A guide to understanding social science research for natural scientists

In Vitro Technology in Plant Conservation: Relevance to Biocultural Diversity

Plant diversity is critical to the functioning of human societies, and evidence shows that plant conservation success is driven by integrative approaches that include social and biological factors. Plants have a unique capacity to reproduce asexually, and propagation practices can yield large numbers of plantlets. These plantlets can be used in several ways to fulfil conservation goals including the repopulation of regions with declining densities of threatened species that hold cultural meaning. However, the potential of in vitro technologies in the conservation of plants that hold cultural meaning is understudied. In this paper we focus upon the roles of in vitro technologies in the conservation of plants relevant to biocultural environments and provide an overview of potential knowledge gaps at the interface of in vitro and plants used traditionally, including those meaningful to Indigenous Peoples. We conclude that in vitro technologies can be powerful tools in biocultural conservation if they are deployed in a manner respectful of the socio-cultural context in which plants play a role, but that further research is needed in this regard. We suggest several epistemological points to facilitate future research.

Working from the Inside Out: Fostering Intrinsic Motivation and Expanding Our Criteria for Conservation Success

Primatological research is often associated with understanding animals and their habitats, yet practical conservation depends entirely on human actions. This encompasses the activities of Indigenous and local people, conservationists, and NGOs working on the ground, as well as more remote funders and policymakers. In this paper we explore what it means to be a conservationist in the 2020s. While many primatologists accept the benefits of more socially inclusive dimensions of research and conservation practice, in reality there remain many challenges. We discuss the role primatologists can play to enhance interdisciplinary working and their relationships with communities living in and around their study sites, and examine how increased reflexivity and consideration of one’s positionality can improve primatological practice. Emphasis on education and stakeholder consultation may still echo colonial, top-down dialogues, and the need for greater emphasis on genuine knowledge-sharing among all stakeholders should be recognised. If we are sincere about this approach, we might need to redefine how we see, consider, and define conservation success. We may also have to embrace more compromises. By evaluating success in conservation we explore how reflexive engagements with our positionality and equitable knowledge-sharing contribute to fostering intrinsic motivation and building resilience.

Participant experiences in the Diabetes REmission Clinical Trial (DiRECT)

INTRODUCTION

The Diabetes REmission Clinical Trial (DiRECT) has shown that sustained remission of type 2 diabetes in primary care is achievable through weight loss using total diet replacement (TDR) with continued behavioural support. Understanding participants' experiences can help optimise the intervention, support implementation into healthcare, and understand the process of behaviour change.

METHODS

Thirty-four DiRECT participants were recruited into this embedded qualitative evaluation study. In-person and telephone interviews were conducted before the TDR; at week 6-8 of the TDR; 2 weeks into food reintroduction (FR); and at 1 year, to learn about participant experiences with the programme. Transcribed narratives were analysed thematically, and we used interpretation to develop overarching themes.

RESULTS

Initiation of the TDR and transition to FR were challenging and required increased behavioural support. In general, adhering to TDR proved easier than the participants had anticipated. Some participants chose the optional extension of TDR. Rapid weight loss and changes in diabetes markers provided ongoing motivation. Further weight loss, behavioural support and occasional use of TDR facilitated weight loss maintenance (WLM). A process of behaviour adaptation to change following regime disruption was identified in three stages: (1) expectations of the new, (2) overcoming difficulties with adherence, and (3) acceptance of continuous effort and establishment of routines.

CONCLUSIONS

The DiRECT intervention was acceptable and regularity, continuity, and tailoring of behavioural support was instrumental in its implementation in primary care. The adaptation process accounts for some of the individual variability of experiences with the intervention and highlights the need for programme flexibility.

Innovative ways of illustrating the present, imagining the future and analysing themes: A collage-elicited interview study

Mammalian predators are threatening New Zealand’s endemic species with extinction. Community-led predator control may contribute to a predator-free nation by 2050. An individual’s present and future thoughts about, and subsequent actions for, conservation rely on their current and projected motivations and concerns. Innovative approaches to conservation action theme elicitation and analysis were developed through this visual arts based qualitative study to better understand how people feel about the present and future and their place within. Twenty-five males and females from New Zealand’s rural and urban communities, aged between 12 and 75 years, from primary, secondary and tertiary student, environmental education and community conservation backgrounds, each created two collages of themselves situated in today’s and a future world. Interviewer-led open-ended laddering questions elicited participant responses to their collages. A further open-ended question elicited actions participants would take to move from their perceived present to a projected future world. Trello, a web-based list-making application, facilitated reflexive thematic analysis of the interview transcripts. The following six common themes resulted: connectivity, commitment, learning cycle, practical actions, unconditional belief and group action. These themes, presented as eight-point Likert-type scale items in a Qualtrics digital survey, contributed to the quantitative aspect of this mixed-methods study and may facilitate understanding of future New Zealand volunteer community conservation participation.

Comprehending socio-relational factors of mental wellbeing in the oldest old within Nordic and Mediterranean countries

Socio-relational aspects are essential for mental wellbeing (MWB), especially in the oldest old age. Our study aims to explore the socio-relational aspects related to MWB in accordance with the experiences of the oldest old of four European countries; and to examine how these differ between Mediterranean and Nordic people. A total of 117 participants aged 80+ years old were recruited, and 23 focus groups were performed. Qualitative content analysis identified five main themes. Family seemed to be the most important driver of the MWB of the oldest old, followed by relationships with close friends. Participants felt better when they had a sense of being needed, cared for, and connected. Loneliness and isolation negatively affected MWB, although solitude was appreciated. Differences appeared between Mediterranean and Nordic regions. Initiatives to promote positive interactions with family and friends, as well as social activities within the community, may contribute to strengthening MWB in the oldest old.

Qualitative Research in Veterinary Medical Education: Part 1-Principles of Qualitative Design

Qualitative methodologies are relative newcomers to health sciences education research. While they may look very different to their quantitative counterparts in terms of size and scope, when well-applied they offer a fresh perspective and generate valuable research findings. Although qualitative research is being increasingly conducted in veterinary medical education, there are few contextualized resources to assist those who would like to develop their expertise in this area. In this article, we address this by introducing the principles of qualitative research design in a veterinary medical education context. Drawing from a range of contemporary resources, we explore the types of research goals and questions that are amenable to qualitative inquiry and discuss the process of formulating a worthwhile research question. We explain what research paradigms are and introduce readers to some of the methodological options available to them in qualitative research. Examples from veterinary medical education are used to illustrate key points. In a second companion article, we will focus on the decisions that need to be made regarding data sampling, collection, and analysis. We will also consider how qualitative research is evaluated, and discuss how qualitative findings are applied. Taken together, the two articles build an understanding of qualitative research, illuminate its potential to contribute to the scholarship of teaching and learning in veterinary medical education, and equip readers with an improved capacity to appraise its value.

Expanded Ethical Principles for Research Partnership and Transdisciplinary Natural Resource Management Science

Natural resource researchers have long recognized the value of working closely with the managers and communities who depend on, steward, and impact ecosystems. These partnerships take various forms, including co-production and transdisciplinary research approaches, which integrate multiple knowledges in the design and implementation of research objectives, questions, methods, and desired outputs or outcomes. These collaborations raise important methodological and ethical challenges, because partnering with non-scientists can have real-world risks for people and ecosystems. The social sciences and biomedical research studies offer a suite of conceptual tools that enhance the quality, ethical outcomes, and effectiveness of research partnerships. For example, the ethical guidelines and regulations for human subjects research, following the Belmont Principles, help prevent harm and promote respectful treatment of research participants. However, science-management partnerships require an expanded set of ethical concepts to better capture the challenges of working with individuals, communities, organizations, and their associated ecosystems, as partners, rather than research subjects. We draw from our experiences in collaborative teams, and build upon the existing work of natural resources, environmental health, conservation and ecology, social science, and humanities scholars, to develop an expanded framework for ethical research partnership. This includes four principles: (1) appropriate representation, (2) self-determination, (3) reciprocity, and (4) deference, and two cross-cutting themes: (1) applications to humans and non-human actors, and (2) acquiring appropriate research skills. This framework is meant to stimulate important conversations about expanding ethics training and skills for researchers in all career-stages to improve partnerships and transdisciplinary natural resources research.

Revisiting social MPE: an integration of molecular pathological epidemiology and social science in the new era of precision medicine

INTRODUCTION

Molecular pathological epidemiology (MPE) is an integrative transdisciplinary area examining the relationships between various exposures and pathogenic signatures of diseases. In line with the accelerating advancements in MPE, social science and its health-related interdisciplinary areas have also developed rapidly. Accumulating evidence indicates the pathological role of social-demographic factors. We therefore initially proposed social MPE in 2015, which aims to elucidate etiological roles of social-demographic factors and address health inequalities globally. With the ubiquity of molecular diagnosis, there are ample opportunities for researchers to utilize and develop the social MPE framework.

AREAS COVERED

Molecular subtypes of breast cancer have been investigated rigorously for understanding its etiologies rooted from social factors. Emerging evidence indicates pathogenic heterogeneity of neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Presenting specific patterns of social-demographic factors across different molecular subtypes should be promising for advancing the screening, prevention, and treatment strategies of those heterogeneous diseases. This article rigorously reviewed literatures investigating differences of race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status across molecular subtypes of breast cancer and Alzheimer's disease to date.

EXPERT OPINION

With advancements of the multi-omics technologies, we foresee a blooming of social MPE studies, which can address health disparities, advance personalized molecular medicine, and enhance public health.

A Sharing Meanings Approach for Interdisciplinary Hazards Research

Hazards researchers frequently examine complex socioenvironmental problems, a difficult undertaking that is further compounded by the challenge of navigating the many disciplinary approaches in the field. This article draws on key insights from studies of the interdisciplinary process and proposes the "sharing meanings approach" for improving interdisciplinary collaboration in hazards research. The sharing meanings approach addresses common challenges to interdisciplinary teamwork and organizes them into four focal areas: (1) worldviews (including ontological, epistemological, and philosophical perspectives), (2) language, (3) research design, and (4) project goals. The approach emphasizes the process of sharing rather than seeking to develop a single set of shared meanings related to the four focal areas. The article identifies common challenges and recommends strategies and actions within each focal area for guiding teams toward sharing their implicit meanings. A hypothetical example is introduced to demonstrate how the approach offers a path for revealing and overcoming the common roadblocks experienced in interdisciplinary hazards research. By making interdisciplinary hazards teams' implicit assumptions explicit, the sharing meanings approach offers an operational process to seize on moments of difference as productive tension and to see such challenges as opportunities-rather than obstacles-for innovating toward hybrid methodological research designs in hazards research.

Forest Therapy Alone or with a Guide: Is There a Difference between Self-Guided Forest Therapy and Guided Forest Therapy Programs?

There are generally two types of forest therapy. One is to walk or view the forest alone without a guide, and the other is to be accompanied by a guide. This study aimed to investigate the healing factors and health benefits of self-guided forest therapy and guided forest therapy programs and examine the differences in characteristics between interventions. Thirty-seven undergraduate students participated in a randomized experiment (19 in the self-guided forest therapy and 18 in the guided forest therapy program). Data were collected from 111 self-reported essays after each intervention (three essays per person). Results revealed that the forest healing factors contained four categories in common: auditory element, visual element, tactile element, and olfaction element. Forest therapy’s health benefits included five categories in common: change of mind and body, introspection, change of emotion, cognitive change, and social interaction. Among the typical differences, the self-guided forest therapy group mentioned more keywords related to introspection than the guided forest therapy program group. On the other hand, the guided forest therapy program group mentioned more keywords associated with the change of emotion and social interaction than the self-guided forest therapy. Our findings show that self-guided forest therapy provides an opportunity for self-reflection to focus on and think about one’s inner self. On the other hand, guided forest therapy programs provide positive emotional changes and promoting social bonds through interaction with others. Therefore, because the effects that can be obtained vary depending on the type of forest therapy, participants can utilize forest healing to suit the desired outcomes.

Inviting ecologists to delve deeper into traditional ecological knowledge

Ecologists and conservationists increasingly acknowledge that traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is vital for a better understanding and conservation of biodiversity; for example, for a more complex socioecological understanding of long-term processes, ecosystem resilience, the impacts of traditional management practices, and the worldviews underpinning these practices. To gain a deeper understanding of the ecological dimensions of TEK, ecologists and conservation biologists should conduct participatory long-term collaborative research on TEK. To conduct TEK research properly, however, ecologists need to familiarize themselves more deeply with the methodologies of social sciences, further develop their links with social scientists, and adopt new approaches, such as strengthening respect towards other knowledge systems and being inclusive in research and open to new types of validation.

Spillover of zoonotic pathogens: A review of reviews

Zoonotic spillover and subsequent disease emergence cause significant, long-lasting impacts on our social, economic, environmental and political systems. Identifying and averting spillover transmission is crucial for preventing outbreaks and mitigating infectious disease burdens. Investigating the processes that lead to spillover fundamentally involves interactions between animals, humans, pathogens and the environments they inhabit. Accordingly, it is recognized that transdisciplinary approaches provide a more holistic understanding of spillover phenomena. To characterize the discourse about spillover within and between disciplines, we conducted a review of review papers about spillover from multiple disciplines. We systematically searched and screened literature from several databases to identify a corpus of review papers from ten academic disciplines. We performed qualitative content analysis on text where authors described either a spillover pathway, or a conceptual gap in spillover theory. Cluster analysis of pathway data identified nine major spillover processes discussed in the review literature. We summarized the main features of each process, how different disciplines contributed to them, and identified specialist and generalist disciplines based on the breadth of processes they studied. Network analyses showed strong similarities between concepts reviewed by 'One Health' disciplines (e.g. Veterinary Science & Animal Health, Public Health & Medicine, Ecology & Evolution, Environmental Science), which had broad conceptual scope and were well-connected to other disciplines. By contrast, awas focused on processes that are relatively overlooked by other disciplines, especially those involving food behaviour and livestock husbandry practices. Virology and Cellular & Molecular Biology were narrower in scope, primarily focusing on concepts related to adaption and evolution of zoonotic viruses. Finally, we identified priority areas for future research into zoonotic spillover by studying the gap data.

How decision-making about euthanasia for animals is taught to Australasian veterinary students

This study set out to explore how euthanasia decision-making for animals was taught to students in eight Australasian veterinary schools. A questionnaire-style interview guide was used by a representative at each university to interview educators. Educators were interviewed about their teaching of euthanasia decision-making for four categories of animals: livestock, equine, companion and avian/wildlife. Using thematic analysis, the terms provided by participants to describe how (mode of teaching) and what (specific content) they taught to students were categorised. Information about content was categorised into human-centred factors that influence decision-making, and animal-based indicators used to directly inform decision-making. All eight representatives reported some teaching relevant to euthanasia decision-making at their university for livestock, companion animal and avian/wildlife. One representative reported no such teaching for equid animals at their university. Observation of a euthanasia case was rarely reported as a teaching method. Five universities reported multiple modes of teaching relevant information, while two universities made use of modalities that could be described as opportunistic teaching (e.g., 'Discussion of clinical cases'). Factors taught at most universities included financial considerations, and that it is the owner's decision to make, while animal-based indicators taught included QoL/animal welfare, prognosis and behaviour change. Overall, most universities used a variety of methods to cover relevant material, usually including lectures and several other approaches for all animal types. However, because two universities relied on presentation of clinical cases, not all students at these veterinary schools will be exposed to make, or assist in making, euthanasia decisions.

Evaluation of the use of psychometric scales in human-wildlife interaction research to determine attitudes and tolerance toward wildlife

Studies evaluating human-wildlife interactions (HWIs) in a conservation context often include psychometric scales to measure attitudes and tolerance toward wildlife. However, data quality is at risk when such scales are used without appropriate validation or reliability testing, potentially leading to erroneous interpretation or application of findings. We used 2 online databases (ProQuest Psych Info and Web of Science) to identify published HWI studies that included attitude and tolerance. We analyzed these studies to determine the methods used to measure attitudes or tolerance toward predators and other wildlife; determine the proportion of these methods applying psychometric scales; and evaluate the rigor with which the scales were used by examining whether the psychometric properties of validity and reliability were reported. From 2007 to 2017, 114 published studies were identified. Ninety-four (82%) used questionnaires and many of these (53 [56%]) utilized a psychometric scale. Most scales (39 [74%]) had at least 1 test of reliability reported, but reliance on a single test was notable, contrary to recommended practice. Fewer studies (35 [66%]) reported a test of validity, but this was primarily restricted to structural validity rather than more comprehensive testing. Encouragingly, HWI investigators increasingly utilized the necessary psychometric tools for designing and analyzing questionnaire data, but failure to assess the validity or reliability of psychometric scales used in over one-third of published HWI attitude research warrants attention. We advocate incorporation of more robust application of psychometric scales to advance understanding of stakeholder attitudes as they relate to HWI.

Using Research to Support Transformative Impacts on Complex, “Wicked Problems” With Pastoral Peoples in Rangelands

Pastoralists and researchers (and others) are finding new ways of working together worldwide, attempting to sustain pastoral livelihoods and rangelands in the face of rapid and profound changes driven by globalization, growing consumption, land-use change, and climate change. They are doing this partly because of a greater need to address increasing complex or “wicked” problems, but also because local pastoral voices (and sometimes science) still have little impact on decision-making in the governmental and private sectors. We describe here, using six worldwide cases, how collaborative rangelands partnerships are transforming how we learn about rangelands and pastoralists, whose knowledge gets considered, how science can support societal action, and even our fundamental model of how science gets done. Over the long-term, collaborative partnerships are transforming social-ecological systems by implementing processes like building collaborative relationships, co-production/co-generation of knowledge, integration of knowledges, social learning, capacity building, networking and implementing action. These processes are changing mental models and paradigms, creating strong and effective leaders, changing power relations, providing more robust understanding of rangeland systems, reducing polarization and supporting the implementation of new practices and policies. Collaborative partnerships have recurring challenges and much work is yet to be done. These challenges rest on the enduring complexity of social-ecological problems in rangelands. At a practical level, partnerships struggle with listening, amplifying and partnering with diverse (and sometimes marginalized) voices, the time commitment needed to make partnerships work, the bias and naivete of scientists, the recognition that partnerships can promote negative transformations, management of power relations within the partnership, and the need to attribute impacts to partnership activities. We think that the future of this work will have more focus on systems transformations, morals and ethics, intangible and long-term impacts, critical self-assessment, paradigm shifts and mental models, and power. Overall, we conclude that these partnerships are transformative in unexpected and sometimes intangible ways. Key transformations include changing mental models and building the next generation of transformative leaders. Just as important is serendipity, where participants in partnerships take advantage of new windows of opportunity to change policy or create new governance institutions. We also conclude that collaborative partnerships are changing how we do science, creating new and transformative ways that science and society interact that could be called “transformative science with society.”

Invasive raccoon management systems and challenges in regions with active control

BACKGROUND

The raccoon (Procyon lotor) is an invasive, non-native species in Japan. Throughout the country, it causes significant agricultural damage and negatively affects native biodiversity. Most of the responsibility for raccoon management lies with local government, and there are still many challenges to be overcome. Although raccoon populations have not been eradicated, intensive control campaigns such as focus on the early stages of invasion have controlled raccoons in some regions. To improve the national management of raccoons, we conducted a survey on raccoon management systems in local government departments considered to solve the challenges recognized in many areas. During 2014 and 2015, we surveyed three different municipal departments about raccoon management measures. The semi-structured interview survey covered two topics: (1) the situation leading up to the current management system; (2) the current management system.

RESULTS

Our results describe the scope and methods used in raccoon management. The government staff managed raccoons using monitoring, employing a variety of methods, a range of budgets, and various role divisions. The management practices are similar in that they share a sense of taking precautions, collaborating with stakeholders, understanding that adequate methods must be used, and obtaining support from experts.

CONCLUSIONS

Our case studies reveal the challenges in raccoon management faced by local government officers in regions with active control. The management systems and methods that we surveyed seemed to be effective in solving problems in both developed and undeveloped areas.

Systematic map of conservation psychology

Conservation science and practice commonly draw on the theories and methods of social psychology to explain human cognition, emotion, and behavior germane to biodiversity conservation. We created a systematic map of the cross-disciplinary conservation science literature, which draws on social psychology concepts and methods in their application broadly described as conservation psychology. Established protocols were used to systematically collect and collate peer-reviewed research published in an explicit selection of multidisciplinary conservation journals. We sought to catalog the literature, elucidate trends and gaps, and critically reflect on the state of conservation psychology and its research practices that aim to influence conservation outcomes. The volume of publications per year and per decade increased from 1974 to 2016. Although a diversity of research designs and methods was applied, studies disproportionately focused on specific concepts (attitudes and beliefs), locations (North America and Europe), and contexts (terrestrial, rural). Studies also tended to be descriptive, quantitative, and atheoretical in nature. Our findings demonstrate that although conservation psychology has generally become more visible and prominent, it has done so within a limited space and suggest that disciplinary research principles and reporting standards must be more universally adopted by traditional and multidisciplinary conservation journals to raise the floor of empirical research.

Perception and Conflict in Conservation: The Rashomon Effect

Conflict is a common feature in conservation and resource management. Environmental conflicts are frequently attributed to differences in values; however, variability in the perception of facts, rooted in social and cultural differences also underlies conflicts. Such differences in perception have been termed the Rashomon effect after the Kurosawa film. In the present article, we explore a conservation Rashomon effect—a phenomenon that results from a combination of differences in perspective, plausible alternative perspectives of a conservation issue, and the absence of evidence to elevate one perspective above others. As a remedy to the Rashomon effect, policy-makers have turned to scientists as honest brokers who share a common environmental reality. We evaluate this supposition and suggest that scientists, themselves, display Rashomon effects. We suggest that Rashomon effects can be reduced by acknowledging the plurality of reality, embracing epistemic pluralism, and prioritizing an inclusive process of resource management.

Tacit working models of human behavioural change I: Implementation of conservation projects

The "human dimension" of conservation is increasingly recognised as critical for success. Most conservation research involving people is based not on explicit "theories of change", but tacit local knowledge or folk theories guiding programme design.In this study, I propose a schematization of the local socioecological knowledge and folk theories about the "human dimension" of conservation into tacit working models, comprised of individual factors and systemic factors influencing human behaviour in conservation contexts. These are called the Persuasion, Normative, Involvement and Uniformity tacit working models. I review a set of conservation interventions and programmes, in order to assess which of the implicit working models inform their design. I argue that in order to better understand how a project may arrive at different outcomes, the underlying assumptions about human behaviour and the implicit "theory of change" that went into programme design need to be made explicit. This schema does not evaluate different approaches to conservation, but it can help point out the underlying assumptions that structure interventions and that may be more or less suited to particular situations. This can allow researchers to recognise their own assumptions and test them explicitly, leading to the formulation of more reflective and explicit theories, and improving the quality of both discourse and practice in conservation.

A Relational Approach to Landscape Stewardship: Towards a New Perspective for Multi-Actor Collaboration

Landscape stewardship is increasingly understood within the framing of complex social-ecological systems. To consider the implications of this, we focus on one of the key characteristics of complex social-ecological systems: they are relationally constituted, meaning that system characteristics emerge out of dynamic relations between system components. We focus on multi-actor collaboration as a key form of relationality in landscapes, seeking a more textured understanding of the social relations between landscape actors. We draw on a set of ‘gardening tools’ to analyse the boundary-crossing work of multi-actor collaboration. These tools comprise three key concepts: relational expertise, common knowledge, and relational agency. We apply the tools to two cases of landscape stewardship in South Africa: the Langkloof Region and the Tsitsa River catchment. These landscapes are characterised by economically, socio-culturally, and politically diverse groups of actors. Our analysis reveals that history and context strongly influence relational processes, that boundary-crossing work is indeed difficult, and that doing boundary-crossing work in smaller pockets within a landscape is helpful. The tools also helped to identify three key social-relational practices which lend a new perspective on boundary-crossing work: 1. belonging while differing, 2. growing together by interacting regularly and building common knowledge, and 3. learning and adapting together with humility and empathy.

Evoked pleasure and approach-avoidance in response to pollution

From year-to-year, environment is becoming one of the major concerns of human societies. Few studies have investigated the biological processes involved in environmental scene perception. Here, we initiate a line of research by beginning to study emotional processes involved in this perception. Our results demonstrate a clear distinction between “Clean” and “Polluted” environments according to the pleasure and approach desire ratings they induced. Moreover, women expressed higher pleasure in the “Clean” condition, as did older participants. Finally, rural scenes induced higher pleasure in participants than urban ones.

Understanding conservation conflicts associated with rodent outbreaks in farmland areas

Rodent outbreaks affect many farmland areas worldwide and the negative environmental impacts of control campaigns cause intense social tensions. In such conservation conflicts, understanding stakeholders' viewpoints is critical to promote ecologically sustainable management. We used Q-methodology, a framework standing between qualitative and quantitative social research, to investigate human subjectivity and understand conflicts caused by rodent outbreaks in Spain. We interviewed farmers, conservationists, hunters, and governmental agencies, and identified five main discourses about the origins and consequences of the conflictive situation. Finding sustainable management is impaired by opposing views about causes and consequences of vole outbreaks and their management, which are at the root of the conflict. Social tensions will likely remain until the underlying conflicts between people holding different views are also managed. Decision-making should therefore focus on mitigating underlying conflicts. Using trained independent mediators would help the effective resolution of conservation conflicts caused by rodent outbreaks and their management.

A qualitative study of persons with persistent postconcussion symptoms and clinicians with concussion expertise to inform the development of a concussion-specific questionnaire

PURPOSE

To explore the experiences of adults with persistent postconcussion symptoms and clinicians to inform the development of a concussion-specific questionnaire.

METHODS

Using a qualitative descriptive design, we conducted 10 focus groups with persons with persistent post-concussion symptoms (n = 35; female 66%; age range 19.0-65.1 years) and semi-structured interviews with clinicians with concussion expertise (n = 16; female 81%). Thematic analysis was used to identify themes within their narratives. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) provided a standardized language for coding.

RESULTS

Three overarching themes emerged from the data: Functioning, Environmental and Personal Factors, and Capacity. Functioning mapped closely onto Activities and Participation within the ICF. Contextual factors, both Environmental and Personal, had a significant influence on functioning following concussion. Capacity was a unique finding that described how long a person is able to engage in a task before the onset or worsening of symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Capacity is fundamental to measuring limitations in functioning based on symptom threshold and time to recovery. The impact of contextual factors on functioning needs to be considered on a continuum from barrier to facilitator. These findings provide the basis for the development of a concussion-specific questionnaire.Implications for RehabilitationClinicians should explore with their patients limitations across all areas of functioning.Clinicians should explore and address support and relationships, attitudes of others, access to affordable and high-quality healthcare, coping strategies, and a patient's own knowledge of concussion as these influence functioning.Current guidelines recommend a symptom-based approach to concussion management, whereas persons with concussion emphasize the importance of measuring functional capacity.Capacity is defined as the length of time one can perform a task before symptom onset, primarily fatigue.Currently, no concussion-specific measure of functioning exists.

I Am a Compassionate Conservation Welfare Scientist: Considering the Theoretical and Practical Differences Between Compassionate Conservation and Conservation Welfare

Compassionate Conservation and Conservation Welfare are two disciplines whose practitioners advocate consideration of individual wild animals within conservation practice and policy. However, they are not, as is sometimes suggested, the same. Compassionate Conservation and Conservation Welfare are based on different underpinning ethics, which sometimes leads to conflicting views about the kinds of conservation activities and decisions that are acceptable. Key differences between the disciplines appear to relate to their views about which wild animals can experience harms, the kinds of harms they can experience and how we can know about and confidently evidence those harms. Conservation Welfare scientists seek to engage with conservation scientists with the aim of facilitating ongoing incremental improvements in all aspects of conservation, i.e., minimizing harms to animals. In contrast, it is currently unclear how the tenets of Compassionate Conservation can be used to guide decision-making in complex or novel situations. Thus, Conservation Welfare may offer modern conservationists a more palatable approach to integrating evidence-based consideration of individual sentient animals into conservation practice and policy.

Threshold concepts and sustainability: features of a contested paradigm

Threshold concepts describe the core concepts that people must master if they are to effectively think from within a new discipline or paradigm. Here, I discuss threshold concepts relevant to the science and practice of sustainability, unpacking the persistent challenges and critiques that sustainability has faced over the decades. Sustainability is immensely popular, but also endlessly critiqued as being naïve, vague, and easy to co-opt. I argue that these challenges can be traced to sustainability’s status as a robust, alternative world view to the industrial, neoliberal paradigm. The threshold concepts discussed below are troublesome, and new learners face significant challenges when trying to learn them and move into the paradigm. Here, I review five threshold concepts that are widely discussed as important to sustainability: complexity, collaborative institutions, multiple ways of knowing, no panaceas, and adaptability. This list is not intended as comprehensive but exemplary of sustainability as a pluralistic paradigm. Recognizing the special status of these and other threshold concepts within sustainability, and the linkages and dependencies among them, is an important advance for sustainability education and practice. I also offer some suggestions on classroom activities that have proved effective in helping people through the process of learning these concepts.

Institutional insights on integrating social and environmental science for solutions-driven research

Solving complex environmental problems requires interdisciplinary research involving the social and environmental sciences. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is working toward solutions-driven research and interdisciplinary integration within its Office of Research and Development. This article details the history of this process and discusses lessons learned from other federal agencies seeking to integrate social and biophysical research: finding the right combination of top down and bottom up approaches; balancing objectives of advancing science and/or supporting programmatic operations; using social science methods to inform the process; and engaging multiple stakeholders. Attention to the social context of scientific practice, including research processes and research use, fosters success. Three strategies for integrating social sciences to support solutions-driven environmental research are: weaving social science throughout the research process, strengthening social networks, and fostering interdisciplinary hubs. Integration into planning and carrying out research has greater transformative potential than integration into product development and distribution. This article provides insights into institutional considerations for advancing interdisciplinarity and the social context of scientific practice in government agencies. It illustrates the multiple decision contexts and inclusion of social science at the science-policy interface.

Revealing research preferences in conservation science

Conservation researchers are increasingly drawing on a wide range of philosophies, methods and values to examine conservation problems. Here we adopt methods from social psychology to develop a questionnaire with the dual purpose of illuminating diversity within conservation research communities and providing a tool for use in cross-disciplinary dialogue workshops. The questionnaire probes the preferences that different researchers have with regards to conservation science. It elicits insight into their motivations for carrying out research, the scales at which they tackle problems, the subjects they focus on, their beliefs about the connections between nature and society, their sense of reality as absolute or socially constituted, and their propensity for collaboration. Testing the questionnaire with a group of 204 conservation scientists at a student conference on conservation science, we illustrate the latent and multidimensional diversity in the research preferences held by conservation scientists. We suggest that creating opportunities to further explore these differences and similarities using facilitated dialogue could enrich the mutual understanding of the diverse research community in the conservation field.

A comparison of understanding of the amphibian crisis by zoo visitors across three countries

Despite the global declines in the rate of amphibians, evaluation of public understanding of the crisis has not yet been carried out. We surveyed visitors (n = 1,293) at 15 zoos in Brazil, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, using a certainty-based assessment method to compare visitor knowledge of the global amphibian crisis. We further analyzed zoo educational material about amphibians to explore its potential to raise awareness through amphibian-focused environmental education. Visitors in the three countries had relatively little understanding of amphibians and the global amphibian crisis. When the degree of confidence in answering the questions (high, medium, and low) is accounted for, correct answers varied between 28% and 39%. This compared to scores of between 58% and 73% when the degree of confidence in responding was not accounted for. However, specific areas of knowledge (e.g., biology, conservation, biogeography, and conceptual ideas) varied significantly across the countries. Visitors had a weaker grasp of biogeographical and conservation issues than general amphibian biology. Zoo visitors in Brazil knew less about amphibian conservation than those in New Zealand or the United Kingdom. There was less amphibian-focused content in educational materials in zoos in Brazil than there was in the United Kingdom. Improving information about the global amphibian crisis may increase support for future conservation actions. Outreach education is one of the most important approaches in any strategic planning for conservation of species. Amphibian-focused environmental education at institutions such as zoos and aquaria can be a crucial intervention to support amphibian conservation worldwide.

Knowledge in the dark: scientific challenges and ways forward

A key dimension of our current era is Big Data, the rapid rise in produced data and information; a key frustration is that we are nonetheless living in an age of ignorance, as the real knowledge and understanding of people does not seem to be substantially increasing. This development has critical consequences, for example it limits the ability to find and apply effective solutions to pressing environmental and socioeconomic challenges. Here, we propose the concept of “knowledge in the dark”—or short: dark knowledge—and outline how it can help clarify key reasons for this development: ( i) production of biased, erroneous, or fabricated data and information; ( ii) inaccessibility and ( iii) incomprehensibility of data and information; and ( iv) loss of previous knowledge. Even in the academic realm, where financial interests are less pronounced than in the private sector, several factors lead to dark knowledge, that is they inhibit a more substantial increase in knowledge and understanding. We highlight four of these factors—loss of academic freedom, research biases, lack of reproducibility, and the Scientific tower of Babel—and offer ways to tackle them, for example establishing an international court of arbitration for research and developing advanced tools for research synthesis.

A question of dissemination: Assessing the practices and implications of research in tropical landscapes

Current debates in the conservation sciences argue for better integration between research and practice, often citing the importance of the diffusion, dissemination and implementation of scientific knowledge for environmental management and policy. This paper focuses on a relatively well-researched protected area (Madidi National Park) in Bolivia in order to present different interpretations and understandings of the implications and availability of research findings. We draw on findings from quantitative and qualitative methods to determine the extent to which research carried out in the region was disseminated and/or implemented for management actions, and to understand subsequent implications for how local actors perceive the value of research and its role in management and conservation. We discuss the critical consequences of these findings for the future of conservation science and practice in biologically and culturally diverse landscapes, with an explicit call to action for academic institutions to support researchers in developing appropriate dissemination strategies.

When and how to use Q methodology to understand perspectives in conservation research

Understanding human perspectives is critical in a range of conservation contexts, for example, in overcoming conflicts or developing projects that are acceptable to relevant stakeholders. The Q methodology is a unique semiquantitative technique used to explore human perspectives. It has been applied for decades in other disciplines and recently gained traction in conservation. This paper helps researchers assess when Q is useful for a given conservation question and what its use involves. To do so, we explained the steps necessary to conduct a Q study, from the research design to the interpretation of results. We provided recommendations to minimize biases in conducting a Q study, which can affect mostly when designing the study and collecting the data. We conducted a structured literature review of 52 studies to examine in what empirical conservation contexts Q has been used. Most studies were subnational or national cases, but some also address multinational or global questions. We found that Q has been applied to 4 broad types of conservation goals: addressing conflict, devising management alternatives, understanding policy acceptability, and critically reflecting on the values that implicitly influence research and practice. Through these applications, researchers found hidden views, understood opinions in depth and discovered points of consensus that facilitated unlocking difficult disagreements. The Q methodology has a clear procedure but is also flexible, allowing researchers explore long-term views, or views about items other than statements, such as landscape images. We also found some inconsistencies in applying and, mainly, in reporting Q studies, whereby it was not possible to fully understand how the research was conducted or why some atypical research decisions had been taken in some studies. Accordingly, we suggest a reporting checklist.