral blood T cells are used in the management of cancer. These therapies are increasingly becoming the most used treatment modality in cancer after tumor resection, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. In adoptive cell transfer, the lymphocytes isolated from either a donor or the patient are modified ex vivo and reinfused to target malignant cells. Transferring in vitro-manipulated immune cells produces a continuous antitumor immune response. In this review, we evaluate the recent advances in CTT for the management of various malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armita M Gorabi
- Research Center for Advanced Technologies in Cardiovascular Medicine, Tehran Heart Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saeideh Hajighasemi
- Faculty of Paramedicine, Department of Medical Biotechnology, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran
| | - Thozhukat Sathyapalan
- Department of Academic Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Hull York Medical School, University of Hull, Hull, UK
| | - Amirhossein Sahebkar
- Halal Research Center of IRI, FDA, Tehran, Iran.,Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Neurogenic Inflammation Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
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60
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Chen L, Qiao D, Wang J, Tian G, Wang M. Cancer immunotherapy with lymphocytes genetically engineered with T cell receptors for solid cancers. Immunol Lett 2019; 216:51-62. [PMID: 31597088 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2019.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Adoptive transfer of T cells genetically engineered with chimeric antigen receptors (CAR-T cells) have proven to be highly effective for treating CD19+ B cell-derived hematologic malignancies. However, due to the lack of ideal tumor surface antigens, CAR-T cell therapy has limited success in treating solid tumors. T cells genetically engineered with T cell receptors (TCR-T cells) recognize intracellular and cell-surface antigens in the context of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) presentation and thus have the potential to access much more target antigens than CAR-T cells, providing great promise in treating solid tumors. There is an increasing interest in the application of TCR-T cell therapy for solid tumors, and fifty-six clinical trials are undergoing worldwide to confirm its validity. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in clinical studies of TCR-T cell therapy, describe strategies in the preparation and characterization of TCR-T cells, focusing on antigen selection, TCR isolation and methods to further enhance the potency of adoptively transferred cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Chen
- Department of Research and Development, Shenzhen Institute for Innovation and Translational Medicine, Shenzhen International Biological Valley-Life Science Industrial Park, Dapeng New District, Shenzhen, China
| | - Dongjuan Qiao
- Department of Research and Development, Shenzhen Institute for Innovation and Translational Medicine, Shenzhen International Biological Valley-Life Science Industrial Park, Dapeng New District, Shenzhen, China
| | - Juntao Wang
- Department of Research and Development, Shenzhen Institute for Innovation and Translational Medicine, Shenzhen International Biological Valley-Life Science Industrial Park, Dapeng New District, Shenzhen, China
| | - Geng Tian
- Department of Oncology, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518035, China
| | - Mingjun Wang
- Department of Research and Development, Shenzhen Institute for Innovation and Translational Medicine, Shenzhen International Biological Valley-Life Science Industrial Park, Dapeng New District, Shenzhen, China.
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61
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Jiang T, Shi T, Zhang H, Hu J, Song Y, Wei J, Ren S, Zhou C. Tumor neoantigens: from basic research to clinical applications. J Hematol Oncol 2019; 12:93. [PMID: 31492199 PMCID: PMC6731555 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-019-0787-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 233] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor neoantigen is the truly foreign protein and entirely absent from normal human organs/tissues. It could be specifically recognized by neoantigen-specific T cell receptors (TCRs) in the context of major histocompatibility complexes (MHCs) molecules. Emerging evidence has suggested that neoantigens play a critical role in tumor-specific T cell-mediated antitumor immune response and successful cancer immunotherapies. From a theoretical perspective, neoantigen is an ideal immunotherapy target because they are distinguished from germline and could be recognized as non-self by the host immune system. Neoantigen-based therapeutic personalized vaccines and adoptive T cell transfer have shown promising preliminary results. Furthermore, recent studies suggested the significant role of neoantigen in immune escape, immunoediting, and sensitivity to immune checkpoint inhibitors. In this review, we systematically summarize the recent advances of understanding and identification of tumor-specific neoantigens and its role on current cancer immunotherapies. We also discuss the ongoing development of strategies based on neoantigens and its future clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Jiang
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Shanghai Respiratory Research Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Department of Medical Oncology, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital & Thoracic Cancer Institute, Tongji University School of Medicine, No. 507, Zheng Min Road, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Tao Shi
- The Comprehensive Cancer Centre of Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, No. 321, Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, 210008, China
| | | | - Jie Hu
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Shanghai Respiratory Research Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuanlin Song
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Shanghai Respiratory Research Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jia Wei
- The Comprehensive Cancer Centre of Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, No. 321, Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, 210008, China.
| | - Shengxiang Ren
- Department of Medical Oncology, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital & Thoracic Cancer Institute, Tongji University School of Medicine, No. 507, Zheng Min Road, Shanghai, 200433, China.
| | - Caicun Zhou
- Department of Medical Oncology, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital & Thoracic Cancer Institute, Tongji University School of Medicine, No. 507, Zheng Min Road, Shanghai, 200433, China.
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62
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Sanz-Ortega L, Portilla Y, Pérez-Yagüe S, Barber DF. Magnetic targeting of adoptively transferred tumour-specific nanoparticle-loaded CD8 + T cells does not improve their tumour infiltration in a mouse model of cancer but promotes the retention of these cells in tumour-draining lymph nodes. J Nanobiotechnology 2019; 17:87. [PMID: 31387604 PMCID: PMC6683429 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-019-0520-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Adoptive T cell-transfer (ATC) therapy is a highly promising cancer-treatment approach. However, in vivo-administered T cells tend to disperse, with only a small proportion reaching the tumour. To remedy this, magnetic targeting of T cells has been recently explored. Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) functionalised with antibodies were attached to effector T cells and magnetically recruited to tumour sites under MRI guidance. In this study, we investigated whether 3-aminopropyl-triethoxysilane (APS)-coated MNPs directly attached to CD8+ T cell membranes could also magnetically target and accumulate tumour-specific CD8+ T cells in solid tumours using an external magnetic field (EMF). As it has been shown that T cells associated with APS-coated MNPs are retained in lymph nodes (LNs), and tumour-draining LNs are the most common sites of solid-tumour metastases, we further evaluated whether magnetic targeting of APS-MNP-loaded CD8+ T cells could cause them to accumulate in tumour-draining LNs. Results First, we show that antigen-specific CD8+ T cells preserve their antitumor activity in vitro when associated with APS-MNPs. Next, we demonstrate that the application of a magnetic field enhanced the retention of APS-MNP-loaded OT-I CD8+ T cells under flow conditions in vitro. Using a syngeneic mouse model, we found similar numbers of APS-MNP-loaded OT-I CD8+ T cells and OT-I CD8+ T cells infiltrating the tumour 14 days after cell transfer. However, when a magnet was placed near the tumour during the transfer of tumour-specific APS-MNP-loaded CD8+ T cells to improve tumour infiltration, a reduced percentage of tumour-specific T cells was found infiltrating the tumour 14 days after cell transfer, which was reflected in a smaller reduction in tumour size compared to tumour-specific CD8+ T cells transferred with or without MNPs in the absence of a magnetic field. Nonetheless, magnet placement near the tumour site during cell transfer induced infiltration of activated tumour-specific CD8+ T cells in tumour-draining LNs, which remained 14 days after cell transfer. Conclusions The use of an EMF to improve targeting of tumour-specific T cells modified with APS-MNPs reduced the percentage of these cells infiltrating the tumour, but promoted the retention and the persistence of these cells in the tumour-draining LNs. ![]() Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12951-019-0520-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Sanz-Ortega
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, and NanoBiomedicine Initiative, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB)-CSIC, Darwin 3, Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Yadileiny Portilla
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, and NanoBiomedicine Initiative, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB)-CSIC, Darwin 3, Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sonia Pérez-Yagüe
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, and NanoBiomedicine Initiative, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB)-CSIC, Darwin 3, Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Domingo F Barber
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, and NanoBiomedicine Initiative, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB)-CSIC, Darwin 3, Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain.
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63
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Zhuang Y, Zhang C, Wu Q, Zhang J, Ye Z, Qian Q. Application of immune repertoire sequencing in cancer immunotherapy. Int Immunopharmacol 2019; 74:105688. [PMID: 31276974 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2019.105688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2018] [Revised: 05/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
With the prominent breakthrough in the field of tumor immunology, diverse cancer immunotherapies have attracted great attention in the last decade. The immune checkpoint inhibitors, adoptive cell therapies, and therapeutic cancer vaccines have already achieved impressive clinical success. However, the fact that only a small subset of patients with specific tumor types can benefit from these treatments limits the application of cancer immunotherapy. To seek out the molecular mechanisms behind this challenge and to select cancer precision medicine for different individuals, researchers apply the immune repertoire sequencing (IRS) to evaluate genetic responses of each patient to current immunotherapies. This review summarizes the technical advances and recent applications of IRS in cancer immunotherapy, indicates the limitations of this technique, and predicts future perspectives both in basic studies and clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Zhuang
- Shanghai Baize Medical Laboratory, Shanghai, China
| | - Changzheng Zhang
- Shanghai Baize Medical Laboratory, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Engineering Research Center for Cell Therapy, Shanghai, China
| | - Qiong Wu
- Shanghai Baize Medical Laboratory, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Shanghai Baize Medical Laboratory, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhenlong Ye
- Shanghai Baize Medical Laboratory, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Cell Therapy Research Institute, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Engineering Research Center for Cell Therapy, Shanghai, China.
| | - Qijun Qian
- Shanghai Baize Medical Laboratory, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Cell Therapy Research Institute, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Engineering Research Center for Cell Therapy, Shanghai, China.
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64
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Garcia-Garijo A, Fajardo CA, Gros A. Determinants for Neoantigen Identification. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1392. [PMID: 31293573 PMCID: PMC6601353 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
All tumors accumulate genetic alterations, some of which can give rise to mutated, non-self peptides presented by human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecules and elicit T-cell responses. These immunogenic mutated peptides, or neoantigens, are foreign in nature and display exquisite tumor specificity. The correlative evidence suggesting they play an important role in the effectiveness of various cancer immunotherapies has triggered the development of vaccines and adoptive T-cell therapies targeting them. However, the systematic identification of personalized neoantigens in cancer patients, a critical requisite for the success of these therapies, remains challenging. A growing amount of evidence supports that only a small fraction of all tumor somatic non-synonymous mutations (NSM) identified represent bona fide neoantigens; mutated peptides that are processed, presented on the cell surface HLA molecules of cancer cells and are capable of triggering immune responses in patients. Here, we provide an overview of the existing strategies to identify candidate neoantigens and to evaluate their immunogenicity, two factors that impact on neoantigen identification. We will focus on their strengths and limitations to allow readers to rationally select and apply the most suitable method for their specific laboratory setting.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Alena Gros
- Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Vall d'Hebron Institute of Oncology (VHIO), Barcelona, Spain
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65
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Wilson EA, Anderson KS. Lost in the crowd: identifying targetable MHC class I neoepitopes for cancer immunotherapy. Expert Rev Proteomics 2018; 15:1065-1077. [PMID: 30408427 DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2018.1545578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The recent development of checkpoint blockade immunotherapy for cancer has led to impressive clinical results across multiple tumor types. There is mounting evidence that immune recognition of tumor derived MHC class I (MHC-I) restricted epitopes bearing cancer specific mutations and alterations is a crucial mechanism in successfully triggering immune-mediated tumor rejection. Therapeutic targeting of these cancer specific epitopes (neoepitopes) is emerging as a promising opportunity for the generation of personalized cancer vaccines and adoptive T cell therapies. However, one major obstacle limiting the broader application of neoepitope based therapies is the difficulty of selecting highly immunogenic neoepitopes among the wide array of presented non-immunogenic HLA ligands derived from self-proteins. Areas covered: In this review, we present an overview of the MHC-I processing and presentation pathway, as well as highlight key areas that contribute to the complexity of the associated MHC-I peptidome. We cover recent technological advances that simplify and optimize the identification of targetable neoepitopes for cancer immunotherapeutic applications. Expert commentary: Recent advances in computational modeling, bioinformatics, and mass spectrometry are unlocking the underlying mechanisms governing antigen processing and presentation of tumor-derived neoepitopes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric A Wilson
- a Center for Personalized Diagnostics, Biodesign Institute , Arizona State University , Tempe , AZ , USA
| | - Karen S Anderson
- a Center for Personalized Diagnostics, Biodesign Institute , Arizona State University , Tempe , AZ , USA.,b Department of Medical Oncology , Mayo Clinic Arizona , Scottsdale , AZ , USA
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66
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Zamora AE, Crawford JC, Thomas PG. Hitting the Target: How T Cells Detect and Eliminate Tumors. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 200:392-399. [PMID: 29311380 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1701413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The successes of antitumor immuno-based therapies and the application of next-generation sequencing to mutation profiling have produced insights into the specific targets of antitumor T cells. Mutated proteins have tremendous potential as targets for interventions using autologous T cells or engineered cell therapies and may serve as important correlates of efficacy for immunoregulatory interventions including immune checkpoint blockade. As mutated self, tumors present an exceptional case for host immunity, which has primarily evolved in response to foreign pathogens. Tumor Ags' resemblance to self may limit immune recognition, but key features appear to be the same between antipathogen and antitumor responses. Determining which targets will make efficacious Ags and which responses might be elicited therapeutically are key questions for the field. Here we discuss current knowledge on antitumor specificity, the mutations that provide immunogenic targets, and how cross-reactivity and immunodominance may contribute to variation in immune responses among tumor types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony E Zamora
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
| | | | - Paul G Thomas
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
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67
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Tan LSY, Wong B, Gangodu NR, Lee AZE, Kian Fong Liou A, Loh KS, Li H, Yann Lim M, Salazar AM, Lim CM. Enhancing the immune stimulatory effects of cetuximab therapy through TLR3 signalling in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) positive nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Oncoimmunology 2018; 7:e1500109. [PMID: 30377565 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2018.1500109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/07/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cetuximab immunotherapy targeting the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) has been used to treat nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC) with some success. Therefore, combining an immune adjuvant to boost the immune microenvironment may improve its clinical efficacy. Herein, we investigate the immune-stimulatory effects of Poly-ICLC (a TLR3 agonist) in enhancing cetuximab-based immunotherapy and correlate these responses with FcɣRIIIa (V158F) or TLR3 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs- L412F and C829T) expressed on immune effector cells. We observed high levels of TLR3 mRNA in NPC cells; and both TLR3 and EGFR expression were unaffected by Poly-ICLC treatment. Cetuximab plus Poly-ICLC significantly enhanced NK-mediated ADCC through up-regulation of CD107a and Granzyme B expression. This effect was independent of FcɣRIIIa-V158F and TLR3-L412F or TLR3-C829T polymorphisms expressed on NK cells. Additionally, IFN-ɣ expression and secretion were doubled following cetuximab plus poly-ICLC treatment; compared to either treatment alone. This effect was independent of TLR3 polymorphisms. Consequentially, adaptive immune responses were also seen with increased DC maturation (CD83), co-stimulatory molecules expression (CD80 and CD86) and increased frequency of EGFR-specific CD8 + T cells following Poly-ICLC treatment. The percentage of CD80+ CD83+ and CD83+ CD86+ DC was highest in the Poly-ICLC plus cetuximab group, compared to either treatment alone. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of Poly-ICLC in enhancing both cetuximab-mediated innate and adaptive anti-tumor immunity against NPC, which is independent of FcɣRIIIa-158, TLR3-L412F or TLR3-C829T polymorphisms. Additionally, Poly-ICLC does not downregulate EGFR expression on NPC cells and hence, will not dampen cetuximab anti-tumor activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Soo Yee Tan
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, National University Health System Singapore, Singapore
| | - Benjamin Wong
- Department of Pathology, National University Health System Singapore, Singapore
| | - Nagaraja Rao Gangodu
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, National University Health System Singapore, Singapore
| | - Andrea Zhe Ern Lee
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, National University Health System Singapore, Singapore
| | - Anthony Kian Fong Liou
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, National University Health System Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kwok Seng Loh
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, National University Health System Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hao Li
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore
| | - Ming Yann Lim
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore
| | | | - Chwee Ming Lim
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, National University Health System Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Otolaryngology, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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68
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Update on Tumor Neoantigens and Their Utility: Why It Is Good to Be Different. Trends Immunol 2018; 39:536-548. [PMID: 29751996 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2018.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Antitumor rejection by the immune system is a complex process that is regulated by several factors. Among these factors are the quality and quantity of mutational events that occur in cancer cells. Perhaps one of the most important types of mutations that influence antitumor immunity is the neoantigen, that is, a non-self-antigen that arises as a result of somatic mutation. Recent work has demonstrated that neoantigens hold significant promise for developing new diagnostic and therapeutic modalities. Therapeutic targeting of neoantigens is important for achieving benefit following therapy with immune checkpoint blockade agents or for cancer vaccines targeting mutations. Here, we review our understanding of neoantigens and discuss new developments in the quest to use them in cancer immunotherapy.
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69
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Scutti JAB. Importance of immune monitoring approaches and the use of immune checkpoints for the treatment of diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma: From bench to clinic and vice versa (Review). Int J Oncol 2018; 52:1041-1056. [PMID: 29484440 PMCID: PMC5843403 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2018.4283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
On the basis of immunological results, it is not in doubt that the immune system is able to recognize and eliminate transformed cells. A plethora of studies have investigated the immune system of patients with cancer and how it is prone to immunosuppression, due in part to the decrease in lymphocyte proliferation and cytotoxic activity. The series of experiments published following the demonstration by Dr Allison's group of the potential effect of anti-cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4) paved the way for a new perception in cancer immunotherapy: Immune checkpoints. Several T cell-co-stimulatory molecules including cluster of differentiation (CD)28, inducible T cell co-stimulatory, 4-1BB, OX40, glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor-related gene and CD27, and inhibitory molecules including T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-containing-3, programmed cell death-1 (PD-1), programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1), V-domain immunoglobulin suppressor of T cells activation, T cell immunoglobulin and immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif domain, and B and T lymphocyte attenuator have been described in regulating T cell functions, and have been demonstrated to be essential targets in immunotherapy. In preclinical studies, glioblastoma multiforme, a high-grade glioma, the monotherapy targeting PD-1/PD-L1 and CTLA-4 resulted in increased survival times. An improved understanding of the pharmacodynamics and immune monitoring on glioma cancers, particularly in diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG), an orphan type of cancer, is expected to have a major contribution to the development of novel therapeutic approaches. On the basis of the recent preclinical and clinical studies of glioma, but not of DIPG, the present review makes a claim for the importance of investigating the tumor microenvironment, the immune response and the use of immune checkpoints (agonists or antagonists) in preclinical/clinical DIPG samples by immune monitoring approaches and high-dimensional analysis. Evaluating the potential predictive and correlative biomarkers in preclinical and clinical studies may assist in answering certain crucial questions that may be useful to improve the clinical response in patients with DIPG.
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70
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Metastatic Lung Lesions as a Preferred Resection Site for Immunotherapy With Tumor Infiltrating Lymphocytes. J Immunother 2018; 39:218-22. [PMID: 27163742 DOI: 10.1097/cji.0000000000000124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Adoptive cell therapy with tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) yields 50% response rates in metastatic melanoma and shows promising clinical results in other solid tumors. Autologous TIL cultures are isolated from resected tumor tissue, expanded ex vivo to large numbers and reinfused to the preconditioned patient. In this prospective study, we validate the origin of the tumor biopsy and its effect on T-cell function and clinical response. One hundred forty-four patients underwent surgery and 79 patients were treated with TIL adoptive cell therapy. Cultures from lung tissue were compared with other origins. The success rate of establishing TIL culture from lung tissue was significantly higher compared with nonlung tissue (94% vs. 72%, respectively, P≤0.003). Lung-derived TIL cultures gave rise to higher cell numbers (P≤0.011) and exhibited increased in vitro antitumor reactivity. The average fold expansion for lung-derived TIL during a rapid expansion procedure was 1349±557 compared with 1061±473 for nonlung TIL (P≤0.038). Patients treated with TIL cultures of lung origin (compared with nonlung) had prolonged median overall survival (29 vs. 9.5 mo; P≤0.065). Given the remarkable advancement in minimally invasive thoracic surgery and the results of this study, we suggest efforts should be taken to resect lung metastasis rather than other sites to generate TIL cultures for clinical use.
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71
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Joshi K, Chain BM, Peggs KS, Quezada SA. The "Achilles' Heel" of Cancer and Its Implications for the Development of Novel Immunotherapeutic Strategies. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2018; 8:a027086. [PMID: 28630228 PMCID: PMC5749142 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a027086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Over the last century, scientists have embraced the idea of mobilizing antitumor immune responses in patients with cancer. In the last decade, we have seen the rebirth of cancer immunotherapy and its validation in a series of high profile clinical trials following the discovery of several immune-regulatory receptors. Recent studies point toward the tumor mutational load and resulting neoantigen burden as being crucial to tumor cell recognition by the immune system, highlighting a potentially targetable Achilles' heel in cancer. In this review, we explore the key mechanisms that underpin the recognition of cancerous cells by the immune system and discuss how we may advance immunotherapeutic strategies to target the cancer mutanome to stimulate tumor-specific immune responses, ultimately, to improve the clinical outcome for patients with cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kroopa Joshi
- Cancer Immunology Unit, University College London Cancer Institute, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
- Department of Medical Oncology, The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust, London SW3 6JJ, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin M Chain
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Karl S Peggs
- Cancer Immunology Unit, University College London Cancer Institute, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Sergio A Quezada
- Cancer Immunology Unit, University College London Cancer Institute, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
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72
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Wirth TC, Kühnel F. Neoantigen Targeting-Dawn of a New Era in Cancer Immunotherapy? Front Immunol 2017; 8:1848. [PMID: 29312332 PMCID: PMC5742119 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
During their development and progression tumors acquire numerous mutations that, when translated into proteins give rise to neoantigens that can be recognized by T cells. Initially, neoantigens were not recognized as preferred targets for cancer immunotherapy due to their enormous diversity and the therefore limited options to develop “one fits all” pharmacologic solutions. In recent years, the experience obtained in clinical trials demonstrating a predictive role of neoantigens in checkpoint inhibition has changed our view on the clinical potential of neoantigens in cancer immunotherapy. Technological advances such as sequencing of whole cancer genomes, the development of reliable algorithms for epitope prediction, and an increasing number of immunotherapeutic options now facilitate the development of personalized tumor therapies directly targeting a patient’s neoantigenic burden. Preclinical studies in mice that support the excellent therapeutic potential of neoantigen-directed immunotherapies have provided blueprints on how this methodology can be translated into clinical applications in humans. Consistently, very recent clinical studies on personalized vaccinations targeting in silico predicted neoepitopes shed a first light on the therapeutic potential of personalized, neoantigen-directed immunotherapies. In our review, we discuss the various subtypes of tumor antigens with a focus on neoantigens and their potential in cancer immunotherapy. We will describe the current methods and techniques of detection as well as the structural requirements for neoantigens that are needed for their recognition by T cells and for tumor destruction. To assess the clinical potential of neoantigens, we will discuss their occurrence and functional relevance in spontaneous and hereditary cancers and their prognostic and predictive value. We will present in detail the existing immunotherapeutic options that exploit the neoantigen burden of tumors encompassing both preclinical efforts that provided convincing technological proof-of-concept and the current clinical studies confirming the potential of neoantigen-directed immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas C Wirth
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Medical School Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Florian Kühnel
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Medical School Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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73
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Saini S, Rekers N, Hadrup S. Novel tools to assist neoepitope targeting in personalized cancer immunotherapy. Ann Oncol 2017; 28:xii3-xii10. [DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdx544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
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74
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Schaller TH, Batich KA, Suryadevara CM, Desai R, Sampson JH. Chemokines as adjuvants for immunotherapy: implications for immune activation with CCL3. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2017; 13:1049-1060. [PMID: 28965431 DOI: 10.1080/1744666x.2017.1384313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Immunotherapy embodies any approach that manipulates the immune system for therapeutic benefit. In this regard, various clinical trials have employed direct vaccination with patient-specific dendritic cells or adoptive T cell therapy to target highly aggressive tumors. Both modalities have demonstrated great specificity, an advantage that is unmatched by other treatment strategies. However, their full potential has yet to be realized. Areas covered: In this review, we provide an overview of chemokines in pathogen and anti-tumor immune responses and discuss further improving immunotherapies by arming particular chemokine axes. Expert commentary: The chemokine macrophage inflammatory protein-1 alpha (MIP-1α, CCL3) has emerged as a potent activator of both innate and adaptive responses. Specifically, CCL3 plays a critical role in recruiting distinct immune phenotypes to intratumoral sites, is a pivotal player in regulating lymph node homing of dendritic cell subsets, and induces antigen-specific T cell responses. The recent breadth of literature outlines the various interactions of CCL3 with these cellular subsets, which have now served as a basis for immunotherapeutic translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teilo H Schaller
- a Duke Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Department of Neurosurgery , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA.,b Department of Pathology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Kristen A Batich
- a Duke Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Department of Neurosurgery , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA.,b Department of Pathology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Carter M Suryadevara
- a Duke Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Department of Neurosurgery , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA.,b Department of Pathology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - Rupen Desai
- a Duke Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Department of Neurosurgery , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
| | - John H Sampson
- a Duke Brain Tumor Immunotherapy Program, Department of Neurosurgery , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA.,b Department of Pathology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA.,c Department of Radiation Oncology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA.,d Department of Immunology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA
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Overwijk WW. Cancer vaccines in the era of checkpoint blockade: the magic is in the adjuvant. Curr Opin Immunol 2017; 47:103-109. [PMID: 28806603 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2017.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
While T cell checkpoint blockade therapy of various cancers yields impressive clinical benefits, most patients are not cured. This is thought to result from insufficient spontaneous tumor-specific T cell responses, a situation that could be remedied with cancer-specific vaccination. Much work is underway to identify cancer-specific antigens, leaving open the question of how to formulate these antigens in a manner that provokes potent cancer-specific T cell responses. In this review I discuss paradigms guiding adjuvant development, and consider what may constitutes a clinically relevant T cell response. I also suggest that adjuvants providing multiple non-redundant signals may be the next frontier in the development of cancer vaccines that provide true clinical benefit when combined with T cell checkpoint blockade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willem W Overwijk
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA; Department of Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA; MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX, USA
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76
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'Final common pathway' of human cancer immunotherapy: targeting random somatic mutations. Nat Immunol 2017; 18:255-262. [PMID: 28198830 DOI: 10.1038/ni.3682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 332] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Effective clinical cancer immunotherapies, such as administration of the cytokine IL-2, adoptive cell transfer (ACT) and the recent success of blockade of the checkpoint modulators CTLA-4 and PD-1, have been developed without clear identification of the immunogenic targets expressed by human cancers in vivo. Immunotherapy of patients with cancer through the use of ACT with autologous lymphocytes has provided an opportunity to directly investigate the antigen recognition of lymphocytes that mediate cancer regression in humans. High-throughput immunological testing of such lymphocytes in combination with improvements in deep sequencing of the autologous cancer have provided new insight into the molecular characterization and incidence of anti-tumor lymphocytes present in patients with cancer. Here we highlight evidence suggesting that T cells that target tumor neoantigens arising from cancer mutations are the main mediators of many effective cancer immunotherapies in humans.
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Liu X, Jiang S, Fang C, Li H, Zhang X, Zhang F, June CH, Zhao Y. Novel T cells with improved in vivo anti-tumor activity generated by RNA electroporation. Protein Cell 2017; 8:514-526. [PMID: 28523432 PMCID: PMC5498341 DOI: 10.1007/s13238-017-0422-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The generation of T cells with maximal anti-tumor activities will significantly impact the field of T-cell-based adoptive immunotherapy. In this report, we found that OKT3/IL-2-stimulated T cells were phenotypically more heterogeneous, with enhanced anti-tumor activity in vitro and when locally administered in a solid tumor mouse model. To further improve the OKT3/IL-2-based T cell manufacturing procedure, we developed a novel T cell stimulation and expansion method in which peripheral blood mononuclear cells were electroporated with mRNA encoding a chimeric membrane protein consisting of a single-chain variable fragment against CD3 and the intracellular domains of CD28 and 4-1BB (OKT3-28BB). The expanded T cells were phenotypically and functionally similar to T cells expanded by OKT3/IL-2. Moreover, co-electroporation of CD86 and 4-1BBL could further change the phenotype and enhance the in vivo anti-tumor activity. Although T cells expanded by the co-electroporation of OKT3-28BB with CD86 and 4-1BBL showed an increased central memory phenotype, the T cells still maintained tumor lytic activities as potent as those of OKT3/IL-2 or OKT3-28BB-stimulated T cells. In different tumor mouse models, T cells expanded by OKT3-28BB RNA electroporation showed anti-tumor activities superior to those of OKT3/IL-2 T cells. Hence, T cells with both a less differentiated phenotype and potent tumor killing ability can be generated by RNA electroporation, and this T cell manufacturing procedure can be further optimized by simply co-delivering other splices of RNA, thus providing a simple and cost-effective method for generating high-quality T cells for adoptive immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Liu
- Key Laboratory for Experimental Teratology of Ministry of Education and Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, 250012, China
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, University of Pennsylvania Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Shuguang Jiang
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, University of Pennsylvania Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Chongyun Fang
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, University of Pennsylvania Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Hua Li
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, University of Pennsylvania Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Xuhua Zhang
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, University of Pennsylvania Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Fuqin Zhang
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, University of Pennsylvania Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Carl H June
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, University of Pennsylvania Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-5156, USA
| | - Yangbing Zhao
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, University of Pennsylvania Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-5156, USA.
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Abstract
The past decade of cancer research has been marked by a growing appreciation of the role of immunity in cancer. Mutations in the tumour genome can cause tumours to express mutant proteins that are tumour specific and not expressed on normal cells (neoantigens). These neoantigens are an attractive immune target because their selective expression on tumours may minimize immune tolerance as well as the risk of autoimmunity. In this Review we discuss the emerging evidence that neoantigens are recognized by the immune system and can be targeted to increase antitumour immunity. We also provide a framework for personalized cancer immunotherapy through the identification and selective targeting of individual tumour neoantigens, and present the potential benefits and obstacles to this approach of targeted immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Yarchoan
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, USA
| | - Burles A Johnson
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, USA
| | - Eric R Lutz
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, USA
| | - Daniel A Laheru
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, USA
| | - Elizabeth M Jaffee
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, USA
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80
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T cell receptor repertoire usage in cancer as a surrogate marker for immune responses. Semin Immunopathol 2017; 39:255-268. [PMID: 28074285 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-016-0614-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Characterizing the interaction of cancer cells with the host adaptive immune system is critical for understanding tumor immunology and the modus operandi of immunotherapeutic interventions to treat cancer. As the key cellular effectors of adaptive immunity, T cells are endowed with specialized receptors (the T cell receptor; TCR), to recognize and to eliminate cancer cells. The diversity of the TCR repertoire results from specialized genetic diversification mechanisms that generate an incredible variability allowing recognizing extensive collections of antigens. Based on the attainment and function of the TCR, the TCR repertoire is a mirror of the human immune response, and the dynamic changes of its usage can be assumed as a promising biomarker to monitor immunomodulatory therapies. Recent advances in multiplexed PCR amplification and massive parallel sequencing technologies have facilitated the characterization of TCR repertoires at high resolution even when only biomaterial of limited quantity and quality, such as formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) archived tissues, is available. Here, we review the concept framework and current experimental approaches to characterize the TCR repertoire usage in cancer including inherent technical and biological challenges.
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81
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Abstract
Harnessing the immune system to eradicate malignant cells is becoming a most powerful new approach to cancer therapy. FDA approval of the immunotherapy-based drugs, sipuleucel-T (Provenge), ipilimumab (Yervoy, anti-CTLA-4), and more recently, the programmed cell death (PD)-1 antibody (pembrolizumab, Keytruda), for the treatment of multiple types of cancer has greatly advanced research and clinical studies in the field of cancer immunotherapy. Furthermore, recent clinical trials, using NY-ESO-1-specific T cell receptor (TCR) or CD19-chimeric antigen receptor (CAR), have shown promising clinical results for patients with metastatic cancer. Current success of cancer immunotherapy is built upon the work of cancer antigens and co-inhibitory signaling molecules identified 20 years ago. Among the large numbers of target antigens, CD19 is the best target for CAR T cell therapy for blood cancer, but CAR-engineered T cell immunotherapy does not yet work in solid cancer. NY-ESO-1 is one of the best targets for TCR-based immunotherapy in solid cancer. Despite the great success of checkpoint blockade therapy, more than 50% of cancer patients fail to respond to blockade therapy. The advent of new technologies such as next-generation sequencing has enhanced our ability to search for new immune targets in onco-immunology and accelerated the development of immunotherapy with potentially broader coverage of cancer patients. In this review, we will discuss the recent progresses of cancer immunotherapy and novel strategies in the identification of new immune targets and mutation-derived antigens (neoantigens) for cancer immunotherapy and immunoprecision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong-Fu Wang
- Center for Inflammation and Epigenetics, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Institute of Biosciences and Technology, College of Medicine, Texas A & M University, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Helen Y Wang
- Center for Inflammation and Epigenetics, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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82
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Ascierto PA, Agarwala S, Botti G, Cesano A, Ciliberto G, Davies MA, Demaria S, Dummer R, Eggermont AM, Ferrone S, Fu YX, Gajewski TF, Garbe C, Huber V, Khleif S, Krauthammer M, Lo RS, Masucci G, Palmieri G, Postow M, Puzanov I, Silk A, Spranger S, Stroncek DF, Tarhini A, Taube JM, Testori A, Wang E, Wargo JA, Yee C, Zarour H, Zitvogel L, Fox BA, Mozzillo N, Marincola FM, Thurin M. Future perspectives in melanoma research : Meeting report from the "Melanoma Bridge". Napoli, December 1st-4th 2015. J Transl Med 2016; 14:313. [PMID: 27846884 PMCID: PMC5111349 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-016-1070-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The sixth "Melanoma Bridge Meeting" took place in Naples, Italy, December 1st-4th, 2015. The four sessions at this meeting were focused on: (1) molecular and immune advances; (2) combination therapies; (3) news in immunotherapy; and 4) tumor microenvironment and biomarkers. Recent advances in tumor biology and immunology has led to the development of new targeted and immunotherapeutic agents that prolong progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) of cancer patients. Immunotherapies in particular have emerged as highly successful approaches to treat patients with cancer including melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), renal cell carcinoma (RCC), bladder cancer, and Hodgkin's disease. Specifically, many clinical successes have been using checkpoint receptor blockade, including T cell inhibitory receptors such as cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) and the programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) and its ligand PD-L1. Despite demonstrated successes, responses to immunotherapy interventions occur only in a minority of patients. Attempts are being made to improve responses to immunotherapy by developing biomarkers. Optimizing biomarkers for immunotherapy could help properly select patients for treatment and help to monitor response, progression and resistance that are critical challenges for the immuno-oncology (IO) field. Importantly, biomarkers could help to design rational combination therapies. In addition, biomarkers may help to define mechanism of action of different agents, dose selection and to sequence drug combinations. However, biomarkers and assays development to guide cancer immunotherapy is highly challenging for several reasons: (i) multiplicity of immunotherapy agents with different mechanisms of action including immunotherapies that target activating and inhibitory T cell receptors (e.g., CTLA-4, PD-1, etc.); adoptive T cell therapies that include tissue infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), chimeric antigen receptors (CARs), and T cell receptor (TCR) modified T cells; (ii) tumor heterogeneity including changes in antigenic profiles over time and location in individual patient; and (iii) a variety of immune-suppressive mechanisms in the tumor microenvironment (TME) including T regulatory cells (Treg), myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSC) and immunosuppressive cytokines. In addition, complex interaction of tumor-immune system further increases the level of difficulties in the process of biomarkers development and their validation for clinical use. Recent clinical trial results have highlighted the potential for combination therapies that include immunomodulating agents such as anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA-4. Agents targeting other immune inhibitory (e.g., Tim-3) or immune stimulating (e.g., CD137) receptors on T cells and other approaches such as adoptive cell transfer are tested for clinical efficacy in melanoma as well. These agents are also being tested in combination with targeted therapies to improve upon shorter-term responses thus far seen with targeted therapy. Various locoregional interventions that demonstrate promising results in treatment of advanced melanoma are also integrated with immunotherapy agents and the combinations with cytotoxic chemotherapy and inhibitors of angiogenesis are changing the evolving landscape of therapeutic options and are being evaluated to prevent or delay resistance and to further improve survival rates for melanoma patients' population. This meeting's specific focus was on advances in immunotherapy and combination therapy for melanoma. The importance of understanding of melanoma genomic background for development of novel therapies and biomarkers for clinical application to predict the treatment response was an integral part of the meeting. The overall emphasis on biomarkers supports novel concepts toward integrating biomarkers into personalized-medicine approach for treatment of patients with melanoma across the entire spectrum of disease stage. Translation of the knowledge gained from the biology of tumor microenvironment across different tumors represents a bridge to impact on prognosis and response to therapy in melanoma. We also discussed the requirements for pre-analytical and analytical as well as clinical validation process as applied to biomarkers for cancer immunotherapy. The concept of the fit-for-purpose marker validation has been introduced to address the challenges and strategies for analytical and clinical validation design for specific assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo A. Ascierto
- IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, Fondazione “G. Pascale”, Naples, Italy
- Unit of Medical Oncology and Innovative Therapy, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori “Fondazione G. Pascale”, Via Mariano Semmola, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Sanjiv Agarwala
- Department of Oncology and Hematology, St. Luke’s University Hospital and Temple University, Bethlehem, PA USA
| | - Gerardo Botti
- IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, Fondazione “G. Pascale”, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Gennaro Ciliberto
- IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, Fondazione “G. Pascale”, Naples, Italy
| | - Michael A. Davies
- Division of Cancer Medicine, Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX USA
| | - Sandra Demaria
- Departments of Radiation Oncology and Pathology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY USA
| | - Reinhard Dummer
- Skin Cancer Unit, Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Zürich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Soldano Ferrone
- Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA USA
| | - Yang Xin Fu
- Department of Pathology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX USA
| | - Thomas F. Gajewski
- Departments of Medicine and of Pathology, Immunology and Cancer Program, The University of Chicago Medicine, Chicago, IL USA
| | - Claus Garbe
- Department of Dermatology, Center for Dermato Oncology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Veronica Huber
- Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Samir Khleif
- Georgia Regents University Cancer Center, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA USA
| | | | - Roger S. Lo
- Departments of Medicine and Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine and Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Giuseppe Masucci
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Giuseppe Palmieri
- Unit of Cancer Genetics, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, National Research Council, Sassari, Italy
| | - Michael Postow
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center and Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY USA
| | - Igor Puzanov
- Department of Medicine, Early Phase Clinical Trials Program, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, New York, NY USA
| | - Ann Silk
- University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ann Arbor, MI USA
| | | | - David F. Stroncek
- Cell Processing Section, Department of Transfusion Medicine, Clinical Center, NIH, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Ahmad Tarhini
- Departments of Medicine, Immunology and Dermatology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA USA
| | - Janis M. Taube
- Department of Dermatology, Johns Hopkins University SOM, Baltimore, MD USA
| | | | - Ena Wang
- Division of Translational Medicine, Sidra Medical and Research Center, Doha, Qatar
| | - Jennifer A. Wargo
- Genomic Medicine and Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX USA
| | - Cassian Yee
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX USA
| | - Hassane Zarour
- Departments of Medicine, Immunology and Dermatology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA USA
| | - Laurence Zitvogel
- Gustave Roussy Cancer Center, U1015 INSERM, Villejuif, France
- University Paris XI, Kremlin Bicêtre, France
| | - Bernard A. Fox
- Robert W. Franz Cancer Research Center, Earle A. Chiles Research Institute, Providence Cancer Center, Providence Portland Medical Center, Portland, OR USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR USA
| | - Nicola Mozzillo
- IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, Fondazione “G. Pascale”, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Magdalena Thurin
- Cancer Diagnosis Program, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD USA
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83
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Ghoneim HE, Zamora AE, Thomas PG, Youngblood BA. Cell-Intrinsic Barriers of T Cell-Based Immunotherapy. Trends Mol Med 2016; 22:1000-1011. [PMID: 27825667 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2016.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Revised: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Prolonged exposure of CD8+ T cells to their cognate antigen can result in exhaustion of effector functions enabling the persistence of infected or transformed cells. Recent advances in strategies to rejuvenate host effector function using Immune Checkpoint Blockade have resulted in tremendous success towards the treatment of several cancers. However, it is unclear if T cell rejuvenation results in long-lived antitumor functions. Emerging evidence suggests that T cell exhaustion may also represent a significant impediment in sustaining long-lived antitumor activity by chimeric antigen receptor T cells. Here, we discuss current findings regarding transcriptional regulation during T cell exhaustion and address the hypothesis that epigenetics may be a potential barrier to achieving the maximum benefit of T cell-based immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazem E Ghoneim
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo 11562, Egypt
| | - Anthony E Zamora
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Paul G Thomas
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Ben A Youngblood
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA.
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84
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Prickett TD, Crystal JS, Cohen CJ, Pasetto A, Parkhurst MR, Gartner JJ, Yao X, Wang R, Gros A, Li YF, El-Gamil M, Trebska-McGowan K, Rosenberg SA, Robbins PF. Durable Complete Response from Metastatic Melanoma after Transfer of Autologous T Cells Recognizing 10 Mutated Tumor Antigens. Cancer Immunol Res 2016; 4:669-78. [PMID: 27312342 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-15-0215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Immunotherapy treatment of patients with metastatic cancer has assumed a prominent role in the clinic. Durable complete response rates of 20% to 25% are achieved in patients with metastatic melanoma following adoptive cell transfer of T cells derived from metastatic lesions, responses that appear in some patients to be mediated by T cells that predominantly recognize mutated antigens. Here, we provide a detailed analysis of the reactivity of T cells administered to a patient with metastatic melanoma who exhibited a complete response for over 3 years after treatment. Over 4,000 nonsynonymous somatic mutations were identified by whole-exome sequence analysis of the patient's autologous normal and tumor cell DNA. Autologous B cells transfected with 720 mutated minigenes corresponding to the most highly expressed tumor cell transcripts were then analyzed for their ability to stimulate the administered T cells. Autologous tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes recognized 10 distinct mutated gene products, but not the corresponding wild-type products, each of which was recognized in the context of one of three different MHC class I restriction elements expressed by the patient. Detailed clonal analysis revealed that 9 of the top 20 most prevalent clones present in the infused T cells, comprising approximately 24% of the total cells, recognized mutated antigens. Thus, we have identified and enriched mutation-reactive T cells and suggest that such analyses may lead to the development of more effective therapies for the treatment of patients with metastatic cancer. Cancer Immunol Res; 4(8); 669-78. ©2016 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd D Prickett
- National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Surgery Branch, Bethesda, Maryland.
| | - Jessica S Crystal
- National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Surgery Branch, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Cyrille J Cohen
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Anna Pasetto
- National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Surgery Branch, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Maria R Parkhurst
- National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Surgery Branch, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Jared J Gartner
- National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Surgery Branch, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Xin Yao
- National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Surgery Branch, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Rong Wang
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Alena Gros
- National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Surgery Branch, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Yong F Li
- National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Surgery Branch, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Mona El-Gamil
- National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Surgery Branch, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Kasia Trebska-McGowan
- National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Surgery Branch, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Steven A Rosenberg
- National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Surgery Branch, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Paul F Robbins
- National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Surgery Branch, Bethesda, Maryland
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85
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Riaz N, Morris L, Havel JJ, Makarov V, Desrichard A, Chan TA. The role of neoantigens in response to immune checkpoint blockade. Int Immunol 2016; 28:411-9. [PMID: 27048318 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxw019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune checkpoint blockade has demonstrated substantial promise for the treatment of several advanced malignancies. These agents activate the immune system to attack tumor cells. For example, agents targeting CTLA4 and programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) have resulted in impressive response rates and, in some cases, durable remissions. Neoantigens are mutations that encode immunologically active proteins that can cause the immune system to recognize the affected cell as foreign. Recent data have made it clear that these mutations are, in large part, the functional targets of immune checkpoint blockade. This review summarizes the key discoveries leading up to this important conclusion and discusses possible applications of neoantigens in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luc Morris
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program and Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Box 20, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | | | | | | | - Timothy A Chan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program and
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86
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Kakimi K, Karasaki T, Matsushita H, Sugie T. Advances in personalized cancer immunotherapy. Breast Cancer 2016; 24:16-24. [PMID: 27000871 DOI: 10.1007/s12282-016-0688-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
There are currently three major approaches to T cell-based cancer immunotherapy, namely, active vaccination, adoptive cell transfer therapy and immune checkpoint blockade. Recently, this latter approach has demonstrated remarkable clinical benefits, putting cancer immunotherapy under the spotlight. Better understanding of the dynamics of anti-tumor immune responses (the "Cancer-Immunity Cycle") is crucial for the further development of this form of treatment. Tumors employ multiple strategies to escape from anti-tumor immunity, some of which result from the selection of cancer cells with immunosuppressive activity by the process of cancer immunoediting. Apart from this selective process, anti-tumor immune responses can also be inhibited in multiple different ways which vary from patient to patient. This implies that cancer immunotherapy must be personalized to (1) identify the rate-limiting steps in any given patient, (2) identify and combine strategies to overcome these hurdles, and (3) proceed with the next round of the "Cancer-Immunity Cycle". Cancer cells have genetic alterations which can provide the immune system with targets by which to recognize and eradicate the tumor. Mutated proteins expressed exclusively in cancer cells and recognizable by the immune system are known as neoantigens. The development of next-generation sequencing technology has made it possible to determine the genetic landscape of human cancer and facilitated the utilization of genomic information to identify such candidate neoantigens in individual cancers. Future immunotherapies will need to be personalized in terms of the identification of both patient-specific immunosuppressive mechanisms and target neoantigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiro Kakimi
- Department of Immunotherapeutics, The University of Tokyo Hospital, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, 113-8655, Japan.
| | - Takahiro Karasaki
- Department of Immunotherapeutics, The University of Tokyo Hospital, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, 113-8655, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Matsushita
- Department of Immunotherapeutics, The University of Tokyo Hospital, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, 113-8655, Japan
| | - Tomoharu Sugie
- Department of Surgery, Kansai Medical University, Hirakata, Japan
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87
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Ward JP, Gubin MM, Schreiber RD. The Role of Neoantigens in Naturally Occurring and Therapeutically Induced Immune Responses to Cancer. Adv Immunol 2016; 130:25-74. [PMID: 26922999 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ai.2016.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Definitive experimental evidence from mouse cancer models and strong correlative clinical data gave rise to the Cancer Immunoediting concept that explains the dual host-protective and tumor-promoting actions of immunity on developing cancers. Tumor-specific neoantigens can serve as targets of spontaneously arising adaptive immunity to cancer and thereby determine the ultimate fate of developing tumors. Tumor-specific neoantigens can also function as optimal targets of cancer immunotherapy against established tumors. These antigens are derived from nonsynonymous mutations that occur during cellular transformation and, because they are foreign to the host genome, are not subject to central tolerance. In this review, we summarize the experimental evidence indicating that cancer neoantigens are the source of both spontaneously occurring and therapeutically induced immune responses against cancer. We also review the advances in genomics, bioinformatics, and cancer immunotherapy that have facilitated identification of neoantigens and have moved personalized cancer immunotherapies into clinical trials, with the promise of providing more specific, safer, more effective, and perhaps even more generalizable treatments to cancer patients than current immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey P Ward
- Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Matthew M Gubin
- Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
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88
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Lu YC, Robbins PF. Cancer immunotherapy targeting neoantigens. Semin Immunol 2015; 28:22-7. [PMID: 26653770 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2015.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2015] [Revised: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Neoantigens are antigens encoded by tumor-specific mutated genes. Studies in the past few years have suggested a key role for neoantigens in cancer immunotherapy. Here we review the discoveries of neoantigens in the past two decades and the current advances in neoantigen identification. We also discuss the potential benefits and obstacles to the development of effective cancer immunotherapies targeting neoantigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Chen Lu
- Surgery Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Building 10-CRC, Rm 3W-3864, 10 Center Dr, MSC 1201, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States.
| | - Paul F Robbins
- Surgery Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Building 10-CRC, Rm 3W-3864, 10 Center Dr, MSC 1201, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States.
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89
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90
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Gubin MM, Artyomov MN, Mardis ER, Schreiber RD. Tumor neoantigens: building a framework for personalized cancer immunotherapy. J Clin Invest 2015; 125:3413-21. [PMID: 26258412 DOI: 10.1172/jci80008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 442] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
It is now well established that the immune system can recognize developing cancers and that therapeutic manipulation of immunity can induce tumor regression. The capacity to manifest remarkably durable responses in some patients has been ascribed in part to T cells that can (a) kill tumor cells directly, (b) orchestrate diverse antitumor immune responses, (c) manifest long-lasting memory, and (d) display remarkable specificity for tumor-derived proteins. This specificity stems from fundamental differences between cancer cells and their normal counterparts in that the former develop protein-altering mutations and undergo epigenetic and genetic alterations, resulting in aberrant protein expression. These events can result in formation of tumor antigens. The identification of mutated and aberrantly expressed self-tumor antigens has historically been time consuming and laborious. While mutant antigens are usually expressed in a tumor-specific manner, aberrantly expressed antigens are often shared between cancers and, therefore, in the past, have been the major focus of therapeutic cancer vaccines. However, advances in next-generation sequencing and epitope prediction now permit the rapid identification of mutant tumor neoantigens. This review focuses on a discussion of mutant tumor neoantigens and their use in personalizing cancer immunotherapies.
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91
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Chandran SS, Paria BC, Srivastava AK, Rothermel LD, Stephens DJ, Kammula US. Tumor-Specific Effector CD8+ T Cells That Can Establish Immunological Memory in Humans after Adoptive Transfer Are Marked by Expression of IL7 Receptor and c-myc. Cancer Res 2015; 75:3216-26. [PMID: 26100671 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-15-0584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The optimal T-cell attributes for adoptive cancer immunotherapy are unclear. Recent clinical trials of ex vivo-expanded tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes indicated that differentiated T effector cells can elicit durable antitumor responses in some patients with cancer, with their antitumor activity tightly correlated with their persistence in the host. Thus, there is great interest in the definition of intrinsic biomarkers that can predict the conversion of short-lived tumor antigen-specific T effector cells into long-lived T memory cells. Long-term persistence of ex vivo-expanded tumor-specific CD8+ T effector clones has been reported in refractory metastatic melanoma patients after adoptive T-cell transfer. By using highly homogeneous clone populations from these preparations, we performed a comparative transcriptional profiling to define preinfusion molecular attributes that can be ascribed to an effector-to-memory transition. Through this route, we discovered that preinfusion T-cell clones that expressed the IL7 receptor (IL7R) and c-myc were more likely to persist longer after adoptive transfer to patients. The predictive value of these two biomarkers was strengthened by using IL7R protein, IL7-induced pSTAT5, and c-myc mRNA expression to prospectively identify human tumor-specific T effector clones capable of engraftment into immunodeficient mice. Overall, our findings reveal IL7R and c-myc expression as intrinsic biomarkers that can predict the fate of CD8+ T effector cells after adoptive transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smita S Chandran
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Biman C Paria
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | | | - Luke D Rothermel
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Daniel J Stephens
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Udai S Kammula
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland.
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92
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Liadi I, Singh H, Romain G, Rey-Villamizar N, Merouane A, Adolacion JRT, Kebriaei P, Huls H, Qiu P, Roysam B, Cooper LJN, Varadarajan N. Individual Motile CD4(+) T Cells Can Participate in Efficient Multikilling through Conjugation to Multiple Tumor Cells. Cancer Immunol Res 2015; 3:473-82. [PMID: 25711538 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-14-0195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
T cells genetically modified to express a CD19-specific chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) for the investigational treatment of B-cell malignancies comprise a heterogeneous population, and their ability to persist and participate in serial killing of tumor cells is a predictor of therapeutic success. We implemented Timelapse Imaging Microscopy in Nanowell Grids (TIMING) to provide direct evidence that CD4(+)CAR(+) T cells (CAR4 cells) can engage in multikilling via simultaneous conjugation to multiple tumor cells. Comparisons of the CAR4 cells and CD8(+)CAR(+) T cells (CAR8 cells) demonstrate that, although CAR4 cells can participate in killing and multikilling, they do so at slower rates, likely due to the lower granzyme B content. Significantly, in both sets of T cells, a minor subpopulation of individual T cells identified by their high motility demonstrated efficient killing of single tumor cells. A comparison of the multikiller and single-killer CAR(+) T cells revealed that the propensity and kinetics of T-cell apoptosis were modulated by the number of functional conjugations. T cells underwent rapid apoptosis, and at higher frequencies, when conjugated to single tumor cells in isolation, and this effect was more pronounced on CAR8 cells. Our results suggest that the ability of CAR(+) T cells to participate in multikilling should be evaluated in the context of their ability to resist activation-induced cell death. We anticipate that TIMING may be used to rapidly determine the potency of T-cell populations and may facilitate the design and manufacture of next-generation CAR(+) T cells with improved efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Liadi
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Harjeet Singh
- Division of Pediatrics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Gabrielle Romain
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
| | | | - Amine Merouane
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Jay R T Adolacion
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Partow Kebriaei
- Department of Stem Cell Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Helen Huls
- Division of Pediatrics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Peng Qiu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Badrinath Roysam
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Laurence J N Cooper
- Division of Pediatrics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Navin Varadarajan
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas.
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93
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Snyder A, Chan TA. Immunogenic peptide discovery in cancer genomes. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2015; 30:7-16. [PMID: 25588790 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2014.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Revised: 12/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
As immunotherapies to treat malignancy continue to diversify along with the tumor types amenable to treatment, it will become very important to predict which treatment is most likely to benefit a given patient. Tumor neoantigens, novel peptides resulting from somatic tumor mutations and recognized by the immune system as foreign, are likely to contribute significantly to the efficacy of immunotherapy. Multiple in silico methods have been developed to predict whether peptides, including tumor neoantigens, will be presented by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) Class I or Class II, and interact with the T cell receptor (TCR). The methods for neoantigen prediction will be reviewed here, along with the most important examples of their use in the field of oncology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Snyder
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States; Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Timothy A Chan
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States; Department of Radiation Oncology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States.
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94
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Chandran SS, Paria BC, Srivastava AK, Rothermel LD, Stephens DJ, Dudley ME, Somerville R, Wunderlich JR, Sherry RM, Yang JC, Rosenberg SA, Kammula US. Persistence of CTL clones targeting melanocyte differentiation antigens was insufficient to mediate significant melanoma regression in humans. Clin Cancer Res 2014; 21:534-43. [PMID: 25424856 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-14-2208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Adoptive transfer of autologous tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) can mediate durable cancer regression in selected patients with metastatic melanoma. However, the tumor antigens associated with these favorable responses remain unclear. We hypothesized that a clinical strategy involving the iterative adoptive transfer of selected autologous antigen-specific T-cell clones could help systematically define immunologic targets associated with successful cancer therapy, without the interpretative ambiguity of transferring polyclonal populations. Here, we evaluated the clinical efficacy of CD8(+) T-cell clones specific for the melanocyte differentiation antigens (MDA), gp100 and MART-1, respectively. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We conducted two consecutive phase II clinical trials involving the adoptive transfer of highly selected autologous antigen-specific CD8(+) T-cell clones against gp100 and MART-1, respectively. Fifteen patients with HLA-A2(+) treatment-refractory metastatic melanoma received highly avid MDA-specific CD8(+) T-cell clones specific for either gp100 (n = 10) or MART-1 (n = 5) with or without intravenous interleukin-2 (IL2) after a lymphodepleting myeloablative preparative regimen. RESULTS Of the 15 treated patients, we observed immune-mediated targeting of skin melanocytes in 11 patients (73%) and clonal engraftment in eight patients (53%) after cell transfer. There were only transient minor tumor regressions observed, but no objective tumor responses based on Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumor (RECIST) criteria. CONCLUSIONS Despite successful clonal repopulation and evidence of in vivo antigen targeting, the poor therapeutic efficacy after the adoptive transfer of autologous MDA-specific T cells raises significant concerns regarding future immunotherapy efforts targeting this class of tumor antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smita S Chandran
- Surgery Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Biman C Paria
- Surgery Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Abhishek K Srivastava
- Surgery Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Luke D Rothermel
- Surgery Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Daniel J Stephens
- Surgery Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Mark E Dudley
- Surgery Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Robert Somerville
- Surgery Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - John R Wunderlich
- Surgery Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Richard M Sherry
- Surgery Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - James C Yang
- Surgery Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Steven A Rosenberg
- Surgery Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Udai S Kammula
- Surgery Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland.
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95
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Sim GC, Chacon J, Haymaker C, Ritthipichai K, Singh M, Hwu P, Radvanyi L. Tumor-Infiltrating Lymphocyte Therapy for Melanoma: Rationale and Issues for Further Clinical Development. BioDrugs 2014; 28:421-37. [DOI: 10.1007/s40259-014-0097-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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96
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Systematic identification of personal tumor-specific neoantigens in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood 2014; 124:453-62. [PMID: 24891321 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2014-04-567933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 254] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Genome sequencing has revealed a large number of shared and personal somatic mutations across human cancers. In principle, any genetic alteration affecting a protein-coding region has the potential to generate mutated peptides that are presented by surface HLA class I proteins that might be recognized by cytotoxic T cells. To test this possibility, we implemented a streamlined approach for the prediction and validation of such neoantigens derived from individual tumors and presented by patient-specific HLA alleles. We applied our computational pipeline to 91 chronic lymphocytic leukemias (CLLs) that underwent whole-exome sequencing (WES). We predicted ∼22 mutated HLA-binding peptides per leukemia (derived from ∼16 missense mutations) and experimentally confirmed HLA binding for ∼55% of such peptides. Two CLL patients that achieved long-term remission following allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation were monitored for CD8(+) T-cell responses against predicted or confirmed HLA-binding peptides. Long-lived cytotoxic T-cell responses were detected against peptides generated from personal tumor mutations in ALMS1, C6ORF89, and FNDC3B presented on tumor cells. Finally, we applied our computational pipeline to WES data (N = 2488 samples) across 13 different cancer types and estimated dozens to thousands of predicted neoantigens per individual tumor, suggesting that neoantigens are frequent in most tumors.
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97
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van Buuren MM, Calis JJ, Schumacher TN. High sensitivity of cancer exome-based CD8 T cell neo-antigen identification. Oncoimmunology 2014; 3:e28836. [PMID: 25083320 PMCID: PMC4106163 DOI: 10.4161/onci.28836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent data suggest that T-cell reactivity against tumor-specific neo-antigens may be central to the clinical efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. The development of personalized vaccines designed to boost T-cell reactivity against patient specific neo-antigens has been proposed largely on the basis of these findings. Work from several groups has demonstrated that novel tumor-specific antigens can be discovered through the use of cancer exome sequencing data, thereby providing a potential pipeline for the development of patient-specific vaccines. Importantly though, it has not been established which fraction of cancer neo-antigens that can be recognized by CD8+ T cells is successfully uncovered with the current exome-based epitope prediction strategies. Here, we use a data set comprising human cancer neo-antigens that was previously identified through the use of unbiased, computational-independent strategies to describe the potential of cancer exome-based neo-antigen discovery. This analysis shows a high sensitivity of exome-guided neo-antigen prediction of approximately 70%. We propose that future research should focus on the analysis and optimization of the specificity of neo-antigen prediction, and should undoubtedly entail the clinical evaluation of patient-specific vaccines with the aim of inducing immunoreactivity against tumor-displayed neo-antigens in a physiologically relevant context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marit M van Buuren
- Department of Immunology; The Netherlands Cancer Institute; Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jorg Ja Calis
- Department of Immunology; The Netherlands Cancer Institute; Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ton Nm Schumacher
- Department of Immunology; The Netherlands Cancer Institute; Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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98
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CT halo sign as an imaging marker for response to adoptive cell therapy in metastatic melanoma with pulmonary metastases. Eur Radiol 2014; 24:1251-6. [DOI: 10.1007/s00330-014-3129-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2013] [Revised: 02/09/2014] [Accepted: 02/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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99
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Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy is a promising and effective treatment modality for patients with cancers. Cytokine, anticytokine, and antibody therapies appear to be effective in treating various forms of cancer. The human papillomavirus vaccine is protective for cervical cancer, and this discovery has paved the way to the development of cancer vaccines for other forms of virus-associated cancers such as liver cancer and Merkel cell carcinoma. Clinical trials have demonstrated that adoptive cell therapy using tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes can induce tumor regression in approximately 75% of metastatic melanoma patients, suggesting the possibility of using similar technique to effectively treat breast, lung, and renal cancers in the near future. Besides, genetically engineered T cells transduced with genes encoding specific T cell receptors and chimeric antigen receptors have been shown effective in the treatment of cancer patients. These studies suggest that combination therapies are superior choices in cancer immunotherapy for patients.
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100
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Fritsch EF, Rajasagi M, Ott PA, Brusic V, Hacohen N, Wu CJ. HLA-binding properties of tumor neoepitopes in humans. Cancer Immunol Res 2014; 2:522-9. [PMID: 24894089 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-13-0227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cancer genome sequencing has enabled the rapid identification of the complete repertoire of coding sequence mutations within a patient's tumor and facilitated their use as personalized immunogens. Although a variety of techniques are available to assist in the selection of mutation-defined epitopes to be included within the tumor vaccine, the ability of the peptide to bind to patient MHC is a key gateway to peptide presentation. With advances in the accuracy of predictive algorithms for MHC class I binding, choosing epitopes on the basis of predicted affinity provides a rapid and unbiased approach to epitope prioritization. We show herein the retrospective application of a prediction algorithm to a large set of bona fide T cell-defined mutated human tumor antigens that induced immune responses, most of which were associated with tumor regression or long-term disease stability. The results support the application of this approach for epitope selection and reveal informative features of these naturally occurring epitopes to aid in epitope prioritization for use in tumor vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward F Fritsch
- Authors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccine Center; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; The Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; and Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MassachusettsAuthors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccine Center; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; The Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; and Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MassachusettsAuthors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccine Center; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; The Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; and Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Mohini Rajasagi
- Authors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccine Center; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; The Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; and Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MassachusettsAuthors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccine Center; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; The Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; and Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Patrick A Ott
- Authors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccine Center; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; The Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; and Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MassachusettsAuthors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccine Center; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; The Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; and Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Vladimir Brusic
- Authors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccine Center; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; The Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; and Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MassachusettsAuthors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccine Center; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; The Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; and Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Nir Hacohen
- Authors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccine Center; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; The Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; and Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MassachusettsAuthors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccine Center; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; The Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; and Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Catherine J Wu
- Authors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccine Center; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; The Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; and Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MassachusettsAuthors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccine Center; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; The Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; and Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MassachusettsAuthors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccine Center; Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; The Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; and Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts
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